THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 

H.  L.  1.IASSEE 


A 
Manual  of  Gas  Distribution 


Edited  by 

WALTON  FORSTALL 
Engineer  of  Distribution,   Philadelphia-  Gas  Works 


Published  by 

The  U.  G.  I.  Contracting  Company 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1920 


Copyright,  1920 

by 
The  U.  G.  I.  Contracting  Company 


Library 


PREFACE 


In  1898,  the  editor  of  this  Manual  accepted  an  invitation  to 
aid  in  the  organization  of  a  distribution  department  for  the 
Philadelphia  Gas  Works.  For  the  first  year  or  two  the  physical 
work  was  so  extensive  and  pressing  that  no  attention  could  be 
paid  to  the  reduction  to  writing  in  convenient  form  of  the  rules 
for  workmen,  of  the  instructions  for  foremen  and  superintendents, 
and  of  the  routine  governing  the  relations  with  the  other  depart- 
ments. However,  in  1905,  the  field  described  above  was 
adequately  covered.  Then  it  was  that  the  editor  began  —  at 
first,  with  only  local  use  in  mind  —  to  plan  a  book  which  primarily 
would  teach  the  prentice  hand,  in  great  detail,  the  principles  of 
gas  distribution  at  ordinary  pressures,  but  which  also  would  have 
something  of  value  for  the  adept.  This  Manual  is  the  result, 
and  it  may  be  regarded  as  only  a  start  towards  making  available, 
in  convenient  form,  the  accepted  principles  of  the  art  of  gas 
distribution  in  this  country.  Hitherto,  works  on  distribution 
have  been  available  in  English  from  British  sources  only,  and 
these  have  fallen  short  of  greatest  usefulness  in  the  United  States 
because  of  the  considerable  difference  in  practice,  in  tools  and  in 
material  obtaining  in  the  two  countries.  American  practice 
could  be  found  solely  by  much  gleaning  from  gas  journals  and 
association  proceedings. 

In  the  years  since  the  first  words  were  written,  the  editor  has 
been  under  constant  obligations  to  many  of  his  co-workers,  past 

733812 


yi  PREFACE 

and  present,  for  much  of  the  material  within  these  covers.  He 
takes  this  opportunity  of  expressing  his  gratitude,  but  does 
not  endeavor  to  list  the  names.  He  makes  two  exceptions, 
however,  to  the  rule  just  established.  Mr.  H.  B.  Andersen  has 
rendered  most  valuable  assistance  in  general  criticism  and  in 
preparing  the  material  in  Part  IX.  To  Mr.  P.  A.  Huber's 
untiring  labor  is  due  the  excellence  and  uniformity  of  the 
printed  page. 

"  I  am  a  citizen  of  no  mean  city."  In  itself,  service  in  a  public 
utility  corporation  has  many  inspiring  phases.  In  the  gas 
industry,  the  employee  at  the  works  may  take  pleasure  in  the 
thought  of  how  excellent  a  product  is  resulting  from  his  labor, 
but  the  distribution  man  is  privileged  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  public  he  serves,  and  by  his  attitude,  largely  to  make  or  mar 
his  company's  fortunes.  If  this  book  aids  a  little  in  making 
our  service  even  better  than  it  now  is,  the  labor  of  love  in 
its  preparation  will  have  its  full  reward. 

WALTON  FORSTALL. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  January,  1920. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  I.     ADMINISTRATION'  OF  A  DISTRIBUTION  DEPARTMENT 


Section  I.     Scope  and  Organiza- 
tion 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Scope  of  Work     ....  5 

II.  Organization  of  Department  7 

Large  City 7 

Engineer  of  Distribution  7 
Assistant     Engineer    of 

Distribution      ...  8 

District  Superintendent  8 

Division  Superintendent  10 

Meters. 10 

Paving 11 

Records 12 

Stores 13 

Street  Lighting  ...  14 

Transportation   ...  14 

Inspectors 15 

Small  City 16 

Section  II.  Obtaining,  Ascer- 
taining and  Communicating 
Results 

III.  Operation  by  Cooperation     17 

IV.  Preparation  of  Rules    .     .     20 
V.  Personal  Equation   ...     22 

VI.  Forms 25 

Reason 25 

PART  II.     DESIGN 
Section  I.     Mains 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XII.  Material 51 

Cast  Iron 51 

Wrought  Iron  and  Steel .  52 

Other  Material  ....  54 

Wood 54 

Fibre 54 

Sewer  Pipe 55 

Design  of  Pipe  and  Specials  55 

Steel 55 

Cast  Iron     .....  55 
Inspection    of    Pipe   and 

Specials 56 

Stock  of  Specials    ...  57 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Design 25 

Maintenance      ....  29 

Disposition 30 

VII.  Accounts 31 

Reason 31 

Important 32 

VIII.  Operating  Data  ....  37 

Daily  Reports   ....  37 

Monthly  Reports  ...  39 

IX.  Cost  Reports 40 

X.  Inspection 43 

General 43 

Inspection  of  Work     .     .  43 

Inspector  of  Accounts  .  43 
Inspector  of  Appliance 

Work 44 

Inspection  of  Equipment  44 

General 44 

Inspector  of  Equipment  44 

Inspection  of  Material     .  45 

XI.  Accidents 46 

General  Attitude    ...  46 

Methods  of  Prevention    .  46 

Treatment  of  Accidents  47 
To  Employees      .     .     .47 

To  Outsiders   ....  47 

To  Property    ....  47 

OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIII.  Design  of  Main  System    .  60 

General  Layout      ...  60 

Size  of  Mains     ....  60 

Entirely  New  System    .  60 

Existing  System  ...  63 
Extension  in  Advance  of 

Paving 67 

Location  Details    ...  67 

Footway  vs.  Roadway  .  67 
One  vs.  Two  Mains  on  a 

Street. 68 

Distance  in  or  out  from 

Curb 69 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIII.  Design  of  Main  System 

(.Continued.) 

Dead  Ends       ....  71 

Location  of  Branches     .  72 

Depth 74 

Valves      ..'....  76 

Use  for  Valves.     ...  76 

Type  of  Valve      ...  78 

Valve  Box 78 

Inspection  of  Valves      .  78 

Drips 80 

Section  II.    Services 

XIV.  Material 86 

Wrought  Iron  vs.  Steel    .  86 

Preservative  Coatings      .  87 

PART  III. 

Section  I.     Main  and  Service 
Work 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVI.  Trenching    and     Refilling 

Equipment     ....   103 

Removing  Paving  .  .  .  103 
Asphalt  Cutters  .  .  .103 
Asphalt  Screen  .  .  .104 
Asphalt  Screen  Rod  .  105 

Bars 105 

Wedges 105 

Sledges 107 

Trench  Marking  and  Bot- 
toming       107 

Ditch  Line 107 

Ditch  Line  Pins  .  .  .108 
Ditch  Targets  .  .  .108 
Danger  Sign  .  .  .  .113 
Red  Lantern  .  .  .  .113 
Lantern  Rods  .  .  .113 

Trench  Making      .     .     .113 

Shovels 113 

Picks 115 

Grub  Hoe  or  Mattork  .115 
Tunnelling  Bars  .  .  .115 
Driving  Point  .  .  .116 
Ditch  Shoring  Jacks.  .117 

Axe 118 

Hatchet 118 

Saws 119 

Ditch  Pumps  .  .  .  .119 
Power  Pumps  .  .  .  .119 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Stop  Cocks 91 

Type  of  Stop  Cock   .     .  91 

Location  of  Stop  Cock  .  92 

Stop  Boxes 92 

XV.  Design  of  Service  System  93 

Conditions  Affecting  Size 

of  Services 93 

Installation   in    Advance 

of  Paving 95 

Location  Details    ...  95 

House  Conditions      .     .  95 

Other  Structures  ...  96 

Depth     ......  97 

Service  Drips  ....  98 

Value  of  Stop  Cocks  .     .  98 


EQUIPMENT 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Rock  Excavation   .     .     .120 

Drills 120 

Spoon  or  Cleaner       .     .120 

Bars 121 

Stone  Plugsand  Feathers  122 
Striking  Hammer  .  .  122 
Stone  Sledges  .  .  .  .122 
Blasting  Machine  .  .122 
Blasting  Mat  ....  124 

Refilling  and  Repaving    .   124 
Tamping  Bar  .     .     .     .124 

Rammer 124 

Sundry  Equipment   .     .124 
XVII.  Laying  Equipment       .     .   125 

Cleaning,     Laying     and 
Testing   .     .     .     .     .125 

Brushes 125 

Cleaner 127 

Porters 127 

Pipe  Rope 127 

Skids 127 

Pipe  Slings      ....  128 

Derricks 128 

Pipe  Levels     ....   131 

Bag 131 

Bag  Fork 133 

Stopper 133 

Temporary  Plugs  .  .133 
Pumps 135 

Cutting,  Threading  and 

.     Other  Tools      .     .     .137 


CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVII.  Laying  Equipment 

( Continued.) 
Diamond  Points       .     .137 

Chisels 137 

Pipe   Bursting  Wedges  138 
Pipe  Cutters  ....  138 
Pipe  Stocks     ....  138 
Hand  Power  Pipe  Ma- 
chine for  Large  Pipe  141 

Pipe  Dies 141 

Combination  Tap  and 

Drill 142 

Twist  Drill  and  Tap     .  142 

Star  Drill 142 

Pipe  Reamer  .  ...  143 
"Old  Man"  or  Drilling 

Post 143 

Ratchet  Drill  .  .  .  143 
Drilling  and  Tapping 

Machines     ....  143 
Rubber  Saddle    .     .     .146 

Wrenches 146 

Pipe  Vise         ....  148 

Lead  Joints       .     .     .     .148 

Furnaces 148 

Lead  Strainer  .  .  .151 
Pouring  Ladle  .  .  .151 
Pouring  Pot  .  .  .  .151 
Pouring  Pot  Hooks  .  151 
Pouring  Band  .  .154 
Yarning  and  Caulking 

Tools 154 

Caulking  Hammer  .     .  154 

Cement  Joints  ....  154 

Sieve 154 

Trowel 155 

Hoe 155 

Mixing  Boards    .     .     .157 

Bellows 157 

Rubber  Glovesand  Mitts  157 

Pusher 157 

Yarning  and  Caulking 
Tools 157 

Lead  Wool  Joints       .     .157 
Yarning  and  Caulking 
Tools 157 

XVIII.  Maintenance  Equipment  162 

Drip  Work  ....  162 
Drip  Wagon  .  .  .  .162 
Drip  Pump  ....  165 
Drip  Key  ....  167 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Leak  Work      .     .     .     .167 

Bars 167 

Smelling  Pipe  .  .  .167 
Leak  Drill  ....  167 
Stop  Box  Work  .  .  .168 
Stop  Box  Cleaner  .  .168 
Stop  Cock  Key  .  .  .168 
Spoon  Bar  .  .  .  .169 

Gauges 169 

Syphon  Gauge    .     .     .169 
Recording  Gauge    .     .  169 
Street    Lamp    Cleaning 

Ladder 172 

XIX.  Miscellaneous  Equipment  173 
Tool  Wagon  ....  173 
Tool  Boxes  .  .  .  .174 
Service  Carts  .  .  .  .175 

Push  Cart 177 

Wheelbarrows  .  .  .  178 
Electric  Safety  Lamps  .  178 
Respirators  ....  182 
First  Aid  Kits  .  .  .184 

Section  II.     Inside  Work 

XX.  Installation  Equipment  .  186 

Meter  Work    ....   186 

Meter  Setting  Gauges  186 

Meter  Test  Caps    .     .  188 

Appliance  Work  .     .     .188 

Stove  Fitter's  Kit  .     .  188 

Large  Appliance  Kit  .  189 

Miscellaneous  Work      .  191 

Bits 191 

Braces 191 

Chisels 191 

Hammer 191 

Oilers 191 

Pliers .193 

Compass  Saw     .     .     .  194 
Screw  Drivers    .     .     .  194 
Wrenches       ....  194 
Housepiping     Inspect- 
or's Pressure  Gauge  195 
Fixture  Key  Gauge     .  195 
XXI.  Maintenance    and    Mis- 
cellaneous Equipment  196 
Complaint  Kits    .     .     .196 
Stove  Repair  Kit     .     .  197 
Plumber's  Gasoline  Fur- 
nace and  Kit     .     .     .199 
Incandescent  Repair  Kit  200 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXI.    Maintenance  and  Miscel- 
laneous Equipment 
(Continued) 

Service  Cleaning  Device  201 
Force  Pump  .  .  .  .201 
Meter  Column  Pump  .  202 
Transportation  Work  .  204 

PART  IV. 

Section  I.     Installation 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXII.  Organization  .  .  .215 
Small  Towns  .  .  .215 
Large  Cities  .  .  .217 

XXIII.  Preliminary  Work  and 

Removing  Paving    .  219 
Preliminary  Work     .  219 
Preinspection  of  Site  219 
Delivery  of  Material  220 
Nature  of  Equipment  221 
Location  of  Equip- 
ment   222 

Preparing  for  Trench  223 
Removing  Paving      .  224 
Separating  Materi- 
als     .....  224 
Asphalt      .     .     .     .224 
Other  Paving       .     .  226 

XXIV.  Trenching      .     ...  227 

Preliminary  Work      .  227 
Protection     of     the 

Public     .     .     .     .227 
Protection     of     the 

Workmen    .     .     .228 
Protection     of     the 

Trench    ....  229 
Earth  Excavation      .  229 
Rock  Excavation       .  230 
XXV.  Laying  Mains    .     .     .231 
Organization  for,  and 
Details  of  Pipe  Lay- 
ing     231 

Large  Mains  .     .     .231 

Small  Mains  .     .     .234 

Connection  Work    .  235 

Closing  Gaps     .     .  235 

Cutting     Pipe     on 

Bank   .     .     .     .237 
Connecting  to  Ex- 
isting Main  .     .  237 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Bicycle 204 

Motor  Cycle       .     .     .205 

Side  Car 205 

Horse  Wagon  .  .  .208 
Gasoline  Wagon  .  .  208 
Electric  Wagon  .  .212 


MAIN  WORK 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Inserting  Branch   .  238 
Putting     on     Hub 

Split  Sleeve  .     .241 

Placing  Hat  Flange  242 

Joints      .....  243 

Yarning      ....  243 

Lead  Joints     .     .     .  246 

Cement  Joints     .     .  248 

Lead  Wool  Joints    .  256 

Testing  Joints     .     .257 

Precautions    Against 

Settlement    .     .     .258 

Bagging  .....  261 

Necessity  for  Bagging  261 

Size  of  Bag  Holes    .  264 

Insertion  and  With- 

drawal    ....  264 
Care  in   Regard  to 

Supply  of  Gas  .     .  266 
Purging  .....  270 
Maintenance  of  Gas 
Supply  during 
Main  Laying  .     .273 
Importance  of  Main- 

taining Supply     .  273 
Supply  by  Existing 

Main  .....  273 
Supply  by  Tempo- 

rary Main  .     .     .  274 
Supply  in  Absence  of 

Any  Main  .     .     .275 
XXVI.  Refilling  and  Repaving 

Trench.     ...        278 

Refilling  ....        278 

General    Considera 


tions.  .. 
Ramming  .. 
Puddling  .. 
Loose  Filling  . 
Cleaning  Up  . 
Repaving  .  . 


278 
279 
282 
283 
283 
284 


CONTEXTS 


XI 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVI.    Refilling   and   Repaving 
Trench  (Continued) 
General    Considera- 
tions     ....  284 
Asphalt      ....  284 
Concrete  Base  Pav- 
ing     285 

All  Other  Paving     .  285 
XXVII.  Recording      ....  288 
Reasons  for  Records  .  288 
System  of  Records  for 

New  Mains  .     .     .288 
Field  Records      .     .  289 
Permanent   Records  293 
System  of  Records  for 
New  and   Existing 

Mains 294 

Small  Company  .     .  294 
Large  Company  .     .  296 
System  of  Records  in 

Philadelphia      .     .  296 

Organizations      .     .  296 

Field  Records      .     .  299 

Reports  to  Office     .  302 

Permanent  Records    302 

XXVIII.  Bridge  Mains     .     .     .311 

Reasons    for    Bridge 

Mains 311 

Location  of  Mains     .  312 
Provisions  for  Mains    • 
when  Designing 
Bridge       .     .     .     .313 
Design  of  Mains  .     .314 
Material     .     .     .     .314 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Joints 315 

Size  .     .     .     .     .     .315 

Inspection  of  Mains  .317 

Section  II.     Maintenance 
XXIX.  Organization       .     .     .318 
XXX.  Linewalking  .     .     .     .319 
Frequency  of  Inspec- 
tions     319 

DutiesofaLinewalker  320 
Methods  of  Travel    .321 
Reports  of  Inspection  321 
XXXI.  Leak  Work    ....  322 
Systematic  Overhaul- 
ing      322 

Details  of  Work       .  322 
To  Avoid  Breaks  and 

Leaks      .....  326 
Required  by  Paving  328 
Results  of  Overhaul- 
ing      329 

Isolated  Leaks       .     .  329 
Investigation       .     .  329 

Repair 338 

General      .     .     .     .341 
XXXII.  Drip  Work     ....  342 

XXXIII.  Electrolysis    ....  345 

XXXIV.  Pressures 346 

General  Remarks       .  346 

Pressure  Standard     .  346 

Pressure  Maintenance  348 

Daily  Operations     .  348 

Yearly  Survey     .     .  349 

Local  Failures     .     .351 


PART  V.    SERVICE  WORK 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Section  I.     Installation 

XXXV.  Organization  .  .  .357 
Small  Towns  .  .  .357 
Large  Cities  .  .  .  358 

XXXVI.  Preliminary  Work  and 

Removing  Paving  .  359 
Preliminary  Work        359 
Pre-inspection  of 

Site  ....  359 
Orders  for  Work  360 
Delivery  of 

Material    '   .     .  360 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Nature  of  Equip- 
ment  .     .     .     .361 
Location  of   Equip- 
ment   363 

Marking  Trench      .  364 

Removing  Paving      .  364 

XXXVII.  Trenching  ....  365 

General     ....  365 

Tunnelling     .     .     .  366 

Drilling  or  Driving  366 

XXXVIII.  Laying 368 

General     ....  368 

Pipe  Cutting       .     .  368 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER                                                         PAGE 

CHAPTER                                                         PAGE 

XXXVIII.  Laying      (Continued) 

Inspection    .     .     .     .387 

Connecting  to  Main  369 
Pipe  Laying  .     .     .375 
Blocking  .     .     .     .377 
Filling  and  Testing  377 
Placing  Stop  Box  .  379 

General      .     .     .     .387 
Stop  Boxes     .     .     .387 
Stop  Cocks     .     .     .388 
Valves   389 
Exposed  Pipe      .     .  389 

Pipe  Protection      .  379 

XLI  I    Renewal                            390 

XXXIX.  Refilling  and  Repaying 

Systematic  Overhaul- 

Trench    380 

ing                             390 

Refilling  !     '.     '.     '.     '.  380 

Details  of  Work       .  390 

Repaying     ....  380 

To  Avoid  Breaks  and 

XL.  Recording      .     .     .     .382 

Leaks     ....  393 

Reasons  for  Records    382 

Required  by  Paving  393 

Systems  of  Records  .  382 

Renewal  for  Age      .  393 

Location     .     .     .     .382 

Renewal  for  Size      .  394 

Age-  384 

Results  of  Overhaul- 

Cost         384 

ing     394 

Section  II.     Maintenance 

XLI.  Organization   and    In- 

Isolated Leaks     .     .  394 
Investigation       .     .  394 
Repair  395 

spection     ....  387 

General  395 

Organization     .     .     .  387 

PART  VI.    STI 

IEET  LIGHTING 

CHAPTER                                                         PAGE 

CHAPTER                                                         PAGE 

XLIII.  Installation  399 

Records      402 

Service  399 

XLIV.  Maintenance     .     .     .     .404 

Riser      399 

Candlepower  ....  404 

Post  399 

Physical  Equipment     .  404 

Post  Erection       .     .     .402 

PART  VII.     B 

/[ETER  WORK 

Section  I.     Meters 

CHAPTER                                                         PAGE 

CHAPTER                                                        PAGE 

Principle     of     Meas- 

XLV.   History      407 
XLVI.    Design       410 

urement   .     .     .     .416 
Construction    .     .     .  420 
Action     430 

Characteristics  of  Va- 

Motive Power     .     .  430 

rious  Types  .     .     .  410 
Ordinary  Meter  .     .  410 

Description   of   Gas 
Flow      ....  432 

Prepayment  Meter     410 

Measurement  of  Gas 

Other  Types  .     .     .411 

Flow  434 

Nomenclature  .     .     .412 
Standardization  of 

Prepayment    Attach- 
ment      442 

Size     412 

Advisability   .     .     .412 

Section  II.  Installation  and  Main- 

Suggested Standard  413 

tenance 

Alternative  Sched- 

XLVIII.  Sizes  and  Connections  455 

ule      415 

XLVII.  Construction  and  Action  416 

Capacities    and     Di- 
mensions.    .     .     .  455 

General   416 

CONTENTS                                                         Xlll 

CHAPTER 

PAGE 

CHAPTER                                                        PAGE 

XLVIII. 

Sizes  and  Connections 

Equipment  ....  524 

(Continued) 

Testing  and  Repairing  524 

Schedules  for  Vari- 

Explanatory .     .     .524 

ous  Conditions     .  456 

Inspection   of    New 

Connections      .     .     .  459 

Meters   ....  525 

Piping   459 

Medium  Used     .     .  527 

Lead      461 

Check  Test     .     .     .529 

Iron  and  Lead     .     .  463 

Reason  for  Test     .  529 

All  Iron      .     .     .     .463 

Prover      ....  529 

Coupled  or  Tie-In    .  465 

Meter  Condition    .  531 

Welded       .     .     .     .471 

Temperature    Re- 

Headers    .     .     .     .471 

quirements  .     .  532 

Cocks    471 

Rate  of  Flow     .     .  533 

By-Pass      .     .     .     .477 

Test  Procedure      .  534 

Washer       .     .     .     .479 

Report  of  Results  .  537 

Support      ....  482 

Disposal  of  Meter    541 

XLIX. 

Execution     of     Meter 

Burner  Test    .     .     .543 

Orders      .     .     .     .483 

Slow  Motion  Test    .  546 

General  Organization 

Open  Test       .     .     .547 

Details     .     .     .     .483 
Detailed    Instruction 
to  Men  .     .     .     .487 
General  Rules      .     .  488 
Behavior  .               .  488 

Adjusting  ....  549 
Setting  of  the  Valves  55  1 
Pressure  Test       .     .  553 
Works  Catch  Test  .  556 

General  Methods 

Prepayment    Meter 

and   Precautions  489 

Tests      :     .     .     .  556 

Work  Order  Speci- 

Fitting Up      ...  557 

fications    V    .     .  493 

Location  of  Work    .  559 

Meter  Work   .     .     .494 

Order  of  Work    .     .  563 

Meter  Reading       .  494 
General  Require- 
ments  ....  502 

Section  III.     Forms  and  Records 

LI.   Shop  Records     .     .     .566 

L. 

Turning  on  Gas     .  503 
Shutting  Off  Gas   .  507 
Setting  Meter   .     .  508 
Removing  Meter   .511 
Changing  Meter     .512 
Testing  and  Repairing  513 
Removal      .     .     .     .513 

Explanatory     .     .     .  566 
Company  Number     .  566 
Shipping  List   .     .     .567 
District  Repair  Shop  567 
Meter   Stock   Card  567 
Meter  Test  Sheet    .  567 
Meter  Test  Tag  .     .  568 

Periodic  Removal    .513 

Main  Repair  Shop     .  569 

Irregular  Removal  .  514 

Meter  Record  Book   569 

Dipping  Process    .     .517 

Repair  Card   .     .     .569 

Value  of  .Process      .517 

Location  Card     .     .  569 

Oil  Used     .     .     .     .518 

Meter  Tests  Book  .571 

Introduction  of  Oil  .  519 

Miscellaneous    Rec- 

Treatment After 

ords   571 

Oiling     ....  523 

LII.   Meter  Order  Cards     .  573 

XIV 


CONTENTS 


PART  VIII.     HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


Section  I.    Specifications  for  Pip- 
ing and  Fixtures 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

LIII.  Piping  Specifications   .     .  581 
Explanatory    and     His- 
torical     581 

Piping  Schedule  .     .     .  586 
Supplementary  Size 

Data. 5QO 

Use  of  Schedule  .     .     .591 

Installation  Requirements  591 

Mains  or  Risers  .     .     .591 

Building  Services      .     .  592 

Outlets 594 

Accessibility  ....  594 
Protection  ...  .595 
Support  ...  .595 
Slope  ....  .596 
Jointing  ...  .596 
Obstructions  .  .  .  596 
Miscellaneous  .  .  597 
Inspection  Requirements  597 
Piping  Plan  .  .  .  .598 
Explanation  of  Assumed 

Plan 598 

LIV.  Fixture  Specifications  .     .  603 
New  Fixtures    .     .     .     .603 

Definition 603 

Specifications       .     .     .  603 
Old  Fixtures      .     .     .     .611 

Definition 611 

General 611 

LV.   Inspections 612 

Reasons  for  Inspection  612 
First  Inspection  .  .  .  612 
Second  Inspection  .  .  614 
Third  Inspection  .  .  .  615 
Office  Routine  .  .  .  .616 
Turning  On  and  Off  Gas  62 1 
Builder's  Cooperation  .  621 
Location  of  Service  .  .622 
Sundry  Details  .  .  .622 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Instructions  to  House- 
pipe  Inspector  .     .     .  623 

Section  II.  Installation  and  Main- 
tenance 

LVI.  Installation 627 

General 627 

Factories 627 

Churches 628 

Meeting  Halls  .     .     .     .631 

Stores 631 

Dwellings 632 

LVI  I.  Maintenance  .  .  .  .635 
Organization  for  Work  .  635 
Work  Completion.Sched- 

ule 635 

Dispatching  Orders    .     .637 
Leaks       .     .     ...     .637 

General  Investigation  .  637 

Specific  Locations     .     .  639 

Cellar  Piping      .     .     .639 

Meter 640 

Housepiping       .     .     .  640 

Fixtures 640 

Burners  and  Tubing  .  641 
Policy   Controlling  Re- 
pairs   641 

Leaks  Affecting  Bills  .  642 
Insufficient  Supply     .     .  643 
General  Investigation   .  643 
Remedy  at  Specific  Lo- 
cations    646 

Service 646 

Meter 650 

Governor     .     .     .     .653 

Piping 654 

Fixture 655 

Policy     Controlling 

Work 655 

Air  in  Piping     ....  655 


PART  IX.     APPLIANCE  WORK 
Section  I.     Organization  CHAPTER 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

LVIII.  Organization  of  Force    659 


Small  Towns 
Large  City  . 


659 
660 


Foreman  , 
Inspectors 
Workmen 


PAGE 

.  660 

.  660 
.  660 


CONTENTS 


XV 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

LIX.  Order  and  Record 

Routine     ....  662 
Work  Completion 

Schedule  ....  662 
Reason  for  Schedule  662 
Consideration  in 

Making  Schedule  662 

Sample  of  Schedule  662 

Order  Cards      ...  663 

How  Originated  .      .  663 

Use  of  Order  Cards  663 

Information  Needed  664 

Course  Through  Shop  665 

Work  Records        .    .  666 

LX.  Installation  Routine    .  667 

Preinspection  System  667 

Definition  ....  667 

Value 667 

Calibre     of     Prein- 

spector  ....  668 

Delivery       .     .     .     .668 

Appliances      .     .     .  668 

Material     .     .     .     .668 

Supervision  and  Final 

Inspection  .  .  .  669 
Necessity  for  .  .  .  669 
Extent  of  .  .  .  .669 
Who  Best  Fitted  to 

Make    .     .     .     .669 
Relations    of    Shop- 
man to   Salesman  670 
What  Salesman 
should  know  of 
Shop  Practice     .  670 
What  Shopman 
should  know  of 
Sales  Practice     .  670 
LXI.  Maintenance  Routine    671 
Classes   of   Mainte- 
nance     ....  671 
Request    .     .     .     .671 
Free 672 

Section  II.     Cooking  Appliances 

LXII.  Design 674 

Introductory  .  .  674 
Burners  ....  676 
General  Principles  .  676 
Air  Shutters  .  .  .  677 

Cocks 678 

Top  Burners  .     .     .683 


HAPTER  PAGE 

Oven  Burners      .     .  685 

Special  Burners  .     .  688 

Cooking  Tops  .     .     .688 

Ovens 693 

General      .     .     .     .693 

Baking 696 

Broiling      ....  698 

Insulated    ....  699 

Entire  Appliances      .  701 

Conditions  of  Use      .  701 

Circumstances  of 

Consumer  .     .     .701 
Space  Available  .     .  702 
Character  of  Work  .  703 
LXIII.  Connection  Practice    .  704 
Preinspection  for       .  704 
Location    of   Appli- 
ance .     .     .     .     .704 
Consumer's  Wishes  704 
Minimum  Fire  Haz- 
ard   704 

Appearance  and 
Ease  of  Connec- 
tion    .     .     .     .705 
Exposure      .     .     .  705 
Condition  of  ...  705 
Appliance     .     .     .  705 
Service     ....  706 
Meter  and  Connec- 
tion    ....  706 
Appliance  Line       .  709 
Material  and  Tools    .  708 
Connection       .     .     .  708 
Shutting  Off  Gas     .  708 
Running  Piping  .     .  709 
Turning  on  Gas  .     .710 
Flue  Connection      .  710 
Inspection       .     .     .  719 
Adjustment  and  In- 
struction   .     .     .719 
Records  of  Work     .  720 
Cleaning  Up  .     .     .  720 
Subinspection  for     .  720 
Quality  of  Work      .  720 
Operation  of  Appli- 
ance   720 

Satisfaction  of  Con- 
sumer    ....  720 
LXIV.  Maintenance  Routine    721 
Reasons  Necessitating 
Maintenance     .     .721 


XVI 


CONTEXTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

LXIV.     Maintenance  Routine 

(Continued) 

Domestic  Appliances   721 


Adjustments 
Leaks     .... 
Miscellaneous  Re 

pair  Work  .     . 
Hotel  Appliances  . 
Adjustments  and 
Repairs     .     .     . 


721 
723 


723 

725 


725 


Section  III.     Water  Heaters 

LXV.  Design 727 

Introductory    .     .     .  727 
Tank  Heaters  .     .     .729 

Jacket 729 

Burner 729 

Internal  .  .  .  .730 
Combination  Heaters  734 
Instantaneous  Auto- 

jnatic  Heaters  .  .737 
General  .  .  .  .737 
Automatic  Water 

Valve  ....  739 
Gas  Valves  .  .  .741 
Thermostats  .  .  .741 
Burners  .  .  .  .741 
Coils  .  .  .  .  .  743 

Jacket 743 

Regulating  Water 

Valves  ....  743 
Multi-Coil  Heaters  745 
Bathroom  Heaters  .  746 
Conditions  of  Use  .  748 
Circumstances  of 

Consumer   .     .     .  748 
Space  Available  .     .  749 
Character  of  Work  .  749 
LXVI.  Connection  Practice    .  751 
Preinspection  for  .     .751 
Location    of    Appli- 
ance   751 

Consumer's  Wishes  751 
Fire    and   Other 

Hazards     .     .     .751 
Appearance  and 
Ease    of   Con- 
nection     .     .    .  752 
Operating  Results     753 
Condition  of  .          .  753 


Appliance 


.  753 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Service     .....  753 
Meter  Connections  753 
Appliance  Line       .  753 
Water  Pressure      .  754 
Material  and  Tools    .  754 
Connection       .     .     .  754 
Shutting     Off     and 
Turning   On   Gas 

and  Water    .     .  754 

Running  Piping  .     .  754 

Circulating  Heater  754 

Combination  Heater  760 

Instantaneous 

Heater  .     .     .     .  765 
All  Other  Types  of 

Heaters      .     .     .767 
Records,   Instruc- 
tions and  Clean- 
ing Up  .     .     .     .  768 
Subinspection  .     .     .  768 
LXVII.    Maintenance  Routine    769 
Reasons     Necessitat- 
ing Maintenance  .  769 
Tank  Heaters  .     .     .769 
Adjustments  and 

Leaks     ....  769 
Miscellaneous  Re- 
pairs  770 

Combination  Heaters  772 
Instantaneous    Auto- 
matic Heaters.     .  773 
Adjustments  and 

Leaks  ....  773 
Miscellaneous 

Repairs     .     .     .774 
All   Other  Types   of 
Heaters  ....  775 

Section  IV.    Room  Heating  Appli- 
ances 

LXVIII.   Design 776 

Introductory    .     .     ,  776 
Classification    .     .     .  776 
Nature  of  Location  776 
Principles   of    Com- 
bustion ....  777 
Methods    of     Heat 

Utilization  .  .  .777 
Incandescent  Heater  778 
Reflector  Heater  .  .780 
Gas  Radiator  .  .  782 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

LXVIII.  Design     (Continued) 

Steam  Radiator     .     .  787 
Fireplace  Heater  .     .  787 

Gas  Log 791 

Conditions  of  Use .     .  792 
Circumstances  of 

Consumer  .     .     .792 
Space  Available  .     .  792 
Character  of  Work     792 
LXIX.  Connection  Practice    .  794 
Introductory     .     .     .  794 
Location  of  Appliance  794 
Consumer's  Wishes    794 
Fire  and  Other  Haz- 
ards    794 

Connection  ....  795 
Iron  Piping     .     .     .795 

Tubing 795 

Cock 797 

Adjustment,  Records 

and  Cleaning  Up  .  799 
Instruction  of  Con- 
sumer   ....  799 
Subinspection  .     .     .  799 
LXX.  Maintenance      .     .     .  800 

Section  V.    Industrial  Appliances 
and  Gas  Engines 

LXXI.   Industrial  Appliances     802 

Design     .     .     .     .     .802 

Connection  Practice     802 

Maintenance  Routine  803 

LXXI  I.  Gas  Engines.     .     .     .804 

Design 804 

Connection  Practice.  804 
General  .  .  .  .804 
'Antifluctuators  .  .  805 
Gas  Piping  .  .  .808 
Water  Piping  .  .  809 
Exhaust  Piping  .  .  809 
Maintenance  Routine  809 

Section  VI.     Illuminating  Appli- 
ances 
LXXIII.   Design 811 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introductory    .     .     .811 

Small  Units  .  .  .812 
Upright  Light  .  .812 
Inverted  Light  .  .818 
Junior  Light  .  .  .822 
C.  E-Z  Light .  .  .824 
Pilot  Light  .  .  .826 

Large  Units  .  .  .829 
Single  Mantle  Arc 

Lamp      .     .     .     .829 
Three-Burner  Indoor 

Arc  Lamp    .     .     .831 
Five-Burner  Outdoor 

Arc  Lamp    .     .     .  833 
LXXIV.  Connection  Practice    .  839 

Location  of  Appliance  839 
General  Principles  .  839 
Exposure  ....  840 

Sufficiency  of  Supply  840 
Service  and  Meter  .  840 
Piping 841 

Connection  .  .  .  .841 
Shutting  Off  Gas  .  841 
General  Require- 
ments .  .  .  .841 
Adjustments  .  .  .  843 
Mantles  ....  844 
Upright  Light  .  .  844 
Inverted  Light  .  .  845 
Junior  Light  .  .  .845 
C.  E-Z  Light  .  .  .845 

Domes 846 

Fixtures  .  .  .  .846 
Antivibrators  .  .  848 
Indoor  Arc  Lamps  .  848 
Outdoor  Arc  Lamps  848 
Inspection  .  .  .  854 
Instruction  .  .  .  854 
Other  Work  .  .  .854 

Subinspection  .     .     .  854 
LXXV.  Maintenance  Routine    856 

Methods  Employed  .  856 
Adjustment  and  Re- 
pairs     .     .     .     .857 


PART  X. 
Section  I.     Organization 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

LXXVI.  Accounts     ....  863 
"Storeroom"  Account863 


THE  STOREROOM 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

1 '  Expense  Storeroom ' ' 

Account   .     .     .  866 
LXXVII.  Organization    .     .     .869 


xviii 

CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

PAGE 

CHAPTER                                                      PAGE 

LXXVII. 
LXXVIII. 

Organization    (Continued) 
Main  Storeroom   .    .  869 
District  Storerooms    871 
Size  and  Site   .     .    .  872 
Size  872 
Site  873 

Parcel  Post  Scale  .  896 
Straight  Spring 
Balance  Scale    .  896 
Computing  Scale  .  896 
Packing  and  Wrap- 
ping Fragile  Ma- 
terial    ....  898 

Section  II.     Operation 

LXXXI.  Inspection  ....  900 

LXXIX 

Ordering      .     .     .     .875 
Relations  with  Pur- 
chasing Depart- 
ment              .     .  875 

Introductory  .     .     .  900 
Fittings,  Nipples 
and  Steel  Pipe     .  900 
Brass  Cocks  .     .     .902 

Ordering  Routine    .  876 
When  to  Order.     .  876 

Brass  Valves       .     .903 
Illuminating  Appli- 

How to  Order  .     .881 

ances  903 

Material  Specifica- 
tions ....  883 

General    ....  903 
Fixtures  ....  904 

Shipping   Instruc- 
tions  .               .  883 

Domes,    Portables 
and   Art    Glass 

LXXX 

Receiving  and  Ship- 
oinff                           886 

Shades     ...  904 
Glassware     .     .     .  906 

General                     '.  886 

Mantles  .     .     .     .906 

Shipping  Memo- 
randa  •                   886 

Burners,  Lights  and 
Arcs    ....  906 

Receipting  for  Ma- 
terial    .     .     .     .887 

Fuel  Appliances      .  906 
Cast-  Iron  Material    906 

Broken  and  Defect- 

Pipe   and    Special 

ive  Material    .     .  888 

Castings    .     .     .906 

Returning  Material 

Lamp  Post  Mate- 

.      for  Credit  .     .     .  889 
Hauling  from  Rail- 
road Station  .     .  889 

rial  908 
Service  Boxes   .     .  908 
Miscellaneous    Ma- 

The Order  Man       .  889 
Articles     Tempora- 

terial     ....  908 
Reclaimed  Material  909 

rily  out  of  Stock  890 
Carriers  and  Trucks  890 

General    ....  909 
Fittings,    Nipples 

Cowan  Transveyor  890 
Barrel  Trucks  .     .891 

and  Steel  Pipe    .  909 
Brass  Cocks      .     .  909 

Box  Trucks       .     .  892 

Illuminating  Ap- 

Wagon Tmck   .     .  893 
Grocery  Truck       .  893 
Fibre  Warehouse 

pliances      .     .     .910 
Fuel  Appliances    .910 
Cast-Iron  Material  910 

Car  .     .     .            893 

Miscellaneous  Ma- 

Hand Cart  .     .     .  894 

terial   ....  910 

Scales    896 

Scrap  Material      .910 

Wagon  Scale     .     .  896 

LXXXI  I   Storage                  .     .912 

Dormant  Ware- 

Introductory      .     .912 

house  Platform 

Bins,    Closets    and 

Scale  ....  896 

Racks     ....  912 

Portable  Platform 

Construction     .     .912 

Scale    .     .     .     .896                              Labeling       .     .     .913 

CONTENTS 


XIX 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

LXXXII.  Storage     (Continued) 
Steel  Pipe,  Fittings 

and  Nipples     .     .  914 
Illuminating  Appli- 
ances and  Parts    .915 
Arcs  and  Globes    .915 
Domes     .     .     .     .915 
Fixtures  and  Cas- 
ings   917 

Box     Lights     and 

Mantles   .     .     .917 
Portables  and 

Shades    .     .     .917 
Tubing     .     .     .     .917 
Fuel  Appliances  and 

Parts     .     .     .     .917 
Cast- Iron  Pipe  and 

Specials      .     .     .918 
Combustible  and  In- 
flammable Mate- 
rial   919 

Miscellaneous    Ma- 
terial   .     .     .     .919 
Sundry   Material  919 
Sheet  Metal  Flue 

Material     .     .  919 

LXXXIII.  Accounting      .     .     .920 

General      .     .     .     .920 

Cost  of  Material     .  920 

Passing  Invoices 

for  Payment.     .  920 
Manufacturing 
Material  for 
Stock     .     .     .923 
Appraisal    of    Re- 
claimed Material  923 


CHAPTEP  PAGE 

Unit  Cost  .  .  .924 
Issuing  Material  .  924 
General  .  .  .  .924 
Sales  Order  .  .  .  925 
Credit  Order  .  .  925 
Material  Order  .  926 
Workman's  Stock  927 
Material  Accounted 

for  in  Bulk  .  .  927 
Returning  Unused 

Material  to  Stock  928 
Breakage  .  .  .  929 
Checking  Material 

to  Avoid  Loss  .  929 
Stock  Records  and 
Reports  ....  930 
Material  Purchased 

Book  .  .  .  .930 
Material  Ledger  .  932 
Summary  of  Issues  932 
Stock  Balances  .  936 
Comparison  of 

Stock  and  Issue  936 
Stock  Deterioration  936 
Suspense  Account    937 
Inventories  and 

Discrepancies      .  937 
Taking  Inventories  937 
Comparison  of  In- 
ventory    with 
Ledger  Balance  938 
Adjusting  Discrep- 
ancies.     .     .     .941 
District  Stock  Cards  94 1 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE                                                            PAGE        FIGURE                                                             PAGE 

1 

Valve  Test  Pipes  .... 

77 

41 

Power  Lead  Wool  Caulking 

2 

Valve  Box   ...... 

79 

Tools    

160 

3 
4 

5 

Side  Drip  Pot  Connections 
Drip  Box  and  Standpipe    . 
Service  Stops  and  Boxes    . 

81 
83 
84 

42 
43 
44 

Horse  Drip  Wagon    ... 
Electric  Drip  Wagon      .     . 
Street  Leak  Tools      .     .     . 

163 
164 
166 

6 

7 

Service  Drips  
Paving  Removal  Tools  .     . 

99 

104 

45 

Stop    Box    Cleaner.     Stop 
Cock  Key      

168 

8 
9 

Asphalt  Screen     .... 
Wedges 

105 
106 

46 

Gauges    

170 

10 

Ditch  Target  —  Non-adjust- 

109 

47 

Street  Lamp  Cleaning  Lad- 
der   

171 

11 

Method    of    Using    Ditch 

48 
49 

Tool  Wagon     
Tool  Box 

173 
174 

12 

Target       
Ditch    Target  —  Adjustable 

RnH 

110 
112 

50 
51 

Tool  Box  on  Wheels      .     . 
Small  Wooden  Service  Cart 

175 
176 

13 

IN.OQ      
Bars  and  "  Danger  "  Equip- 

114 

52 

53 

Steel  Service  Cart     .     .     . 
Push  Cart    

177 
178 

14 
15 

Shoring  Jacks  
Saws  and  Hatchets   .     .     . 

116 
117 

54 

55 

Wheelbarrow    
Electric  Safety  Lamps  .     . 

179 

180 

16 
17 

Ditch  Pumps   
Rock  Tools 

118 
120 

56 

57 

Respirator  ,     
First  Aid  Kits       .... 

181 
183 

18 
19 

Stone  Plug  and  Feathers    . 
Hammers  and  Rammers    . 

121 

123 

58 
59 

Meter  Setting  Gauges   .     . 
Meter  Test  Caps       .     .     . 

186 
187 

20 

Main  Cleaning  Tools     .     . 

125 

60 

Stove  Fitter's  Kit      .     .     . 

189 

21 

Cleaning  Brush.  Metal  Plug 

126 

61 

Large  Appliance  Kit      .     . 

190 

22 

Wooden  Derrick  .     .     .     . 

129 

62 

Chisels  and  Pliers      .     .     . 

192 

'23 
24 
25 
26 

27 
28 
29 

Steel  Derrick 

130 
132 
135 

136 
139 
140 
142 

63 
64 
,65 
66 

67 

Housepipe  Inspection  Gauge 
Fixture  Key  Gauge  .     .     . 
Leather  Bag  Kit  .... 
Stove    Repair    and    Com- 
plaint Kits    
Plumber's    Gasoline     Fur- 
nace Kit   

193 
195 
196 

198 
199 

Shutting-off  Gas  Tools  .     . 
Main  Pump                     .     . 

Diamond    Points,    Chisels 
and  Wedges  

Pipe  Stocks  and  Cutters    . 
Four-Arm  Spider 
Drilling  Tools  

30 

Small  Tapping  Machine     . 

144 

68 

Incandescent  Repair  Kit    . 

200 

31 

32 

Large  Tapping  Machine     . 
Saddle.  Vise.  ChainWrench 

145 
147 

69 
70 

Service  Cleaning  Device     . 
Meter  Column  and  Force 

202 

33 

Coke  Furnace 

149 

Pumps                                  • 

203 

34 

Gasoline  Furnace      .     .     . 

150 

71 

Bicycle              

204 

35 
36 
37 

Lead  Pouring  Tools  .     .     . 
Cement  Joint  Tools  .     .     . 
Lead  Yarning  and  Caulking 

152 
153 

72 
73 
74 

Motor  Cycle    
Side  Car 

206 
207 
209 

Horse  \Vas?on 

38 
39 

'Tools   
Cement  Joint  Tools  .     .     . 
Cement  Yarning  and  Caulk- 
ing Tools  

155 
156 

158 

75 
76 
77 

Gasoline  Wagon   .... 
Electric  Wagon     .... 
Cement  Joint  

210 
211 
253 

40 

Hand  Lead  Wool  Caulking 

78 

Arrangement   for    Bagging 

Tools   

159 

Mains  

268 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE  PAGE 

79  Method  of  Purging  Large 

Mains 271 

80  Temporary  Main       .     .     .275 

81  Temporary  Main       .     .     .276 

82  Tamping  Machine     .     .     .  281 

83  Transit  Book 291 

84  Postal  Card  Progress  Re- 

port       292 

85  Main  Record  Book   .     .     .295 

86  Field  Sketch 297 

87  Methods  of  Measuring  .     .  300 

88  Measurements     at     Other 

than  Right  Angles      .     .  301 

89  Progress  Report    ....  303 

90  Main  Record 304 

91  Sketch  Record      .     .     .     .305 

92  Designation  of  Curbs  and 

Corners 306 

93  Building    and     Dimension 

Lines 307 

94  Sketch  Record  Card       .     .  309 

95  Leak  Clamp  Sections  and 

Packing .340 

96  Service  Sleeve  on  3*  Main  371 
97"    Top  Connection  with  Two 

Services  in  One  Ditch      .  372 

98  Service     Connection    from 

Side  of  Main      ....  373 

99  Service  Fittings  at  Main    .  374 

100  Service  Encircling  Conduit  376 

101  Diagram  of  Typical  Service  378 

102  Service  Record  Card      .     .  383 

103  Age  Record  of  Services  .     .  385 

104  Coil  Frame  of  Pipe  Locator  391 

105  Pipe  Locator 392 

106  Street   Lamp  Post  Section 

with  Riser  and  Service    .  400 

107  Street  Lamp  Post      .     .     .401 

108  Street  Lamp  Erection  Order  403 

109  Consumer's  Meter    .     .     .  420 

110  Meter  Union 421 

111  Dimensions     of     Standard 

Meter  Unions    ....  423 

112  Consumer's  Meter-Side  View  424 

113  "     -Front"     425 

114  "     -Top     "     426 

115  "     -Front and 

Side  View  427 

116  "     -Back  and 

Side  View  428 


FIGURE  PAGE 

117  Consumer'sMeter-FrontView429 

118  "     -Top       "    431 

119  General  View  of  Ordinary 

Meter 436 

120  Parts  Above  the  Table  in 

an  Ordinary  Meter     .     .  438 

121  Consumer's   Meter — Valve 

Seats  and  Channels    .     .  440 

122  Consumer's   Meter — Dia- 

phragm Chamber  .     .     .  443 
123^  (444 

124  (Consumer's  Meter —  Point J  445 

125  (    of  Cut-off  ^446 
126)  (.447 

127  Slot    Part   of   Prepayment 

Meter 448 

128  Gear  Box  of  Prepayment 

Meter 450 

129  Top  View  of  Prepayment 

Meter 452 

130  Three  to  Five-Light  Adapter  460 

131  Lead  Meter  Connections    .  463 

132  Iron  Inlet  Connections  .     .  464 

133  All-Iron  Connections     .     .  466 

134  All-Iron   Connections  with 

Flanges  at  Meter   .     .     .  467 

135  Adjustable  Tie-in  Connec- 

tions      468 

136  Adjustable  Tie-in  Connec- 

tions on  Five-Light  Pre- 
payment Meter      .     .     .  469 

137  Adjustable  Tie-in  Connec- 

tions with  Adjacent  Piping  470 

138  Connection     Joining    Inlet 

and  Outlet  Piping  .     .     .472 

139  Five-Light  Connection  Join- 

ing Inletand  Outlet  Piping  473 

140  Adjustable   Tie-in    Header 

Connections . 


141 

142 
143 
144 
145 
146 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 


All- Iron    Header    Connec- 
tions      

Meter  Cocks 

Adjustable  Meter  Shelf      . 


Examples 

of 
Index  Reading 


474 

475 
478 
481 
495 
496 
497 
497 
498 
4<)S 
500 
500 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 
152 

153 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 
159 
160 


Examples 

of 
Index  Reading 


PAGE 

500 
501 
501 
501 
501 
502 
520 
521 


Draining  Meter    .... 

Oiling  Meter 

Draining  and  Oiling  Table 
for  Large  Meters    .     .     .  523 

161  Saturator  Showing  Gas  In- 

let and  Outlet    .     .     .     .526 

162  Saturator  Showing  Heating 

Burners  under  Water 
Jacket       528 

163  Meter  Prover 530 

164  Check  Test  Rates     .     .     .534 

165  Percentage  of  Error  Table — 

2  cu.  ft.  Proving  Head    .  538 

1 66  Percentage  of  Error  Table — 

5  cu.  ft.  Proving  Head    .  539 

167  Percentage  of  Error  Table — 

10  cu.  ft.  Proving  Head  .  540 

168  Burner  and  Works  Catch 

Bars 544 

169  Burner   and   Slow   Motion 

Test  Table 545 

170  Proving  Head  Gauge     .     .  546 

171  Inspirator 555 

172  Tests  of  Non-Dipping 

Meters 560 

173  Tests  of  Dipping  Meters    .  561 

174  Tests  of   Meters  at  Main 

Repair  Shop       ....  562 

175  Meter  Test  Tag    ....  568 

176  Meter  Repair  Card  .     .     .569 

177  Meter  Location  Card     .     .  569 

178  Meter  Tests  Book     .     .     .570 

179  Meter  Set  Card    ....  574 

180  Meter  Change  Card       .     .  575 

181  Meter  Remove  Card      .     .  575 

182  Housepiping  Sheet    .     .     .599 

183  Piping  Plan 601 

184  Standard  Philadelphia  Fix- 

ture Cock 609 

185  Housepipe  Inspection  Card  617 

186  Lighting  Layout  ....  628 

187  Working  Plan 631 

188  Cleats  for  Supporting  Floor 

Boards 633 


FIGURE  PAGE 

189  Complaint  Order  ....  663 

190  Sales  Order 664 

191  Vertical  Section  of  Typical 

Burner 675 

192  Air  Shutters 677 

193  Range  Cock  Drawing    .     .  679 

194  Range  Cock  —  Wooden 

Handle 680 

195  Range  Cock  —  Metal  Han- 

dle   681 

196  Orifice  or  Spud     .     .     .     .681 

197  Table   of   Orifice  Sizes  in 

Cock  Spuds 682 

198  Top  Burner 683 

199  Top  Burners 684 

200  Simmering  Burner     .     .     .  685 

201  Oven  Burner 685 

202  Oven  Pijot  Burner    .     .     .686 

203  View    of    Range    Showing 

Pilot  and  Oven  Burners  687 

204  Single- Burner  Hot  Plate    .  689 

205  Top  View  of  Domestic  Range  690 

206  Burner  Lighter     .     .     .     .691 

207  All-Hot  Range  Top  .     .     .  692 

208  Open  Top  Hotel  Range      .  693 

209  Special     Top     Restaurant 

Appliance 694 

210  Section    of    Oven    Showing 

Circulating  Flues    .     .     .  695 

211  Double-Oven  Range       .     .  697 

212  Cabinet  Range      ....  698 

213  Combination     Broiler    and 

Griddle 700 

214  Draft  Hood 712 

215  Hat  Flange       714 

216  Flue  Connection  to  Ordi- 

nary Chimney   .     .     .     .715 

217  Flue   Connection  Through 

Lath  and  Plaster   .     .     .716 

218  Flue   Connection  to   Out- 

side Wall 717 

219  Pipe  Heater 731 

220  Cast  Sectional  Heater    .     .  733 

221  Copper-Coil  Heater  .     .     .734 

222  Combination  Heater      .     .  735 

223  Instantaneous  Automatic 

Heater 737 

224  Automatic  Water  Valve     .  738 

225  Burner  of  an  Instantaneous 

Automatic  Heater  .  742 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


^ 


226  Sectional  View  of  Burner  of 

Instantaneous  Automatic 
Heater 744 

227  Moment  Valve     ....  746 

228  Bathroom  Heater      .     .     .747 

229  Connection     to     Ordinary 

Horizontal  Boiler  .     .     .  755 

230  Connection  to  Ordinary  Ver- 

tical Boiler 757 

231  Connection  to  Log  Boiler    .759 

232  Combination    Boiler    Con- 

nection— Direct  System  .  761 

233  Combination    Boiler    Con- 

nection— Reheat  System    762 

234  Barber's  Boiler  Connection  763 

235  Instantaneous     Automatic 

Heater   Connection — Di- 
rect System 

236  Instantaneous     Automatic 

Heater  Connection — Re- 
heat System       ....  76^ 

237  Incandescent  Heater — Fire- 

place Type    778 

238  Incandescent  Heater — 

Portable  Type  .     . 

239  Reflector  Heater  .     . 

240  Gas  Radiator  .     .     . 

241  Round  Heater       .     . 

242  Gas  Steam  Radiator  . 

243  Fireplace  Heater— Yellow- 

Flame  Type 

244  Sectional  View  of  Fireplace 

Heater  —  Yellow-Flame 
Type 

245  Fireplace    Heater  —  Blue- 

Flame  Type 

246  Gas  Log 

247  Proposed  Standard  Rubber 

End 

248  Proposed    Standard    Hose 

End  Nozzle 796 

249  Method  of  Connecting  Anti- 

fluctuator       805 

250  Antifluctuator       ....  806 

251  Upright  Incandescent  Gas 

Light  Burner     .     .     .     .813 

252  Upright  Incandescent  Gas 

Light 815 

253  Inverted  Incandescent  Gas 

Light  Burner     .     .     .     .817 

254  Inverted  Incandescent  Gas 

Light 819 


779 
781 
783 
785 
786 

788 


789 


790 
791 


796 


255  Junior    Incandescent    Gas 

Light  Burner     .     .     .     .821 

256  Junior    Incandescent    Gas 

Light 823 

257  C.  E-Z    Incandescent    Gas 

Light  Burner  —  Vertical 
Section       825 

258  C.  E-Z    Incandescent    Gas 

Light 827 

259  Single-Mantle    Arc    Lamp 

Burner 828 

260  Single-Mantle  Arc  Lamp    .  830 

261  Three-Burner    Indoor   Arc 

Lamp— Vertical  Section  .  832 

262  Three- Burner    Indoor   Arc 

Lamp 834 

263  Five- Burner  Outdoor   Arc 

Lamp — Vertical  Section     836 

264  Five- Burner  Outdoor  Arc 

Lamp — Details  of  Burner  837 

265  Antivibrators 847 

266  Outdoor  Arc   Lamp   Con- 

nection      849 

267  Outdoor  Arc  Lamp  Drip    .  850 

268  Outdoor  Arc   Lamp   Con- 

nection      851 

269  Outdoor  Arc   Lamp   Con- 

nection —  Inside  Supply 
Cock 852 

270  Bin  Card 877 

271  Stock  Record  Card   .     .     .878 

272  Stock  Report  of  Cast-Iron 

Specials 879 

273  Material  Ordered  Record  .  884 

274  Cowan  Transveyor   .     .     .891 

275  Single  Barrel  Truck  .     .     .892 

276  Box  Truck 893 

277  Wagon  Truck 894 

278  Grocery  Truck      .     .     .     .895 

279  Fibre  Warehouse  Truck     .  897 

280  Storeroom  Material  Inspec- 

tion Report 901 

281  Fixture  Inspection  Report   905 

282  Dome  Storage  Rack .     .     .916 

283  Shop  Work  Cost  Record    .  922 

284  Material  Used  Record  .     .  926 

285  Material  Purchased  Book     930 

286  Material  Ledger   .     .     .     .931 

287  Material  Issues— General  .  933 

288  Fuel  Appliance  Issues    .     .  934 

289  Balance  Sheet 935 

290  Material  Stock  Record  .     .  940 


LIST  OF  SCHEDULES 


PAGE 

Appliance  Consumptions        .     .457 

Antifluctuators 807 

Arc  Lamp  Clearances    .          .     .  848 

"B"  Meters 415 

Bag  and  Stopper  Holes  .     .  264 

Blocking,  W'edges  and   Distance 

Pieces 260 

Clearances  of  Foreign  Structures  321 
Cooking  Appliance  Dimensions  .  701 

Depth  of  Lead 246 

"       "  Yarn 245 

Fixture  Arms 608 

Clearances 846 

607 
707 
711 
808 
809 
626 


Stems 

Flow  Capacities  of  Small  Pipe    . 

Flue  Diameters 

Gas  Engines — Gas  Piping       .     . 

—Water  Piping  .     . 

Gasway  in  Cock  Plugs  .... 

Housepiping  Table  —  American 

Gas  Light  Association     .     .     . 

Housepiping  Table — King's    .     . 

—Present  Day  586 
Instantaneous  Water  Heaters — 
Water  Connections     ....  767 

Lead  Pipe  Weights 462 

Main  Connections     .  .  238 


584 

583 


PAGE 

Meter  Capacities  and  Dimensions  456 

Connections 460 

"      Observation  Time — Grad- 
ual Cease      .     .     .     .     .     .     .514 

Meter  Observation  Time — Turn 

On 504 

Meter  Standard,  Suggested    .     .  414 
Meters  for  Fuel  and  Illumination  457 
"  Gas  Engines      .     .     .  459 
Movement  of  Jam  Nuts  and  Tan- 
gent Posts 550 

Oil  Required  for  Dipping  Meters  522 
Pipe  Bending  .     .     .     .     .     .     .597 

"     Skids 128 

'     Slings 128 

"     Support 596 

Plugs,  Metal 134 

Wooden 133 

Pouring  Bands 154 

Ladles 151 

"        Pots 151 

Service  Connections 369 

Services 93 

Trench  Widths 223 

Water  Heater  Dimensions      .     .  729 

Work  Completion — Appliances  .  662 

— Complaints     636 


LIST  OF  TOOL  KITS 


PAGE 

Complaint  Kit 196 

Dipping  Meter  Equipment     .     .  524 

First  Aid   Kits 184 

Gasoline  Furnace  Kit    ....  199 

Hat  Flange  Kit 243 

Housepiping  Material  ....  629 
Incandescent  Repair  Kit  .  .  .  200 
Large  Appliance  Kit  ....  189 
Leak  Clamp  Kit 340 


PAGE 

Main  Laying  Equipment  .  .  .221 
Meter  Wagon  Contents  .  .  .  483 
Overhauling  Mains  Equipment  .  323 

Paving  Equipment 286 

Service  Cart  Contents  .     .     .     .361. 

Stove  Fitter's  Kit 188 

Stove  Repair  Kit 197 

Street  Clerk  Equipment     .     .     .  298 


PART  I 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  A  DISTRIBUTION 
DEPARTMENT 

Under  this  heading  will  be  found  the  general  principles  that 
should  be  followed  in  the  administration  of  a  distribution  depart- 
ment. The  treatment  will  be  chiefly  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
large  company,  as  the  few  distribution  men  of  a  small  company 
hardly  may  be  said  to  form  a  department,  or  to  require  deep 
thought  for  their  organization.  However,  much  of  what  is  written 
is  applicable  to  every  company,  especially  the  very  important 
question  of  keeping  in  touch  with  the  work  of  each  employee,  so 
that  effort  may  be  stimulated  and  reward  may  follow  effort. 


SECTION  I 

SCOPE  AND  ORGANIZATION 

CHAPTER  I 

SCOPE  OF  WORK 

A  distribution  department  should  cover  thewhole  field  suggested 
by  its  name.  Its  work  should  begin  not  in  the  street  mains  just 
outside  the  holders,  but  at  the  inlet  of  all  street  main  governors,  for 
it  is  the  distribution,  and  not  the  manufacturing,  department  that 
is  acquainted  with  the  relation  between  the  capacity  of  the  various 
trunk  mains  and  the  demand  for  gas  through  them,  and  a  knowledge 
of  this  relation,  coupled  with  that  of  the  pressure  needed  to  give 
good  service,  determines  the  schedule  of  pressures  to  be  followed 
at  each  street  main  governor  outlet  for  any  hour  of  the  day  or  year. 
The  larger  the  company,  the  more  important  it  is  that  this  control 
of  pressures  should  be  directly  under  the  distribution  department. 
The  ability  to  say  what  pressures  should  be  carried,  besides  enabling 
proper  service  to  consumers,  provided  such  service  is  possible  with 
the  existing  main  system,  is  then  coupled  with  the  knowledge  of  any 
failure  to  furnish  proper  service. 

The  end  of  the  distribution  work  should  be  just  above  the  burner 
tip.  In  other  words,  meter,  appliance  and  complaint  work  should 
be  cared  for  by  the  same  department  that  is  responsible  for  mains 
and  services.  Frequently,  and  in  very  large  companies  too,  the 
street  department  reporting  through  a  superintendent  of  mains 
and  sen-ices  to  a  chief  engineer,  is  separated  entirely  from  the 
fitting  department  reporting  to  the  secretary.  The  advocates  of 
such  a  separation  justify  it  on  the  plea  that  the  official  in  charge  of 
the  consumers'  ledgers  should  control  all  meter  and  complaint 
work,  in  order  to  ensure  correct  records  and  prompt  attention  to 
consumers.  To  meet  this  argument,  there  are  many  examples  of 
distribution  departments  entrusted  with  meter  work,  and  doing 

(5) 


6  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

it  to  the  complete  satisfaction  of  the  office.  On  the  other  hand, 
delay  and  increased  expense  accompany  all  such  divorce  of  fitting 
work  from  other  distribution  activities.  Because  of  the  fact  that 
efficient  operation  requires  all  work  of  a  similar  nature  to  be  done 
by  one  department,  it  also  is  a  mistake  to  vest,  as  sometimes  is  done, 
the  maintenance  of  various  types  of  appliances  with  the  new 
business  department. 


CHAPTER  II 

ORGANIZATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 
LARGE  CITY 

The  organization  given  is  one  applying  in  its  entirety  only  to  a 
city  of  over  500,000,  but,  as  will  be  pointed  out,  its  component 
parts  may  serve  as  models  for  distribution  organizations  in  cities 
of  all  sizes. 

The  organization  in  its  upper  ranks  may  be  diagrammed  as 
follows : 

District  Superintendents 


Engineer  of  Distribution 
Assistant  Engineer  of  Distribution 


Superintendent  of  Meters 
Superintendent  of  Paving  ' 
Superintendent  of  Records 
Superintendent  of  Stores 


Superintendent  of  Street  Lighting 
Superintendent  of  Transportation 
Inspectors 

Such  an  organization  is  adequate  for  the  largest  cities  in  this  country. 

ENGINEER  OF  DISTRIBUTION 

The  Engineer  of  Distribution  would  report  to  the  General  Manager 
of  the  company.  The  question  as  to  the  necessity  for  an  Assistant 
Engineer,  or  an  Assistant  to  the  Engineer  of  Distribution,  would  be 
answered  differently  by  different  people.  A  good  general  principle 
to  follow,  however,  in  the  conduct  of  all  important  work,  is  to  have 
a  capable  understudy  for  every  principal  official.  In  this  way,  the 
latter  is  spared  much  detail  and  his  mind  left  free  to  view  his  work 
in  its  broader  aspects.  Such  freedom  from  the  burden  of  routine 
work,  coupled  with  the  proper  mental  calibre,  will  produce  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  and  in  operating  efficiencies  obtainable  in  no 
other  manner.  Nothing  is  more  shortsighted  than  the  policy  of 
undermanning  any  staff  charged  with  the  control  of  a  large 
expenditure.  The  salary  paid  to  each  assistant  invariably  may  be 
saved  several  times  over,  with  the  right  chief.  Also,  where  there  is 

(7) 


8  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

an  assistant,  the  company  is  well  protected  in  case  the  services  of 
the  chief  are  lost. 

ASSISTANT  ENGINEER  OF  DISTRIBUTION 

It  will  be  noted  on  the  diagram  that  the  Engineer  and  Assistant 
Engineer  are  put  side  by  side,  rather  than  end  on.  The  arrange- 
ment chosen  is  meant  to  indicate  the  method  of  working  that 
naturally  must  obtain  in  the  interest  of  efficiency  and  prompt 
action.  This  condition  is  that  some  matters  will  go  from  the 
superintendents  to  the  Assistant  Engineer  direct,  and  be  settled 
by  him;  others  will  be  transmitted  by  him  to  the  Engineer  for  final 
action;  while  still  a  third  class  will  be  sent  straight  to  the  Engineer, 
by  the  superintendents.  For  instance,  the  Assistant  Engineer 
might  look  after  and  decide  finally  on  most  matters  relating  to 
main,  service  and  fitting  work,  might  formulate  rules  and  instruc- 
tions covering  the  operation  of  the  department  for  submission  to 
the  Engineer,  while  the  latter  would  specialize  on  meter  and 
appliance  design  and  repairs,  and  decide  on  the  changes  in  personnel. 

DISTRICT  SUPERINTENDENT 

The  District  Superintendent  would  be  in  charge  of  all  distribution 
work  in  a  certain  area.  Other  things  being  equal,  these  areas 
should  be  so  chosen  as  to  approximate  an  equal  number  of  meters, 
either  at  the  time  of  division  or  (with  reference  to  probable  differ- 
ences in  development)  at  some  time  in  the  near  future.  Of  course, 
in  practice,  physical  conditions,  such  as  water  courses,  railroad 
systems,  etc.,  often  govern  the  boundaries  of  these  areas,  but 
the  number  of  districts  probably  should  never  be  more  than 
six,  and  more  generally  from  two  to  four.  The  disadvantage 
of  too  many  districts  lies  in  the  lack  of  street  work  that  may  char- 
acterize one  or  more  districts  during  certain  seasons.  This  involves 
either  a  regrettable  discharge  of  efficient  employees,  or  else  working 
at  increased  cost.  In  actual  operation,  the  transfer  of  men  from 
one  district  organization  to  another  is  not  effected  easily  and 
militates  against  the  operating  efficiency  obtained  by  the  district 
organization.  Roughly,  a  district  should  contain  at  least  40,000 
meters.  As  an  upper  limit,  perhaps  150,000  meters  might  be  taken. 
The  advantage  of  more  than  one  district  lies  in  the  opportunity 
thus  afforded  of  pitting  one  District  Superintendent  against 
another,  and  this  advantage  is  a  very  practical  one,  and  should 
be  utilized  whenever  the  scale  of  operation  will  permit.  A  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  of  district  operation  will  be  found  in  the 
1909  Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas  Institute,  page  687. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  DEPARTMENT  9 

In  very  large  organizations,  where  a  district  superintendent 
may  have  charge  of  over  50,000  meters,  the  same  reasons 
leading  to  the  appointment  of  an  Assistant  Engineer  of 
Distribution,  make  advisable  the  appointment  of  an  Assistant 
District  Superintendent  in  each  large  district.  Besides  the  free- 
dom from  much  detail  thus  afforded  the  District  Superintendent, 
the  Assistant  Superintendent  gains  experience  not  possible  in  a 
foreman's  job,  and  becomes  qualified  to  fill  a  superintendent's 
position,  preferably  first  in  a  small  district. 

The  organization  under  the  District  Superintendent  would 
comprise  three  general  foremen,  one  each  for  main,  service,  and 
fitting  work,  and  a  chief  clerk,  who  would  be  in  charge  of  all 
clerical  work.  Whether  the  general  foreman  of  mains  and  the 
general  foreman  of  services  should  be  independent  of  each  other, 
or  whether  the  latter  should  be  regarded  as  an  assistant  to  the 
former,  is  a  matter  depending  largely  on  individual  judgment  and 
on  local  working  conditions.  Where  these  positions  are  inde- 
pendent, each  general  foreman  stands  squarely  on  his  own  basis. 
However,  the  dependence  of  the  service  foreman  upon  the  main 
foreman,  allows  the  use  of  a  more  inexperienced  man  in  the  former 
position  than  might  otherwise  be  safe.  Under  the  general  main 
foreman  would  be  as  many  gang  foremen  as  there  were  separate 
main  laying  gangs  employed.  Under  the  general  service  foreman 
would  be  the  various  service  gangs,  and,  in  a  large  district,  there 
would  be  several  service  inspectors,  each  looking  after  several  gangs. 

The  general  foreman  of  fitting  work  would  have  charge  of  all 
work  done  inside  of  buildings,  this  including  complaints  and  all 
branches  of  fuel  and  lighting  appliance  work.  There  might  be  an 
assistant  general  foreman  and  also  inspectors  over  the  various 
classes  of  work.  There  should  be  one  person,  called  a  dispatching 
clerk,  through  whom  all  orders  should  pass  to  the  individual  men 
who  actually  do  the  work,  either  directly  when  the  men  report  to 
the  shop,  or  indirectly  through  the  inspectors,  when  the  latter  carry 
out  the  work  cards  to  their  men.  In  this  way,  there  always  is  one 
man  who  knows  what  the  entire  fitting  force  is  doing,  a  knowledge 
which  is  essential  on  the  many  occasions  when  special  jobs  have  to 
be  done  and  a  shifting,  of  men  is  required.  Also,  the  general 
foreman  is  thus  relieved  of  routine  duty  and  left  freer  to  care 
for  important  work  as  it  is  met  with,  and,  in  general,  to  study 
where  improvements,  both  in  economy  and  efficiency,  can 
be  effected. 


10'  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

The  chief  clerk  would  be  responsible  for  all  office  work  and 
possibly  look  after  any  miscellaneous  operations  performed  at  the 
district  shop,  as,  for  example,  repairing  street  lamps,  various  gas 
appliances,  bicycles,  etc.  The  chief  clerk  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
shop  in  its  relations  with  the  order  desk,  and  should  be  the  only 
person,  with  the  exception  of  the  District  Superintendent, 
authorized  to  make  any  promises  as  to  performance  of  work. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  METERS 

In  many  fairly  large  companies,  the  care  of  meters  has  been  left 
to  the  District  Superintendent  and  to  the  foreman  of  the  meter 
shop.  To  the  former,  meter  matters  are  no  more  important  than 
any  other  interest  committed  to  his  care,  while  a  meter  shop  fore- 
man usually  is  too  busy  on  routine  work  to  spare  any  time  for  a 
broad  view  of  meter  construction  and  repair.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  has  been  well  shown  by  experience,  the  existence  of  a  Superin- 
tendent of  Meters,  a  man  of  the  same  calibre  and  pay  as  a 
District  Superintendent,  inevitably  tends  toward  economy  in  every 
phase  of  meter  work.  The  first  cost  of  meters  and  the  expense 
entailed  by  the  various  tests  and  repairs  to  which  all  meters 
brought  in  from  use  are  subjected,  amounts  to  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  yearly  in  the  large  companies.  A  study  of 
design,  which  results  in  decreasing  first  cost,  and  of  records  of 
tests,  which  eliminates  unnecessary  work,  will  save  the  salary  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Meters  many  times  over,  and  yet  without 
such  a  man,  the  above  savings  are  apt  to  be  overlooked  and 
practice  continue  in  a  rut 

The  existence  of  the  Superintendent  of  Meters  and  of  the  other 
"special"  superintendents  already  diagrammed  as  employees  of 
equal  rank  with  the  District  Superintendents,  involves,  of  course, 
questions  of  divided  control,  and  might  lead  to  serious  friction  if 
the  duties  of  each  superintendent  were  not  defined  carefully.  In 
Philadelphia,  the  scheme  of  special  or,  as  they  are  called,  "division" 
superintendents,  has  worked  well.  It  is  understood  by  every  one 
that  certain  district  employees  are  subject  to  a  supervision  of  their 
operation  by  the  division  superintendent  or  his  employees.  The 
exact  limits  of  the  supervision,  and  how  it  is  effected,  have  been 
worked  out.  When  cases  arise  between  district  and  division 
employees  not  possible  of  settlement  by  them,  the  two  superin- 
tendents interested  attempt  to  reach  an  agreement,  in  default  of 
which  the  Engineer's  Office  (meaning  the  Engineer  of  Distribution, 
or  his  Assistant,  or  both)  is  appealed  to  for  a  final  decision. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  DEPARTMENT  11 

The  Superintendent  of  Meters  comes  in  contact  with  the  district 
superintendents  through  the  district  meter  shops.  The  work  of 
these  shops  is  discussed  in  Part  VII.  The  character  and  extent 
of  the  work  to  be  done  at  the  district  shop,  as  distinguished  from 
the  main  meter  repair  shop,  the  workmanship  displayed  and,  in 
general,  the  whole  operation  of  the  district  shop,  are  subject  to 
instructions  from,  and  criticisms  by,  the  Superintendent  of 
Meters.  An  inspector  from  the  main  repair  shop  visits  each 
district  shop  at  regular  intervals.  He  is  under  the  foreman  of 
the  main  shop,  who,  in  turn,  is  responsible  to  the  Superintendent 
of  Meters  for  all  meter  repair  work.  A  chief  clerk  has  charge  of 
the  office  work  and  meter  repair  records. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PAVING 

The  character  of  the  organization  required  to  ensure  the  proper 
restoration  and  maintenance  of  all  paving  disturbed  by  street 
work,  will  depend  not  only  on  the  size  of  the  company,  but  also  on 
whether  the  paving  is  done  by  contract  or  not.  The  advisability  of 
contract  versus  company  work  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XXVI. 
In  a  large  situation,  where  all  paving  is  under  contract,  the  existence 
of  a  Superintendent  of  Paving  is  well  justified  by  the  results 
obtained.  He  acts  as  the  intermediary  between  the  company  and 
the  city  authorities,  keeping  in  very  close  touch  with  the  latter,  and 
by  his  pleasant  relations  with  them,  protecting  the  company  from 
arbitrary  and  unwarranted  demands  for  the  repairingof  areas  much 
larger  than  those  affected  by  the  company's  work.  He  always  is 
available  to  meet  the  city  paving  inspectors  to  determine  by  mutual 
agreement  to  what  extent  the  bad  condition  of  certain  pavmg  is 
due  to  company  work.  These  inspections  and  the  visits  to  city 
require  much  time,  and  yet  are  essential  to  economy  in  paving 
work.  In  the  absence  of  a  Superintendent  of  Paving,  these 
duties  would  devolve  upon  (/)  a  subordinate  official  called,  say, 
-an  Inspector  of  Paving;  or  (2}  upon  the  Assistant  Engineer  of 
Distribution;  or  (3)  upon  the  District  Superintendent.  The 
objection  to  (1}  is  that  a  man  of  inferior  position  is  at  a  disadvan- 
tage in  all  his  relations  with  the  city  employees.  His  calibre  usually 
is  not  such  as  to  enable  him  to  meet,  on  an  equal  footing,  the  men 
in  charge  of  the  city's  paving,  and  he  is  of  the  same  class  as,  instead 
of  superior  to,  the  city  inspectors,  with  whom  he  decides  upon 
paving  repairs.  Actual  superiority  is  quite  a  practical  advantage 
in  the  last  instance.  The  objection  to  (2}  is  that  the  Assistant 
Engineer  has  more  important  work  to  do.  The  objection  to  (J)  is 


12  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

that  the  District  Superintendent's  work  does  not  lend  itself  to 
killing  time  waiting  on  city  officials,  and  also  that  it  is  not  wise  to 
have  several  different  men  speaking  for  the  company  on  the 
paving  question. 

Where  the  paving  is  done  under  contract,  the  Superintendent  of 
Paving  would  receive  a  record  of  all  openings,  preferably  on  cards, 
transmit  the  proper  notices  to  the  contractors  and  the  city 
authorities,  inspect  more  or  less  of  the  work,  and  check  the  con- 
tractors' bills.  The  systematic  inspection  of  all  paving  work, 
involving  perhaps  three  inspections  of  every  job,  could  be  done  by 
inspectors  reporting  to  the  Superintendent  of  Paving,  or  forming 
part  of  the  district  organization. 

Where  the  paving  is  done  by  the  company,  it  could  be  under  the 
direct  charge  of  the  Superintendent  of  Paving,  or  of  the  District 
Superintendent.  The  latter  course  is  preferable,  for  it  will  permit 
the  repaving  being  done  by  the  same  gang  that  makes  the  opening, 
and  this  practice  conduces  to  economy  in  many  cases  of  isolated 
openings.  Also,  as  the  inspection  should  be  made  by  men  not 
belonging  to  the  department  doing  the  paving,  when  the  latter  is 
performed  by  the  district  organization,  the  inspection  of  the  work 
very  properly  falls  to  the  employees  of  the  Paving  Division. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  RECORDS 

The  existence  of  a  Records  Division  is  based  on  the  belief  that  the 
main  laying  foreman  should  not  be  hampered  in  his  work  by  the 
necessity  of  taking  records.  The  organization  of  the  record  work 
is  given  in  Chapter  XXVII. 

Other  branches  of  wrork  sometimes  falling  to  a  large  distribution 
department,  and  which  in  Philadelphia  have  been  entrusted  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Records,  are  (/)  the  inspection  of  cast-iron  pipe 
and  brass  cocks;  (2)  the  supervision  of  all  building  work  and  the 
periodical  inspection  of  buildings;  (3)  the  supervision  of  a  mes- 
senger service  maintained  between  the  various  offices  and  shops; 
and  (4}  any  special  work  that  may  arise. 

(1)  The  inspection  of  cast-iron  pipe  and  brass  cocks  is  cared  for 
by  an  inspector  at  each  foundry.     Over  all  the  inspectors  is  a  Chief 
Inspector,  who  also  assists  the  Superintendent  of  Records  in  other 
ways.     The  advisability  of   such   inspection   is   treated   of  in 
Chapter  XII. 

(2)  Building  work,  usually  involving  the  preparation  of  plans, 
falls  naturally  to  the  Records  Division.     The  inspection  of  such 


ORGA  NIZA  riON  OF  DEPA  R  TMENT  1 3 

work  during  erection  by  the  person  responsible  for  the  design, 
has  manifest  advantages.  The  periodical  inspection  of  existing 
buildings  insures  proper  upkeep,  and  is  better  under  one  man  than 
under  many,  as  would  be  the  case  if  each  superintendent  inspected 
his  own  buildings. 

(J)  A  private  messenger  service  saves  time  and  money  for  a 
large  company,  but  needs  constant  supervision  to  be  kept  at  high 
efficiency.  This  supervision  is  exercised  by  the  chief  clerk  of  the 
Records  Division  through  a  Chief  Messenger. 

(4)  Under  the  head  of  special  work  comes  preparation  of  plans 
in  certain  accident  cases,  miscellaneous  drawings,  etc. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OK  STORES 

The  exact  costs  of  the  various  details  of  distribution  work  cannot 
be  ascertained  without  a  "storeroom"  system,  viz.,  a  method  by 
which  materials  as  bought  are  charged  to  a  "Storeroom  "  account, 
and  then  charged  out  as  used.  It  is  easy  to  charge  to  "Store- 
room" all  the  material  received,  as  per  receipts  sent  in  by  the 
various  storekeepers.  It  is  quite  difficult,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
ensure  that  this  material,  scattered,  as  it  is,  through  district  store- 
rooms and  in  wagons  and  working  kits,  should  be  so  generally 
reported  that  at  inventory  time  the  stock  found  will  agree  closely 
with  that  shown  by  the  storeroom  books.  As  long  as  the 
responsibility  for  stock  discrepancies  rests  only  with  the  district 
superintendents,  or  with  an  employee  of  minor  rank,  such  as  a 
working  storekeeper,  so  long  will  there  be,  each  year,  annoying 
disclosures,  and  balancing  entries  needed  to  make  book  records 
agree  with  inventories.  The  District  Superintendent  has  many 
other  things  to  do  beside  looking  after  material  stock,  and  a 
working  storekeeper  is  too  busy  with  detail  to  handle  properly  the 
storeroom  question.  A  Superintendent  of  Stores,  however, 
responsible  for  the  clerks  and  storekeepers  at  the  main  storeroom, 
and  consulted  as  to  the  district  storekeepers,  has,  as  his  sole 
business,  the  proper  handling  of  material  stock,  and  is  paid  a 
salary  sufficient  to  ensure  a  competent  man.  The  result  has  been, 
and  always  can  be,  a  general  close  agreement  between  actual  and 
"book"  stock,  with  the  resulting  assurance  that  material  costs 
are  correct,  and  the  gratifying  absence  of  much  time  wasted  in 
trying  to  locate  discrepancies. 

The  existence  of  a  Superintendent  of  Stores,  with  his  accompany- 
ing organization,  also  guarantees  a  better  relation  between  stock 
on  hand  and  current  needs  for  material,  than  is  apt  to  obtain  when 


14  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

the  responsibility  for  deciding  as  to  time,  or  size,  of  order  rests 
either  with  a  storekeeper  or  is  divided  among  several  district 
superintendents.  Only  those  who  have  had  the  experience  of 
looking  after  the  material  needs  of  large  companies  through 
periods  of  great  business  activity,  both  in  company  and  in  nation, 
can  appreciate  how  difficult  is  the  task  of  always  keeping  a  supply 
of  everything  on  hand  without  getting  overstocked  on  certain 
lines.  The  j  udgment  needed  for  such  work  may  be  obtained  only 
by  paying  what  the  job  is  worth,  and  not  treating  it  as  something 
only  a  little  better  than  a  clerk's  or  storekeeper's  position. 

Just  as  the  Superintendent  of  Meters  keeps  in  close  touch  with 
the  district  meter  shops  by  means  of  a  visiting  inspector,  so  the 
Superintendent  of  Stores  watches  over  the  district  storekeepers. 
Details  of  storeroom  work  are  given  in  Part  X. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  STREET  LIGHTING 

With  the  advent  of  the  electric  arc  light,  street  lighting  was  very 
largely  lost  to  gas  companies.  Now  it  is  being  more  or  less  regained 
by  the  aid  of  the  Welsbach  mantle.  Generally,  however,  these 
incandescent  gas  lights  are  maintained  by  a  lighting  company,  to 
whom  the  gas  is  sold,  and,  consequently,  few  gas  companies  need  a 
street  lighting  force.  The  Philadelphia  Gas  Works  for  a  while  was 
an  exception,  as  it  cared  for  24,000  street  lights,  all  flat-flame 
burners.  It  employed  a  Superintendent  of  Street  Lighting,  a 
Chief  Inspector,  three  inspectors,  two  clerks  and  a  stenographer, 
and  about  one  hundred  and  forty  lighters.  Through  the  inspectors 
was  maintained  a  systematic  inspection  of  every  light  and  the  work 
of  every  lighter.  The  office  force  handled  all  the  orders  for  the 
erection,  maintenance  and  removal  of  lamps,  and  made  up  the 
lighters'  payrolls.  Further  detail  of  this  work  is  given  in  Part  VI. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

In  these  days  of  motor  vehicles,  it  hardly  is  probable  that 
any  large  distribution  department  is  doing  all  its  transportation 
work  with  horses,  or  owns  enough  of  the  latter  to  justify  a  Super- 
intendent of  Stables  as  distinguished  from  a  Superintendent  of 
Transportation.  For  many  years,  in  Philadelphia,  there  was 
a  Superintendent  of  Stables,  and  his  existence  as  an  employee 
of  equal  rank  with  the  other  superintendents  produced  results 
well  worth  the  additional  salary  expense.  The  equipment  was 
maintained  in  excellent  condition  at  all  times  and  thus  served 


ORGA  NIZA  TION  OF  DEPA  R  TMENT  1 5 

as  a  very  good  advertisement.  The  Superintendent  of  Stables 
was  held  responsible  for  the  provision  of  suitable  horses  and 
wagons  for  distribution  needs.  He  employed  and  exercised 
complete  control  over  all  stable  men  and  drivers  who  did  no 
district  work.  He  was  consulted  in  regard  to  drivers  acting 
as  district  workmen.  He  had  a  right  to  interfere  whenever  he 
was  not  satisfied  with  hauling  conditions  in  any  district.  This 
organization  was  a  great  improvement  on  the  plan  of  leaving 
the  care  of  horses  and  wagons  to  the  district  superintendents 
through  individual  stable  foremen.  The  usual  result  of  this 
arrangement  is  that  horses  are  rather  poorly  cared  for  and 
wagons  become  shabby  and  dilapidated. 

To  meet  the  conditions  of  mixed  transportation  now  generally 
existing,  there  should  be  a  Superintendent  of  Transportation, 
caring  for  both  horse-drawn  and  motor  vehicles,  through  i  nspectors 
of  horse  and  motor  transportation  respectively.  The  former 
would  correspond  to  a  superintendent  of  stables,  though  with 
much  fewer  horses  to  care  for  than  would  j  ustify  a  superintendent's 
position.  Thelatter  would  be  in  direct  charge  of  all  motor  trans- 
portation, this  involving  supervision  over  the  various  mechanics 
attached  to  the  district  garages  and  to  a  main  repair  shop,  if  any. 

In  a  large  situation,  there  would  be  an  automobile  for  each 
district  superintendent  and  any  other  superintendent  whose  duties 
involved  much  moving  about;  Ford  cars  or  mo  tor  cycles  for  general 
foremen  and  various  inspectors,  as  well  as  complaint  men  in  scat- 
tered territory ;  three-wheeled  vans  or  side  cars  for  light  material ; 
and  various  types  of  motor  wagons.  Such  equipment  would 
justify  a  large  repair  shop  at  which  all  repairs  could  be  made,  only 
minor  ills  being  cared  for  at  the  district  garages.  Also,  until  the 
relative  worth  of  each  type  of  equipment  and  its  suitability  to  the 
work  given  it  was  known,  an  Inspector  of  Traffic  Handling  might 
justify  his  existence.  This,  with  proper  accounts  to  show  the 
hourly  cost  of  each  mode  of  transportation,  would  aid  in  solving  the 
more  or  less  difficult  problem  of  determining  the  most  efficient 
motive  power  as  between  horse,  gasoline  and  electricity. 

INSPECTORS 

The  men  included  under  this  title,  with  their  duties,  aredescribed 
in  detail  in  Chapter  X.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  diagram,  they 
report  to  the  Engineer  or  Assistant  Engineer. 


16  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

SMALL  CITY 

By  definition  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  a  small  city  has 
a  population  of  less  than  500,000.  Let  us  now  further  subdivide, 
distinguishing  as  between  cities  over  and  under  100,000,  and  con- 
sidering the  most  populous  class  first.  Such  a  city  (unless  its 
physical  layout  is  peculiar)  probably  would  be  served  most 
economically  by  one  distribution  shop,  especially  if  this  was  not 
at  the  works,  which  latter  could  serve  as  a  second  storeyard  for 
heavy  material,  diminishing  hauling  charges  as  against  one 
storeyard  for  the  whole  city. 

The  distribution  organization  would  be  as  follows : 

(General  Foreman  of  Mains 
General  Foreman  of  Services 
General  Foreman  of  Fitters 

ouHC1^c..^  «   — Foreman  of  Meter  Repair  Shop 

Stable  Boss  or  Garage  Foreman 
General  Storekeeper 

The  Superintendent  of  Distribution  would  report  to  the  General 
Superintendent  or  Manager.  His  duties  would  be  similar  to  those 
of  the  District  Superintendent  in  a  large  city.  The  three  general 
foremen  would  likewise  be  comparable  to  the  same  positions  as 
already  described  in  connection  with  a  district  organization.  The 
meter  repair  shop  might  come  under  the  General  Foreman  of 
Fitters,  but  it  is  preferable  to  have  its  foreman  responsible  directly 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Distribution.  The  Stable  Boss  as  fur- 
nishing horses,  the  Garage  Foreman,  motor  wagons,  and  the 
General  Storekeeper,  supplies  to  all  branches  of  distribution  work, 
should  also  report  directly  to  the  Superintendent.  The  number 
of  minor  foremen  and  inspectors  required  will  vary  according  to 
the  volume  of  work. 

In  cities  under  100,000,  the  distribution  work  probably  would  be 
looked  after  by  the  manager  or  a  superintendent.  To  him  would 
report  either  a  general  foreman  controlling  individual  main  and 
service  gang  foremen  and  fitting  inspectors,  or  in  still  smaller 
situations,  the  individual  foremen  themselves. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  planning  an  organization, 
great  or  small,  two  principles  always  are  to  be  borne  in  mind: 
first,  to  have  enough  men  for  the  work,  and  second,  to  have 
each  man's  duties  well  defined  in  order  that  initiative  may  be 
encouraged  and  responsibility  properly  located.  In  general,  an 
organization  that  cannot  be  diagrammed  easily  is  probably 
at  fault. 


SECTION  II 

OBTAINING,  ASCERTAINING  AND  COM- 
MUNICATING  RESULTS 


CHAPTER  III 

OPERATION  BY  COOPERATION 

The  larger  part  of  distribution  work  is  done  indoors.  It  is  also 
the  most  important  part,  because  it  involves  close  contact  with 
consumers,  and  unless  it  is  performed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure 
popular  approval,  no  degree  of  efficiency  in  main  and  service  work 
will  avail  to  win  popularity  for  the  gas  company.  The  question 
as  to  what  charges  should  be  made  for  any  or  all  of  this  indoor 
work,  has  no  place  in  a  distribution  manual.  The  problem  of  the 
distribution  department  is  to  carry  out  the  policy  decided  upon  in 
the  most  economical  and  efficient  manner. 

To  solve  any  problem  of  this  kind,  men  and  means  are  requisite. 
A  careful  selection  and  treatment  of  men  will  do  much  to  improve 
results.  This  is  treated  of  in  Chapter  V  as  "The  Personal 
Equation."  Now  will  be  considered  how  the  distribution  force, 
as  a  body,  should  be  handled  in  order  to  benefit  by  the  experience 
of  the  many,  and  yet  simultaneously  to  obtain  such  a  fusion  of 
ideas  that  unity  of  thought  and  action  among  widely  separated 
bodies  of  men  may  be  preserved.  Of  course,  the  details  of  treat- 
ment will  vary  in  each  particular  location,  but  a  description  of  the 
building  up  of  the  Philadelphia  Distribution  Department  will 
illustrate  the  principles  involved  better  than  would  a  general 
statement  of  them. 

Upon  taking  over  the  Philadelphia  Gas  Works  from  the  city,  the 
existing  distribution  department  was  found  to  be  entirely  inade- 
quate, and  in  its  place  was  developed  an  organization  substantially 
as  described  in  the  preceding  chapter.  In  the  rush  of  work  required 

(17) 


18  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

to  retrieve  the  neglect  of  past  years,  there  was  no  time  to  compile 
general  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  department.  As  one  question 
after  another  arose  for  decision,  circular  letters  were  sent  to  the 
superintendents  concerned.  Occasionally,  before  a  decision  was 
reached,  the  district  superintendents  and  any  of  the  division  super- 
intendents whose  work  might  be  affected  by  the  subjects  to  be 
discussed,  were  called  in  conference.  These  irregular  meetings 
proved  so  helpful  that  it  was  decided  to  hold  them  fortnightly,  the 
thought  being  that  no  time  could  be  spared  during  ordinary- 
working  hours.  A  few  meetings,  however,  not  only  showed  the 
disadvantages  of  adding  to  the  work  of  a  busy  day,  but  also  how 
valuable  was  the  benefit  to  be  derived,  entirely  justifying  a  daytime 
hour,  even  though  other  work  was  delayed  thereby.  As  a  result,  for 
many  years,  meetings  known  as  "Superintendents'  Meetings" 
have  been  held  every  Tuesday  afternoon,  from  two  until  four  or 
five  o'clock. 

At  first,  only  the  questions  actually  decided  at  a  meeting  were 
covered  by  circular  letter.  Soon  the  thought  occurred  to  sum- 
marize every  principal  subject  of  discussion,  and  this  was  the 
beginning  of  a  regular  circular  letter,  entitled,  "  Minutes  of  Superin- 
tendents' Meeting."  Other  circular  letters  not  connected  with 
these  meetings  were  issued  from  time  to  time,  and  in  several  years 
the  sum  total  of  all  the  circulars  became  so  considerable  that  it 
was  not  always  easy  to  find  quickly  the  latest  ruling  on  any 
particular  point.  This  difficulty  was  met  by  the  preparation  of 
an  index  comprising  all  the  subjects  covered  by  the  distribution 
department,  and  each  district  superintendent  was  sent  a  set  of 
cards  containing  all  previous  circulars  properly  indexed  to  date. 
From  time  to  tirne  additions  to  this  index  were  sent  out,  until 
it  was  decided  to  index  each  letter  as  written,  and  this  practice, 
conjoined  with  a  serial  number  for  each  letter,  and  the  numbering 
of  each  paragraph  in  the  "  Minutes  of  Superintendents'  Meeting," 
absolutely  identified  every  entry  on  the  index  cards. 

The  index  was  a  great  step  toward  putting  the  responsible 
employees  of  the  distribution  department  in  possession  of  the 
rules  laid  down  for  their  conduct  under  the  many  diverse  condi- 
tions that  constantly  were  arising  in  their  contact  with  the 
public  and  the  other  departments  of  the  company.  The  necessity 
for  intimate  knowledge  of  the  rules  on  the  part  of  these  employees 
was  increased  by  the  preparation  of  manuals  of  instruction  for 
the  guidance  of  the  individual  workman,  as  in  a  number  of 
instances  these  manuals  directed  the  workman  to  ask  the  "office," 


OPERATION  BY  COOPERATION  19 

or  his  foreman,  for  guidance.  The  cards,  however,  contained 
many  references  to  rules  either  entirely  obsolete,  or  partially 
changed  to  meet  later  conditions.  Therefore,  a  codification  of 
all  existing  instructions  was  undertaken,  and  this  resulted  in 
"The  Digest,"  containing  about  300  typewritten  pages  of  300 
words  each.  With  its  appearance,  the  task  of  the  chief  clerks 
in  the  district  superintendents'  offices  was  lightened  greatly,  for 
the  Digest  swept  away  all  previous  circulars,  and,  with  the 
manuals  of  instruction,  covered  the  whole  field  of  the  distribu- 
tion department  work. 

As  almost  every  week  witnesses  some  slight  change  in  practice, 
found  wise  to  meet  new  conditions,  the  Digest  is  in  need  of 
continual  amendment.  This  amendment  is  made  half-yearly,  by 
means  of  a  circular  letter  stating  what  changes  are  to  be  made, 
giving  page  and  line  where  the  change  is  slight  and  enclosing  a 
rewritten  page  where  much  is  altered.  At  the  same  time, 
another  circular  letter  tells  how  the  various  circulars  that  have 
been  issued  since  the  last  Digest  revision,  are  cared  for  in  the 
present  revision.  In  this  way,  there  is  a  periodical  cleaning  up  of 
all  temporary  letters  of  instruction,  so  that  at  any  given  time,  the 
practice  of  the  distribution  department  is  represented  by  the 
Digest  as  last  revised  and  those  circular  letters  issued  since 
that  revision. 

As  might  be  expected,  this  clean-cut  method  of  enabling  all 
employees  to  know  exactly  what  their  duties  are,  has  resulted  in 
economy  as  well  as  efficiency  of  operation.  The  whole  process 
was  one  of  a-  logical  evolution,  and  the  benefits  that  resulted 
should  be  credited  to  the  weekly  superintendents'  meetings  and  to 
the  principle  thus  established  of  operation  by  cooperation, — the 
managing  of  an  organization  by  freely  consulting  with  those 
engaged  in  car ry ing  out  the  work. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PREPARATION  OF  RULES 

In  the  preceding  chapter,  a  description  was  given  of  how  the 
general  set  of  rules  governing  distribution  operation  in  Philadel- 
phia had  been  evolved,  and  the  statement  was  there  made  that 
manuals  of  instruction  had  been  prepared  for  the  guidance  of  the 
individual  workman.  These  manuals  were  just  as  much  a  slow 
growth  as  were  the  general  rules  which  finally  became  the  Digest, 
and  equally  represent  the  result  of  cooperative  working. 

One  manual  was  for  main  and  service  men  and  the  other  for 
fitters.  Each  was  the  subject  of  many  discussions  and  of  free 
criticism  from,  and  suggestions  by,  the  district  superintendents, 
who  in  many  cases  reflected  the  ideas  of  their  foremen.  The 
endeavor  throughout  was  to  prepare  a  set  of  rules  that  would  be 
reasonable  and  could  be  enforced;  to  meet,  not  theoretical 
conditions,  but  those  of  daily  work.  These  conditions,  in  the 
case  of  fitters  trying  to  execute  various  classes  of  meter  orders, 
sometimes  are  very  complex,  and  much  thought  was  required  to 
set  out  clearly  what  was  to  be  done  in  each  of  the  many  con- 
tingencies that  might  arise.  In  some  cases,  graphical  repre- 
sentation was  used  in  the  interest  of  clearness. 

Just  as  with  the  Digest,  it  was  realized  that  the  rules  for  the 
workmen  would  need  to  be  changed  constantly,  and,  by  means 
of  blank  pages,  easy  provision  was  left  for  subsequent  insertions. 
Any  set  of  instructions,  whether  for  day  laborer  or  superin- 
tendent, that  does  not  receive  continual  amendment  to  corre- 
spond with  the  constant  changes  occurring  in  every  operating 
concern,  soon  loses  its  value  as  a  correct  guide  to  daily  work. 
Yet  experience  shows  that  many  persons  are  able  to  draw  up  a 
pretty  fair  set  of  instructions,  which  may  cover  existing  condi- 
tions, but  which  soon  need  change,  and  lacking  this,  grow  of  less 
and  less  assistance  until  finally  their  existence  may  be  forgotten, 
and  practice  is  governed  by  memory,  or  by  more  or  less  discon- 
nected circulars.  As  soon  as  this  becomes  true,  efficiency  and 

(20) 


PREPARATION  OF  RULES  21 

responsibility  are  both  lessened  greatly.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  head  of  the  department  ensures  that  its  policy  is 
embodied  in  frequently  revised  and  adequate  books  of  instruc- 
tion, each  employee  can  be  expected  rightly  to  justify  any  action 
by  reference  to  page  and  line  covering  the  case. 

In  compiling  rules  for  the  individual  workman,  it  often  is  hard 
to  decide  how  much  knowledge  he  should  be  presumed  to  have 
of  what  may  be  called  the  practical  side  of  his  work.  For 
instance,  should  a  fitter  be  told  how  to  set  a  meter,  a  service  man 
how  to  run  a  service,  or  a  caulker  how  to  make  a  joint?  The 
answer  should  be  "Yes,  whenever  these  jobs  or  any  others  should, 
in  your  opinion,  be  performed  in  a  certain  way."  Of  course,  if 
there  were  available  a  treatise  on  the  arts  of  main  laying,  service 
running  and  meter  setting  acceptable  to  all  gas  engineers,  nothing 
covered  by  such  treatise  need  be  included  in  the  rules.  In  this 
country,  however,  no  such  treatise  has  been  in  existence,  and, 
therefore,  distribution  practice  in  any  company  is  either  what  the 
men  or  foremen  have  learned,  or  what  the  engineer  desires,  as 
expressed  wholly  by  word  of  mouth,  or  partly  so, supplemented  by 
written  rules.  Naturally,  where  precautions  having  to  do  with 
the  safety  of  persons  are  concerned,  the  proper  method  is  to 
embody  such  precautions  in  clearly  expressed  rules.  Then,  if 
accidents  do  occur,  not  only  will  the  company  be  in  a  stronger 
position  of  defense  against  claims  than  it  would  be  if  no  written 
rules  existed,  but  also  the  responsible  official  will  feel  as  if  he  had 
done  all  he  could  to  minimize  the  chance  of  an  accident. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PERSONAL  EQUATION 

The  two  preceding  chapters  have  discussed  the  advantages  to 
be  gained  by  cooperative  working  conjoined  with  definite 
instructions.  No  organization,  however,  no  matter  to  what 
degree  its  details  have  been  worked  out,  is  very  effective  unless 
the  human  element  is  of  the  right  kind,  and  is  actuated  by  the 
proper  spirit.  In  employing  men,  personal  appearance  goes  a 
long  way,  and  for  most  subordinate  positions,  especially  for 
street  work,  has  been  the  only  test  usually  applied,  but  much 
more  attention  will  be  paid  in  the  future  to  the  fitness  of  the  man 
for  his  job.  Considering  higher  positions,  such  as  foremanships, 
the  practice  in  Philadelphia  has  been  to  restrict  these  to  college 
men,  who  thus  may  prove  that  they  possess  not  only  the  brains, 
but  also  the  executive  ability  to  handle  any  distribution  job. 
In  choosing  each  college  graduate,  the  head  of  the  department  in 
which  he  studied  is  consulted,  and  of  late  years  various  complete 
card  records  of  each  man  viewed  from  many  standpoints  other 
than  that  of  studiousness,  are  available.  When  a  man  combines 
personal  attractiveness  with  a  good  college  record,  as  above 
described,  his  chance  of  success  is  above  the  average.  After 
employment,  he  is  watched  carefully,  told  of  his  defects  when 
necessary,  and  given  full  opportunity  to  learn  every  detail  of 
distribution  work.  This  method  has  developed  some  very 
promising  men.  The  idea  throughout  is  to  make  each  man  feel 
that  the  Engineer  of  Distribution  and  the  District  Superintendent 
are  anxious  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  help  him  succeed.  If  there 
is  failure  with  one  set  of  conditions,  a  second  and  perhaps  a  third 
trial  is  given  under  what  are  considered  more  favorable  auspices. 
When  a  lack  of  endeavor  shows  conclusively,  the  man  is  told  to 
seek  other  work,  and  allowed  a  reasonable  time  in  which  to  resign. 
In  cases  where  there  seems  to  be  ability,  but  not  for  distribution 
operation,  a  little  trying  out  often  results  in  finding  work  which 
can  be  done  with  credit. 

(22) 


THE  PERSONAL  EQUATION  23 

While  the  rank  and  file  of  distribution  employees  are  too 
many,  and  are  not  possessed  of  innate  possibilities  sufficient  to 
warrant  such  personal  attention  as  is  profitable  in  the  case  of 
the  college  graduates,  yet,  in  general,  in  order  to  obtain  a  higher 
than  average  character  in,  and  performance  from,  a  body  of  men, 
intimate  and  pleasant  personal  relations  ought  to  exist  between 
all  ranks,  as  far  as  contact  during  work  hours  is  concerned.  In 
considering  a  large  distribution  department,  it  has  been  shown 
how  the  weekly  meetings  of  the  superintendents  tend  to  unity  of 
working.  They  also  are  indispensable  as  forming  a  social  bond 
between  men  who  otherwise  would  seldom  meet.  In  the  absence 
of  this  bond,  the  comparison  of  cost  reports  might  tend  to 
provoke  enmities  and  jealousies,  naturally  disastrous  to  the 
best  interests  of  the  department.  These  meetings  came  to  be 
regarded  as  quite  an  event  of  the  week,  where  before  the  business 
session  begins  there  is  an  opportunity  for  a  little  smoke,  gossip 
and  friendly  joke. 

Each  district  superintendent  should  see  that  foremen  and  chief 
clerk  meet  together  often  enough  to  preserve  the  unity  of  district 
work  and  to  benefit  by  mutual  suggestion.  The  foremen  should 
meet  periodically  their  men  as  a  body  (this  applies  particularly  to 
the  fitters)  to  lay  stress  on  new  rules  or  on  phases  of  long  standing 
rules  in  reference  to  which  misunderstanding  or  carelessness 
seems  apparent.  All  along  the  line  the  attempt  should  be  to 
make  each  man  feel  that  he  is  liked,  as  this  policy  undoubtedly 
will  increase  the  work  output. 

However,  no  matter  how  conscientious  a  man  may  be,  or  how 
much  he  likes  you  and  wants  to  show  his  liking  by  his  work, 
human  nature  is  such  that,  as  a  rule,  his  ultimate  possibilities  will 
never  be  known,  either  to  you  or  to  him,  until  he  feels  that  extra 
endeavor  will  receive  proportionate  reward.  This  trait  has  been 
the  main  factor  in  the  tremendous  advance  in  economy  of  per- 
formance made  in  all  lines  of  work  where  proper  unit  costs  have 
been  obtained  and  studied.  Until  late  years,  the  expenses  of  the 
distribution  department  have  not  been  divided  properly.  Now, 
as  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter,  the  means  are  at  hand 
to  watch  every  cent  of  expense.  When  this  is  done,  and  by  it  is 
seen  what  employees  deserve  credit  for  economical  result,  then 
they  should  be  given  appropriate  reward,  so  that  every  one  will 
know  that  good  work  means  better  pay  in  the  same  position,  or 
a  better  position,  or  both.  In  the  case  of  the  laborer  paid  by  the 
day,  the  ability  of  the  foreman  to  feel  sure  that  his  recommenda- 


24  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

tion  to  the  superintendent  will  mean  an  increase  for  the  man, 
adds  tremendously  to  the  foreman's  ability  to  speed  up  the 
whole  gang.  As  the  superintendent  holds  the  foreman  respons- 
ible for  economical  operation,  being  in  turn  answerable  to  the 
distribution  heads,  the  latter  can  look  on  increased  wages  for  the 
laborer  with  unconcern,  as  long  as  the  increases  spell  economy. 

One  of  the  biggest  gains  to  be  expected  from  the  universal  use 
by  all  the  gas  companies  in  the  country  of  the  "  Uniform  System 
of  Accounts  "  of  the  American  Gas  Institute,  would  be  the  chance 
for  comparison  in  cost  of  operation,  a  comparison  which  would 
have  the  inevitable  result  of  showing  in  what  cities  lay  the  weak 
spots.  They  certainly  would  be  found  where  no  unit  costs  were 
kept,  and  where  men  in  about  the  same  position  were  considered 
to  be  more  or  less  all  alike  and  paid  accordingly,  without  any 
reference  to  the  fact  that  one  man  might  be  doing  work  more 
cheaply  than  another. 

In  conclusion,  and  to  summarize  —  Select  carefully,  know 
individual  performance,  ask  for  results,  and  pay  accordingly. 
The  larger  the  company,  the  more  important  naturally  will  be 
the  resultant  saving. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FORMS 
REASON  FOR  FORMS 

A  good  personnel,  furnished  with  the  most  complete  set  of 
instructions,  needs  the  additional  help  afforded  by  an  adequate 
system  of  forms.  Occasionally,  both  circulars  of  instruction  and 
forms  are  referred  to  as  so  much  red  tape,  and  of  course,  both 
these  aids  to  organization  can  be  over-elaborated.  However,  it  is 
a  safe  rule  to  follow  that  whenever  definite  information  is  wanted, 
especially  from  the  individual  workman,  the  more  clearly  this 
information  is  called  for  by  the  sheet  on  which  the  report  is  made, 
the  more  satisfactory  will  be  the  result.  Therefore,  any  change 
in  the  character  of  the  information  hitherto  recorded  will  demand 
either  an  additional  form  or  a  change  in  an  existing  form. 

DESIGN  OF  FORMS 

A  form  should  be  the  embodiment  of  what  existing  experience 
has  shown  will  best  meet  the  varying  and  perhaps  somewhat 
contradictory  requirements  of  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
designed.  The  various  points  to  be  considered  in  the  design  of 
forms  will  now  be  discussed. 

NUMBER 

Every  form  should  have  a  number,  thus  enabling  its  easy 
identification  in  circular  letters  and  manuals  of  instruction. 
Because  of  the  advantage  of  such  reference  by  number  only, 
this  number  should  not  be  changed  as  long  as  the  form  maintains 
its  identity.  Thus,  a  new  edition  of  an  instruction  book  to 
fitters  should  bear  the  number  of  the  former  edition,  and  also 
any  change  in  the  wording  on  a  meter  card  should  not  mean  a 
different  form  number.  The  date  of  printing  on  each  edition 
prevents  any  confusion  that  might  arise  from  the  same  form 
number  being  assigned  to  different  wordings,  and  the  chance  of 

(25) 


26  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

any  such  confusion  would  be  small  in  any  case,  as  one  edition 
does  not  go  into  use  until  the  other  is  exhausted. 

TITLE 

Every  form  should  have  a  title  or  name,  which  should  be  as 
distinctive  as  possible  in  describing  its  purpose  and  in  differen- 
tiating it  from  other  forms,  especially  those  somewhat  similar  in 
character.  In  the  evolution  of  a  form's  use,  changes  may  be 
made  that  render  advisable  a  slight  change  in  title  but  not  in 
number.  At  the  top  of  the  form,  above  the  title,  should  be 
printed,  if  anywhere,  the  name  of  company  and  department. 
On  small  forms,  and  whenever  space  is  limited,  these  designations 
are  probably  not  justified,  but  under  other  conditions  they  add 
to  appearance  and  completeness. 

ARRANGEMENT 

The  arrangement  of  the  matter  on  a  form  is  of  great  import- 
ance, and  is  worthy  of  much  study.  In  designing  a  new  form, 
the  first  draft  usually  will  follow  the  order  in  which  the  informa- 
tion desired  comes  to  mind.  This  order  usually  requires  modi- 
fication in  order  to  provide,  as  far  as  possible,  for  uniform  width 
of  columns,  for  convenient  locations  of  significant  numbers, 
remarks,  etc.  Also,  any  possible  standardization  of  arrange- 
ment in  connection  with  forms  of  similar  nature,  should  be 
considered.  For  instance,  all  order  cards  should  have  name 
and  address,  and  all  meter  cards,  their  meter  information,  in  a 
uniform  order.  To  be  of  the  greatest  value,  all  such  stand- 
ardization of  arrangement  should  be  based  on  the  convenience 
of  posting  to  or  from  the  form.  Where  there  is  a  logical  sequence 
in  which  certain  data  is  obtained  most  easily,  that  sequence 
should,  of  course,  be  used  on  all  forms  containing  this  data.  A 
close  attention  to  these  details  may  be  productive  of  much 
economy. 

SPACING 

Proper  spacing  of  the  matter  on  a  form  is  quite  essential  to 
ease  of  obtaining  information  from  it,  especially  where  the 
reports  are  made  by  workmen  using  pencil.  In  such  a  case, 
every  endeavor  should  be  made  to  leave  generous  room  where 
the  report  will  be  voluminous,  and  economize  where  "Yes"  or 
"  No ' '  is  apt  to  be  the  answer.  Also,  wider  lines  are  needed  than 
if  the  form  is  to  be  filled  out  by  a  good  writer  in  pen  and  ink. 


FORMS  11 

For  office  forms,  where  the  typewriter  is  available,  the  line 
spacing  should  be  that  of  the  typewriter,  and  unnecessary  side 
shifts  avoided.  After  a  new  form  has  been  in  use  for  some  time, 
a  study  of  the  reports  made  on  it  generally  will  indicate  that  a 
number  of  changes  in  spacing  can  be  made  with  advantage  in  the 
next  edition. 

An  incidental  advantage  connected  with  a  proper  study  of 
spacing  is  that  it  naturally  leads  to  the  preparation  of  a  neatly 
drawn  scale  copy  for  the  use  of  the  printer.  Such  a  copy  not 
only  ensures  more  accurate  work,  but  by  reducing  the  printer's 
labor,  results  in  closer  bidding  on  his  part. 

WORDING 

The  wording  on  a  form  may  be  of  great  value  in  insuring  a 
correct  report.  For  instance,  in  fitting  work,  where  green  men 
often  are  employed  in  large  numbers  at  times  of  peak  load,  every 
form  used  should  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the  report  expected. 
In  this  connection,  standardization  is  of  as  much  importance  as  it 
is  in  the  case  of  arrangement. 

PRINTING 

All  printing  should  be  in  type  of  such  size  and  character  as  to 
be  easily  legible,  even  to  men  with  defective  eyesight.  Where 
space  is  limited,  abbreviations  often  may  be  of  value  in  permit- 
ting larger  type.  Standardization  of  type  also  will  prove 
advantageous. 

RULING 

Ruling  is  an  expensive  operation.  It  often  is  called  for 
unnecessarily  where  the  desired  lines  could  as  well  be  made 
by  printing.  When  ruling  is  required,  expense  can  be  saved  by 
avoiding  multiplication  of  colors  and  column  lines  of  unequal 
lengths.  The  cheapest  form  of  ruling  is  where  the  lines  pass 
entirely  across  the  sheet. 

SIZE 

Size  is  governed  primarily  by  the  amount  of  matter  required. 
Within  the  limits  imposed  by  convenience  of  handling,  all  forms 
should  be  large  enough  to  contain  ordinarily  a  complete  report  on 
one  sheet,  without  the  necessity  for  close  writing  and  consequent 
illegibility.  It  is  surprising  how  well  these  requirements  can  be 
met  by  the  use  of  only  a  few  sizes  in  a  system  of  several  hundred 
forms.  Beginning  with  the  smallest,  the  standard  library 
bureau  card,  practically  3  by  5  inches,  is  sufficiently  large,  and  a 


28 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 


convenient  size  for  the  various  order  cards  used  in  distribution 
work  and  for  any  schedules  of  sizes  or  charges  needed  by  the 
workmen.  This  uniformity  in  size  enables  the  workman  to  carry 
all  his  orders  and  data  compactly  and  cleanly  in  a  holder.  It  also 
affords  a  ready  means  of  maintaining  a  record  of  all  work  at  any 
address,  by  a  geographical  filing  of  completed  cards.  The  next 
size,  5J  by  8|  inches,  is  one-quarter  of  17  by  22  inches,  a  standard 
paper  size  in  which  most  printers  carry  the  largest  varieties  of 
papers,  and  is  suitable  for  linewalkers'  reports,  street  leak  work, 
applications  for  abandoning  mains,  tool  and  material  order  slips, 
etc.  The  third  size,  8|  by  1 1  inches,  is  just  twice  the  second,  and 
is  standard  letter  size.  It  is,  therefore,  adapted  for  all  letter 
files,  and  when  forms  of  this  size  are  attached  to  correspondence, 
there  are  no  overlapping  edges.  It  can  be  used  for  applications 
for  new  mains,  monthly  cost  sheets,  and  inventories,  and,  in 
general,  will  prove  large  enough  for  any  form.  The  instances 
where  larger  forms  are  absolutely  necessary  will  be  so  rare  as  to 
be  distinct  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  Among  such  will 
be  book  forms,  of  which,  however,  a  distribution  department 
needs  but  few.  With  them,  a  little  care  will  make  uniform,  sizes 
that  otherwise  would  differ  by  an  inch  or  two,  and  shelve 
badly  together. 

Generally,  a  little  allowance  should  be  made  on  all  the  sizes  to 
enable  some  trimming  after  printing,  as  the  requirements  of  exact 
size  usually  will  increase  cost. 

MATERIAL 

There  sometimes  is  a  choice  between  cards  and  sheets  either 
loose  or  in  pads.  For  work  orders  to  be  filled  out  on  the  street, 
the  card  is  preferable  for  ease  in  manipulation  and  preservation 
of  shape  and  condition.  If  the  completed  orders  are  filed,  this 
is  an  additional  argument  for  a  card.  Usually,  its  thickness  and 
consequent  stiffness  is  controlled  by  the  necessity  of  writing  it  in 
triplicate,  one  copy  for  the  office,  one  for  the  shop,  and  one  for 
the  workman.  The  quality  of  paper,  and  in  the  case  of  books,  of 
binding  also,  should  depend  entirely  on  the  use  to  which  the  form 
will  be  subjected,  both  during  and  after  filling  out.  Where  the 
information  is  of  temporary  value  solely,  a  much  poorer  quality 
of  material  will  suffice  than  when  not  only  the  information 
becomes  a  permanent  record,  but  also  the  form  undergoes  hard 
handling  before  filing.  Another  point  to  be  remembered  is  that 
when  for  ease  in  distinction,  color  difference  is  employed,  the 


FORMS  29 

various  tints  should  be  selected  with  careful  thought  as  to  the 
effect  on  the  eyes  of  any  reader.  This  is  important  especially 
when  order  cards  on  store-room  orders  are  edited  by  a  night  force. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  FORMS 

Where  the  forms  in  use  are  in  the  hundreds,  an  individual  card 
record  of  each  form  will  be  of  great  help  in  stock-keeping.  On  a 
smaller  scale,  a  copy  of  the  form  itself  may  be  used  for  the  desired 
record,  especially  where  the  proper  custom  is  followed  of  printing 
on  each  form  the  date  and  size  of  order.  A  complete  set  of 
the  latest  editions  of  all  forms,  arranged  numerically,  either  in  a 
loose-leaf  scrap  book  or  in  folders,  an  alphabetical  index  of 
titles  with  accompanying  numbers,  and  a  numerical  index 
showing  where  each  form  is  mentioned  in  a  manual  of  instruction, 
will  together  enable  instant  reference  to,  and  knowledge  of,  the 
use  of  any  form.  This  information  is  of  great  value  when  dis- 
cussing any  proposed  changes  in  practice,  especially  when 
ordering  new  editions  of  forms  whose  necessity  or  character  are 
still  open  to  discussion.  Such  a  consideration  of  possible 
changes  when  ordering  new  editions  of  existing  forms  often 
results  in  discontinuing  practices  no  longer  of  worth,  and,  in 
general,  before  reprinting  old  forms  or  starting  a  new  one, 
criticism  should  be  invited  from  all  qualified  sources. 

The  number  of  copies  to  order  may  well  deserve  careful  con- 
sideration. Where  the  form  has  been  in  use  a  long  time,  and, 
therefore,  has  proved  its  value,  a  year's  supply  probably  will  be 
the  most  economical  quantity,  bearing  in  mind  the  cost  of  clerical 
work  entailed  by  the  passage  of  an  order  through  store  room  and 
purchasing  agent.  Of  course,  when  postal  cards  in  large  quan- 
tity are  involved,  this  rule  will  not  hold,  and  three  months  should 
be  substituted.  When  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  use  will 
suggest  changes  not  otherwise  knowable,  and  especially  if  the 
cost  of  composition  is  a  considerable  item,  then  manifestly  only 
a  small  edition  should  be  printed,  or,  better  yet,  the  first  copies 
made  on  a  mimeograph. 

The  length  of  time  to  allow  for  ordering  will  often  depend 
upon  local  conditions.  In  general,  ample  allowance  should  be 
made  for  delay,  because  an  order  which  must  be  hurried  is  a 
source  of  great  expense  and  annoyance  to  both  purchaser  and 
printer. 

As  fast  as  new  editions  are  printed,  a  copy  of  the  last  edition 
should  be  filed  away  with  any  previous  copies  of  the  same  form. 


30  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

In  this  way,  there  will  be  a  historical  file  showing  the  develop- 
ment of  each  form.  When  any  form  number  becomes  obsolete, 
the  entire  set  of  copies  of  this  form  should  be  transferred  to  the 
file  of  obsolete  forms. 

The  general  supervision  of  forms  should  be  under  one  of  the 
distribution  heads,  as,  by  proper  management,  this  will  not 
require  much  of  his  time,  and  the  subject  requires  a  breadth  of 
view  not  possessed  by  a  subordinate  employee. 

DISPOSITION  OF  FORMS 

This  subject  covers  the  disposition  of  all  distribution  records. 
Each  day  witnesses  an  accumulation  of  records  of  varying 
degrees  of  value.  Not  only  in  distribution  departments,  but  in 
the  world  in  general,  the  important  is  lost  to  sight  by  being 
buried  under  the  trivial.  Instead  of  preserving  every  record 
until  such  time  as  lack  of  storage  space  forces  a  possibly  ill- 
considered  disposition  of  a  certain  percentage,  there  should  be  a 
carefully  thought  out  schedule  covering  the  length  of  time  each 
record  should  be  kept.  In  this  way,  things  of  no  worth  are  being 
disposed  of  continually,  making  access  easier  to  important 
records,  for  no  matter  how  thorough  may  be  the  method  of  filing, 
it  is  true,  especially  with  correspondence,  that  the  smaller  the 
residue  kept,  the  quicker  it  may  be  located.  This  disposition 
schedule  should  be  revised  as  experience  dictates. 

NOTE  —  Valuable  information  about  forms  and  their  printing  will  be  found 
in  a  paper  by  W.  P.  Baylie  on  "Printing  and  the  Care  of  Printed  Stock." 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas  Institute,  Vol.  IX,  page  1708. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ACCOUNTS 
REASON  FOR  ACCOUNTS 

The  primary  reason  for  the  subdivision  of  the  expenses  of  a 
company  into  various  accounts  is,  of  course,  to  obtain  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  amount  of  each  different  class  of  outgo.  Theoreti- 
cally, no  cost  incurred  by  a  subdivision  of  expenses  is  justified 
unless  it  is  less  than  the  value  of  the  knowledge  so  obtained. 
One  particular  use  to  which  this  knowledge  may  be  put,  —  a  use 
that  is  often  neglected,  —  is  to  decrease  operating  expense  by 
obtaining  units  costs  in  all  lines  of  work.  How  the  possession  of 
such  unit  costs  effects  economy,  will  be  discussed  later.  To  be 
of  value,  however,  these  unit  costs  must  be  based  on  the  various 
classes  of  jobs  performed  by  the  workmen.  In  other  words,  the 
accounts  must  represent  adequately  the  different  phases  of  the 
company's  work.  In  the  past,  this  has  been  more  nearly  true  of 
the  manufacturing  than  it  has  of  the  distribution  end  of  the  gas 
business,  where  one  favorite  plan  was  to  have  two  large  dump 
accounts,  viz.,  "Distribution  Labor  "and  "Distribution  Material," 
which  covered  most  of  the  maintenance  (as  distinguished  from 
repair)  charges  and  which  defied  analysis  when  attention  was 
drawn  to  either  because  of  a  sudden  increase. 

A  great  step  was  made  toward  the  securing  of  rational 
accounts  by  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Uniform  Accounts 
of  the  American  Gas  Light  Association  in  1902.  While  the 
accounts  there  advocated  did  not  secure  widespread  adoption, 
and  were  capable  of  improvement,  yet  they  were  superior  to  any 
other  system  available  for  public  use,  and,  in  general,  furnished 
proper  unit  costs.  They  included  in  one  account  both  material 
and  labor,  a  rational  as  well  as  necessary  grouping,  for  often  a 
true  idea  cannot  be  obtained  of  a  unit  labor  cost  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  accompanying  material  cost,  for  between  jobs 
of  the  same  class,  the  labor  cost  should  be  proportional  strictly  to 
the  material  used.  In  any  one  account,  the  labor  costs  always 

(31) 


32  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

are  separated  easily  from  material  and  miscellaneous  charges, 
by  merely  subtracting  the  payroll  charges  against  the  account 
from  the  sum  of  the  other  charges. 

The  "Uniform  System  of  Accounts"  as  adopted  in  1914  by  the 
American  Gas  Institute,  provides  a  classification  designed  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  various  public  service  commissions, 
and  yet  enables  the  obtainment  of  proper  unit  costs.  For  the 
reason  already  stated,  it  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  these 
accounts  should  be  adopted  universally. 

IMPORTANT  ACCOUNTS 
LARGE   CITY 

In  such  a  city  as  previously  defined,  the  accounts  of  peculiar 
value  to  a  distribution  department  are  as  follows:     (The  nomen- 
clature of  the  Institute  accounts  is  used.) 
Asset  (or  Construction)  Accounts: 

(1)  Trunk  Lines  and  Mains 

(2)  Services 

(3)  Meters 

(4)  Meter  Connections 

(5)  Street  Lighting  System 

Operating  Accounts  (covering  expense  caused  by  exist- 
ing consumers) : 

(6)  Maintenance  of  Mains 

(6-1)   Relaying  Mains 
(6-2)  Overhauling  Mains 
(6-3)   Drip  Expense 
(6-4)  Watching  Mains 

(7)  Maintenance  of  Services 

(7-1)  Relaying  Services 

(8)  Maintenance  of  Meters 

(8-1)  Meter  Repair  Shop 

(9)  Resetting  and  Removing  Meters 

(9-1)  Turn  On  and  Off  Expense 

(10)  Service  Expense 

(11)  Consumers'  Premises  Expense 

(ll-l)  Fuel  Appliance  Expense 
(11-2)  Lighting  Appliance  Expense 
(11-3)  House  Pipe  Inspection 

(12)  Distribution  Office  Expense 


ACCOUNTS  33 

Operating    Accounts    (covering    expense    incurred    to 
obtain  additional  consumption) : 

(13)  Housepiping,  Lamps  and  Fixtures 

(14)  Connecting  Gas  Appliances 

(14-l)  Gas  Range  Connections 
(14-2)  Water  Heater  Connections 
(14-3)   Industrial  Appliance  Connections 

In  discussing  these  accounts,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  give 
all  the  information  necessary  to  use  them.  For  such  details,  the 
"Uniform  System  of  Accounts"  should  be  consulted.  The  aim 
here  is  simply  to  indicate  along  what  lines  expenses  should  be 
divided,  in  order  that  the  figures  so  obtained  should  be  of  value 
both  in  indicating  the  cost  of  existing  policies  toward  consumers 
and  in  reducing  the  cost  by  promoting  operating  economies.  . 

(1)  Trunk  Lines  and  Mains:     A  separate  account  should  be 
kept  by  size  for  4,  6,  8  and  12-inch  pipe  laid  each  year,  and  an 
individual  job  cost  for  larger  sizes.     In  this  way,  reliable  costs 
per  foot  for  labor  and  material  are  obtained  for  each  size. 

(2)  Services:     It  is  seldom  of  any  advantage  to  divide  service 
costs  by  size,  as  usually  85  per  cent  or  more  of  the  services  are 
of  one  size. 

(3)  Meters:     Self-explanatory. 

(4)  Meter  Connections:     The  cost  of  connecting  new  meters  is 
charged  to  "Meters"  in  the  Uniform  System,  but  the  value  of  a 
unit  cost  for  setting  meters  will  justify  any  company  opening  a 
separate  account  for  this  purpose. 

(5)  Street  Lighting  System:     This  account  would  be  neces- 
sary where  a  street  lighting  system  was  being  extended  con- 
tinually. 

(6)  Maintenance  of   Mains:    This  and   the  six  following  ac- 
counts may,  as  the  headings  indicate,  be   considered    as   being 
incurred    because    of    existing    consumers.      The    accounts  to 
"Service  Expense"  inclusive,  refer  to  expenses  that  are  inevita- 
ble, and  for  which,  as  a  rule,  no  charge  can  be  made  to  consumers. 
"  Maintenance  of  Mains"  covers  the  whole  cost  of  operating  and 
maintaining    the    street    mains.     "Relaying    Mains,"    "Over- 
hauling Mains,"  "Drip  Expense"  and  "Watching  Mains"  are 
possible  subdivisions  of  it,  any  or  all  of  which  local  conditions 
may  demand  should  be  kept  in  addition  to  the  account  itself, 
which  would  then  represent  all  street  main  expenses  not  cared 
for  by  the  subdivisions.     It  is  easy  to  see  that  during  any  year 


34  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

when  much  relaying  or  overhauling  of  the  mains  was  in  progress, 
"Relaying  Mains"  and  "Overhauling  Mains",  divided  into 
sizes  and  kept  as  between  various  districts,  or  gangs,  would 
furnish  valuable  records  for  future  estimates  of  similar  work,  and 
by  the  magic  effect  of  unit  costs,  cause  operating  economies. 
"Drip  Expense"  would  give  information  valuable  in  a  large 
situation,  but  can  be  obtained  rather  easily  without  opening  a 
separate  account.  So  also  can  "Watching  Mains,"  which  would 
be  justified  only  as  a  separate  account  in  a  very  large  city  where 
continued  disturbance  of  underground  conditions  occurred. 

(7)  Maintenance  of  Services :     This  account  covers  the  whole 
cost  of  operating  the  services.     A  service  should  be  considered 
as  ending  at  the  inside  of  the  cellar  wall.     Any  point  between 
that  and   the   meter  belongs  naturally   to   meter  work.     (See 
previous  remarks  regarding  "Meter  Connections.")     Certainly 
so  when  the  work  itself  is  not  done  by  the  service  layers,  or  at  the 
same  time  as  the  outside  work.     Otherwise,  useful  unit  costs  will 
not  be  obtained.     As  services  are  being  renewed  continually,  a 
separate  account,  "Relaying  Services,"  should  be  kept,  covering 
the  cost  of  this  relaying  work.     The  unit  costs  per  foot  and  per 
service  for  labor  and  material  will  be,  next  to  the  similar  costs  for 
new  services  and  those  for  mains,  among  the  most  valuable  of 
distribution  work. 

(8)  Maintenance  of  Meters:     Where  all  repair  work  is  done 
by  the  company  in  one  shop,  or  all  repairs  are  sent  out,  it  is  easy 
to  know  the  cost  of  repairs  without  opening  a  separate  account. 
In  large  companies,  however,  Vhere  many  minor  repairs  are 
made  at  district  shops,  and  the  total  amount  spent  is  large, 
"Meter  Repair  Shop"  should  be  opened.     Certain  phases  of 
work  on  meters,  such  as  painting  and  testing  where  no  repairs 
follow,  if  not  charged  to  "Meter  Repair  Shop,"  would  then  go 
into  "Maintenance  of  Meters." 

(9)  Resetting  and   Removing  Meters:     The  general  custom 
has  been  to  include  with  the  cost  of  setting  and  removing  meters, 
the  cost  of  turning  on  or  off  gas.     This  latter  operation  is,  how- 
ever, so  much  less  than  that  of  a  set  or  remove  that  it  becomes  of 
great  importance,  when  working  on  a  large  scale,  to  know  exactly 
what  this  difference  is,  in  order  to  determine  the  saving  possible 
by  shutting  off  meters  in  empty  houses  instead  of  removing  them. 
Also,  by  the  separation,  two  quite  definite  unit  costs  are  obtained, 
instead  of  a  cost  representing  the  average  of  two  very  different 
operations. 


ACCOUNTS  35 

(10)  Service    Expense:     This    account,    formerly    known    as 
"Complaint  Expense,"  records,   principally,  the  cost  of  visits 
made  to  see  what  may  be  wrong  with  the  gas  supply,  when  the 
trouble  is  found  to  be  on  the  street  side  of  the  meter  outlet. 
Where  thousands  of  visits  are  made,  the  possession  of  a  unit  cost 
conduces  to  considerable  economy,  as  little  material  enters  into 
this  account,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for  separating  material 
and  labor. 

(11)  Consumers'  Premises  Expense:     This  account  covers  the 
whole  field  of  looking  after  the  needs  of  consumers  on  the  burner 
side  of  the  meter  outlet,  and  is  capable  of  as  great  subdivision  as 
the    activities   of    the    company    may   render   advisable.     The 
Uniform  System  draws  a  sharp  line  between  the  revenue  and 
expenses  incident  to  placing  appliances,  and  those  caused  by  the 
use  of  these  appliances.     The  first  set  of  accounts  being  sales 
accounts,  often  show  a  profit,  and  are  closed  into  "  Non-operating 
Revenues."     The    second    set    are    considered    as   distribution 
expenses,  and  are  lumped  in  ''Consumers'  Premises  Expense." 
The  disadvantage  of  this  is  that,  although  when  trying  to  get  the 
exact  effect  on  revenues  of  an  aggressive  appliance  campaign,  it 
is  possible   to  deduct  any  increase  in   "Consumers'   Premises 
Expense"  from  increased  sales  of  gas  and  profit  on  sales  account, 
yet  no  information  as  to  the  details  of  this  increase  is  obtainable. 
If  various   accounts   are   opened,    of   which    "Fuel   Appliance 
Expense"  and  "Lighting  Appliance  Expense"  are  merely  sug- 
gestions, it  becomes  possible,  over  a  term  of  years,  to  tell  exactly 
what  permanent   increase  in  operating  expense  may  have  been 
caused  by  certain  new  business  policies.     Also,  each  such  account 
opened,  which  enables  work  involving  different  operations  to  be 
shown  separately,  is  a  gain  for  economical  operation.     "House- 
pipe    Inspection"    by    the    Uniform    System    is   placed    under 
"Consumers'   Premises  Expense,"  though  it  really  is  expense 
incurred  to  get  new  consumers.     In  a  large  situation,  the  cost  of 
this  inspection  should  be  kept  separately,  and  if  done  by  one  or 
two  men  only,  may  be  so  kept  without  actually  opening  a  sepa- 
rate account. 

(12)  Distribution  Office  Expense:     This  is  more  or  less  of  a 
dump  account,  and  does  not  yield  easily  to  analysis.     Yet,  as 
will  be  seen  later  on,  the  clerical  labor  charged  to  it  may  be  made 
to  furnish  a  very  valuable  unit  cost. 

(13)  Housepiping,  Lamps  and  Fixtures:     This  is  one  of  the 
accounts  belonging  primarily  to  the  new  business  end,  but  of 


36  ADMINISTRA  TION  OF  DEPA  RTMENT 

interest  to  the  distribution  department  as  doing  the  work.  It 
covers,  besides  the  installation  of  lighting  appliances,  all  piping 
run  to  secure  new  consumers,  or  increase  the  consumption  of 
existing  consumers,  as  distinguished  from  piping  installed  as  a 
separate  job  to  supply  an  individual  fuel  appliance.  This  is 
another  dump  account,  and  will  not  yield  a  satisfactory  unit  cost. 
(14)  Connecting  Gas  Appliances:  This  account  corresponds 
in  the  connection  of  appliances  to  what  "Consumers'  Premises 
Expense"  does  in  their  maintenance,  and,  as  indicated,  is 
capable  of  as  much  subdivision  as  may  be  advisable  in  order  to 
know  what  profit  or  loss  is  being  incurred  by  the  handling  of  each 
class  of  appliances,  and  also  for  what  branch  of  the  work  the 
cost  may  be  unduly  high. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OPERATING  DATA 
DAILY  REPORTS 

The  establishment  of  unit  costs  was  one  of  the  determinants 
in  the  selection  of  the  accounts  useful  in  a  division  of  distribution 
expenses.  For  such  cost,  we  need  not  only  a  dividend,  this 
being  the  amount  spent  on  any  account,  but  also  a  divisor,  and 
this  obviously  is  the  number  of  jobs  charged  to  this  account. 
To  obtain  the  various  divisors  required,  a  count  must  be 
kept  of  all  the  jobs  concerned.  Experience  shows  that  the 
easiest  way  to  obtain  data  correctly  and  promptly  is  to  require 
their  reporting  as  fast  as  they  become  available.  In  distribu- 
tion work,  a  daily  report  admirably  answers  these  conditions. 
Besides  affording  an  accurate  means  of  collecting  data  for  unit 
costs,  it  also,  because  of  such  figures  and  of  other  information  to 
be  spoken  of  later,  becomes  a  valuable  aid  to  foremen,  superin- 
tendents and  the  distribution  head  in  keeping  in  touch  with 
the  current  work  of  the  department  and  the  relations  of  such 
work,  both  in  volume  and  character,  with  the  work  of  any  past 
period.  Where,  as  is  becoming  more  and  more  true  of  distribu- 
tion work,  with  the  increase  in  the  number  and  varieties  of 
appliances  sold  by  the  gas  company  to  its  consumers,  there  is  a 
seasonal  variation  in  the  volume  of  orders,  an  inspection  of  daily 
report  files  will  afford  information  as  to  the  dates  and  durations 
of  past  "peaks"  in  various  lines  of  work,  which  may  prove  of 
great  value  in  deciding  on  the  additional  equipment  in  men  and 
material  needed  at  any  given  time.  Especially  is  it  true  in  the 
case  of  appliances  that  a  knowledge  of  how  they  have  been 
required  from  day  to  day  in  the  past,  will  enable  a  more  intelligent 
estimate  of  how  deliveries  should  be  arranged  for,  than  any 
general  idea  that  "so  many  thousand  will  be  sold  this  year."  A 
graphic  representation  of  the  daily  report  data  relating  to 
volume  of  work  has  proved  a  convenient  way  of  seeing  at  a  glance 
the  relation  between  the  periods  under  comparison. 

(37) 


38  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

Just  what  information  should  be  supplied  by  the  daily  report 
will  depend  to  a  certain  extent  upon  local  conditions.  In  general, 
any  data  should  be  included  that  must  be  kept  in  any  case,  and, 
therefore,  whose  record  on  the  daily  report  need  not  mean  an 
additional  entry.  A  description  of  the  report  used  in  Phila- 
delphia for  each  distribution  district  may  be  suggestive,  though 
probably  it  contains  more  items  than  would  be  required  in  a 
smaller  situation. 

Under  "Mains,"  this  report  gives  for  each  size  of  pipe,  the 
number  of  feet  laid,  overhauled  or  abandoned  that  day,  the 
total  laid  or  overhauled  since  January  1,  and  the  amount  yet  to 
be  laid  or  overhauled  according  to  instructions  in  the  hands  of 
the  superintendent.  This  last  information  is  valuable  as 
showing,  at  a  glance,  the  condition  of  the  main  Work  in  each 
district.  Under  "Services"  are  the  number  of  "ne\v"  and 
"renewed"  services  laid  since  January  1,  the  net  gain  for  the 
same  time,  and  the  day's  total  of  services  laid,  and  also  "aban- 
doned ,  not  renewed . ' '  Under  ' '  Street  Lamp  Work ' '  are  the  new 
locations,  relocations  and  removals  for  the  day.  Under  "  Meters  " 
are  the  number  in  use,  the  daily  sets  and  removals,  and  the  total 
set  since  January  1.  Under  "Appliances"  are  the  connections 
and  disconnections,  both  for  the  day  and  since  January  1. 
There  is  no  figure  for  the  number  in  use,  as  there  are  many 
connections  and  disconnections  not  made  by  the  company. 

Then  follow  data  referring  to  various  classes  of  stoppages  and 
leaks.  Stoppages  are  divided  between  lamp  and  house  services, 
meters,  house  risers,  and  piping  and  fixtures.  House  services 
and  risers  are  further  subdivided  into  "frozen"  and  "other 
causes."  Meters  are  subdivided  into  "water,"  "prepayment 
mechanism"  and  "other  causes."  In  this  way  is  obtained,  with 
little  trouble,  information  that  as  it  accumulates  from  month 
to  month  and  year  to  year,  throws  an  interesting  light  on  the 
effect  of  temperature  in  connection  with  meters  and  small 
services  and  piping,  on  the  mechanical  defects  of  prepayment 
meters,  etc.  Leaks  are  divided  between  main,  service,  meter 
and  appliance  leaks.  Meter  leaks  are  further  subdivided  into 
"meter,"  "washer  joints,"  "meter  cocks"  and  "meter  con- 
nection" leaks.  The  subdivisions  under  appliances  are  "appli- 
ances," "gas  lines"  and  "water  lines."  These  leak  data, 
especially  that  relating  to  meter  work,  have  shown  the  necessity 
for  radical  changes  in  practice,  and  the  improvement,  or  other- 
wise, resulting  from  each  change. 


OPERATING  DATA  39 

The  final  feature  of  the  report  is  a  "Work  Summary,"  showing 
for  each  account  the  number  of  jobs  done  during  the  day.  The 
total  number  of  these  jobs  accurately  represents  the  district's 
activity,  and  the  individual  totals  furnish  the  divisors  for  the 
cost  reports. 

MONTHLY  REPORTS 

There  are  certain  data  about  which  daily  information  is  not 
necessary  and,  in  some  cases,  could  not  be  given  exactly.  Such 
data  should  be  reported  monthly.  They  include  meter  removal 
causes  and  tests  by  sizes,  appliance  connections  by  classes, 
details  of  street  leaks,  daily  wage  increases,  and  special  facts  that 
may  be  asked  for  from  time  to  time.  For  all  of  these  reports,  a 
definite  date  of  return  should  be  fixed,  and  notice  taken  of  delay. 
In  this  way  promptness  of  receipt  will  be  ensured. 


CHAPTER  IX 

COST  REPORTS 

The  preceding  chapters  of  this  section  have  told  of  the  way  in 
which  an  organization  may  be  built  up  to  enable  the  attainment 
of  good  results,  and  how  these  results  may  be  ascertained  by  a 
proper  division  of  expenses.  We  are  now  concerned  with  the 
expression  of  these  results  in  appropriate  unit  costs,  and  their 
communication  to  the  superintendents  and  foremen  interested. 
The  value  of  these  two  related  actions  arises  from  the  constitution 
of  human  nature.  Since  man  was,  the  highest  achievement  has 
been  secured  by  the  existence  of  a  goal  to  be  reached  and  of 
competitors  to  be  beaten.  The  lowest  possible  unit  cost  is  the 
goal  which  each  superintendent  and  foreman  is  anxious  to  reach 
before  his  fellow.  Therefore,  a  system  that  furnishes  to  each 
district  superintendent  monthly,  a  report  showing  the  unit 
costs  of  all  classes  of  work  done  by  his  employees,  as  compared 
with  that  done  by  the  employees  of  every  other  district,  natu- 
rally tends  to  economical  operation,  for  the  superintendent  shows 
his  foremen  what  results  are  being  obtained  in  other  districts, 
and,  especially  if  they  are  young  men  full  of  life  and  ambition, 
they  are  spurred  on  to  fresh  endeavor.  The  ability  of  superin- 
tendent and  foreman  to  raise  the  pay  of  daily  men  as  a  reward 
for  increased  efficiency,  puts  everybody  in  a  district  practically 
on  a  piecework  basis,  for  the  monthly  men  are  taught  to  feel  that 
their  salaries  will  be  raised  as  their  costs  decrease. 

The  first  cost  report  sent  to  the  district  superintendents  in 
Philadelphia  was  for  January,  1900.  By  the  middle  of  the  year, 
unit  costs  were  being  lowered  considerably,  and  the  saving  made 
before  1902  wras  immense.  In  that  year,  due  to  the  hard  coal 
strike,  distribution  operations,  especially  the  connection  of 
fuel  appliances,  were  on  a  tremendous  scale,  but  notwithstand- 
ing the  necessity  of  hiring  many  green  men,  the  unit  costs  for 
1902  were  appreciably  lower  than  in  1901.  Each  year  since  then 
has  shown  the  value  of  the  report  in  lowering  costs,  or  in  holding 

(40) 


COST  REPORTS 


41 


them  stationary  in  the  face  of  advancing  wages.  The  effect  of 
the  cost  report  in  each  district  has  been  to  set  all  minds  at  work 
devising  economies.  When  one  district  succeeded  in  lowering  a 
record  made  by  another  district,  the  latter  would  be  spurred  on 
to  renewed  endeavor.  As  might  be  expected  after  sixteen  years 
'of  such  striving,  most  of  the  unit  costs  are  nearly  alike  in  all 
districts,  and  any  future  saving  on  jobs  which  involve  a  definite 
amount  of  work,  such  as  main  or  service  laying,  meter  or  appli- 
ance work,  undoubtedly  will  be  small.  The  difference,  however, 
between  the  costs  now  shown  and  those  of  June,  1900,  represent 
yearly  a  respectable  percentage  of  total  distribution  expense. 

The  cost  report  in  use  in  Philadelphia  shows  costs  for  each  of 
the  five  districts,  and  also  the  average  cost  for  the  whole  system, 
under  the  following  heads: 


CHARACTER  OF  WORK 
Mains  — 4',  6',  8',  12' 

3',  4',  6',  8',  12" 
Services 


Meter  Change  Work 
New  Sets 

Turn-on  and  off  Work 
Meter  Testing 

Fuel  Appliance  Connection  Work 

Lighting   Appliance    Connection 
Work 


INFORMATION  GIVEN 

Feet  laid,  and  labor  cost  per  foot 

(each  size). 
Feet  overhauled,  and  labor  cost  per 

foot  (each  size). 

Average  length  of  each  service. 
Number  of  new  and  of  renewed 
services.  Cost  per  foot  as  be- 
tween new  and  renewed  services, 
divided  into  labor,  hauling,  pav- 
ing and  material. 

Number  of  meters  handled.  Cost 
per  meter,  divided  into  labor, 
hauling  and  material. 


sets.     Cost    per 
into    labor    and 


Number  of  new 
meter,  divided 
material. 


Number  of  turn-ons  and  offs.  Cost 
per  job,  divided  into  labor  and 
material. 

Number  of  meters  removed.  Labor 
cost  per  meter  removed,  of  all 
testing  and  meter  handling,  in 
district  shop,  not  charged  to 
repair  account. 

Number  of  appliances  connected, 
divided  into  various  classes.  Cost 
per  appliance  connected  in  each 
class,  divided  into  labor,  material 
and  general  expense. 


42  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

CHARACTER  OK  WORK  INFORMATION  GIVEN 

Fuel  Appliance  Maintenance  Work 

Lighting    Appliance     Maintenance  \         Number  of  jobs  attended  to.     Cost 
Work  Per  J0^*   divided   into   labor  and 

Complaint  Expense  J  material. 

Housepipe  Inspection  Number  of  final  inspections  passed. 

Cost  per  unit,  divided  into  labor, 
material  and  general  expense. 

Distribution  Office  Expense  Total  number  of  jobs  done.     Labor 

cost  per  job,  obtained  by  dividing 
total  number  in  each  district  into 
clerical  labor  charged  to  this 
account. 

In  the  above  description,  the  exact  name  of  each  account  has 
not  been  given,  similar  accounts  being  grouped  under  a 
general  head. 

The  unit  shown  under  "Distribution  Office  Expense"  was  the 
last  to  be  added  to  the  report,  but  its  effect  on  office  practice  has 
been  revolutionary,  for  were  the  present  unit  cost  to  equal  that 
obtaining  when  the  unit  was  first  shown,  the  account  would  cost 
VS100,000  more  than  it  does  to-day. 

The  monthly  cost  reports  are  supplemented  by  a  yearly 
report,  and  this,  in  turn,  by  a  yearly  cost  letter,  which  shows 
each  superintendent  (1)  a  comparison  of  the  most  important 
operations  in  each  district  as  between  the  year  under  review  and 
the  previous  year;  (2)  tabulated  sets  of  unit  costs  for  former 
years,  with  the  average  to  date;  and  (3)  a  list  of  the  superin- 
tendents and  chief  foremen  in  each  district  for  the  two  years 
compared. 


CHAPTER  X 

INSPECTION 
GENERAL 

Of  course,  each  district  superintendent  and  foreman  acts  as  an 
inspector  over  the  work  under  his  charge,  and  for  street  work 
no  other  inspection  is  needed.  For  the  work  in  consumers' 
houses,  direct  supervision  of  each  job  is  not  possible,  nor,  in 
general,  required.  The  general  foreman  of  fitters,  with  his 
assistants,  are  supposed  to  see  a  sufficient  number  of  jobs  to 
maintain  the  fitting  force  at  a  proper  stage  of  efficiency.  Also, 
as  is  detailed  in  Chapter  XLIX,  a  special  inspector,  reporting 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Meters,  visits  a  certain  number  of 
meter  jobs.  In  Philadelphia,  to  cover  other  phases  of  fitting 
work  and  of  distribution  activities  to  which  sufficient  attention 
might  not  be  paid  by  the  district  organizations,  special  men 
called  "inspectors"  have  been  assigned,  and  their  duties  will  be 
described  under  the  two  headings  of  "  Inspection  of  Work"  and 
"Inspection  of  Equipment." 

INSPECTION  OF  WORK 
INSPECTOR  OF  ACCOUNTS 

Operating  data  and  unit  costs  are  of  value  only  if  correct,  and 
where  classification  of  time  and  material  is  being  made  by 
separate  district  organizations,  it  is  important  that  some  one 
man  inspect  from  time  to  time  the  methods  in  use.  Otherwise, 
no  matter  how  carefully  instructions  may  be  written,  startling 
divergencies  in  practice  will  arise.  The  Inspector  of  Accounts 
sees  to  it  that  there  is  uniformity  in  all  details  of  daily  and  cost 
reports,  studies  the  duties  and  efficiency  of  the  district  clerical 
force,  interviews  other  departments  in  connection  with  proposed 
changes  in  routine,  endeavors  to  keep  the  various  manuals  in 
accord  with  actual  practice,  and,  in  general,  keeps  a  lookout  for 
possible  economies  in  the  office  work  of  the  department. 

(43) 


44  ADMINISTRATION  OF  DEPARTMENT 

INSPECTOR  OF  APPLIANCE  WORK 

When  a  company  begins  to  handle  new  lines  of  appliances,  or 
when,  because  of  high  peak  loads,  a  number  of  green  men  must 
be  hired  to  do  appliance  work,  an  Inspector  of  Appliance  Work 
will  prove  of  great  value.  His  sole  duty  being  to  educate  the 
fitters  in  appliance  work,  and  not  being  burdened,  as  are  the 
district  foremen,  with  the  responsibility  of  getting  the  work 
done  on  time,  the  Inspector,  by  holding  evening  meetings  and 
by  coaching  the  men  on  the  job  (it  is  wonderful  how  much  terri- 
tory may  be  covered  and  jobs  seen  in  a  day  by  one  energetic  man 
on  a  motorcycle)  will  bring  the  entire  appliance  force  to  a  proper 
state  of  efficiency  in  a  far  shorter  time  than  would  be  possible  by 
the  use  of  the  district  organization  only,  and  there  is  the  added 
advantage  that  practice  is  made  more  uniform  where  one  man 
explains  the  construction,  connection,  adjustment  and  repair  of 
new  appliances,  than  where  this  information  is  given  by  a 
separate  man  in  each  district.  When  the  men  become  coached 
thoroughly,  the  Inspector's  position  may  be  abolished  safely  and 
revived  again  if  the  need  arises. 

INSPECTION  OF   EQUIPMENT 

GENERAL 

Every  distribution  department  possesses  a  good  deal  of  mate- 
rial which  is  not  in  use  or  under  view  constantly  enough  to 
ensure  that  its  condition  is  being  maintained  unimpaired  to 
prevent  sudden  failure  in  the  case  of  structures,  or  to  allow 
instant  use  in  the  case  of  equipment.  Periodical  inspection  of 
such  material  is  needed,  and  to  insure  this,  dates  for  such  inspec- 
tion must  be  set,  and  reports  required.  A  table  should  be 
prepared,  listing  every  kind  of  inspection,  with  date,  by  whom 
made,  and  how  reported.  A  convenient  form  of  report  consists 
of  a  sheet  of  letter  size,  ruled  one  way  for  months  and  the  other 
for  equipment.  This  is  sent  in  each  month,  initialed  by  the 
Superintendent,  each  inspection  being  shown  by  date.  After 
initialing  in  the  Engineer's  Office,  it  is  returned  to  the  district 
for  next  month's  report.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  one  sheet  gives 
a  complete  record  of  all  inspections  in  a  district. 

INSPECTOR  OF  EQUIPMENT 

Much  of  the  material  inspection,  such  as  tools,  exposed  mains, 
service  valves,  etc.,  which  is  made  at  stated  intervals,  can  be 
cared  for  properly  by  the  district  organization,  but  where  the 


INSPECTION  45 

inspection  to  be  of  greatest  value  should  be  a  continuous  one,  as 
is  preeminently  the  case  where  employees  are  uniformed,  and 
it  is  desired  that  a  certain  standard  of  cleanness  and  neatness 
prevail,  then  an  Inspector  of  Equipment  is  well  worth  while. 
Such  a  man,  going  from  district  to  district,  seeing  the  street  men 
at  their  work,  and  the  fitting  force  as  they  report  for  duty,  can,  if 
inspired  with  the  right  spirit,  accomplish  much  more  than  the 
proper  uniforming  of  the  force.  Without  acting  in  any  way  as 
a  spy,  he  can  keep  his  eyes  open  to  many  things  showing  differ- 
ences in  practice,  and  besides  informing  the  Engineer's  Office, 
is  in  a  position  to  tell  each  District  Superintendent  of  good  ideas 
observed  in  other  districts.  Among  the  duties  which  may  be 
assigned  to  this  Inspector  are  occasional  trips  with  the  house- 
pipe  inspectors,  the  oversight  of  the  repair  of  service  carts  and 
tool  wagons,  and  the  inspection  of  accident  and  medical  kits  and 
of  apparatus  for  use  in  gaseous  atmospheres. 

INSPECTION  OF  MATERIAL 

Besides  the  equipment  in  use,  there  are  certain  classes  of 
material  which  may  with  profit  be  inspected  either  at  the  point  of 
manufacture  or  upon  receipt  at  the  store  room.  In  the  first  class 
falls  cast-iron  pipe  and  specials,  the  inspection  of  which  is 
spoken  of  in  Chapter  XII,  also  service  and  other  types  of  brass 
cocks  when  bought  in  large  enough  quantities.  In  the  second 
class  are  included  lighting  and  fuel  appliances,  and  the  details  of 
their  inspection  is  given  in  Chapter  LXXXI.  Here  it  only  will 
be  said  that  the  work  of  inspection  as  well  as  questions  of  design 
could  be  cared  for  by  an  "Inspector  of  Lighting  Appliances"  and 
an  "Inspector  of  Fuel  Appliances,"  both  positions  often  being 
held  by  one  man.  The  remainder  of  distribution  material  being 
mostly  steel  pipe  and  fittings,  requires  no  systematic  inspection. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ACCIDENTS 
GENERAL  ATTITUDE 

The  subject  of  accidents  is  a  very  broad  one,  and  in  a  large 
company  should  be  cared  for  by  a  claim  department,  whose 
manager  will  keep  abreast  of  the  latest  developments  and  diffuse 
a  proper  viewpoint.  Wherever  possible,  the  handling  of  all 
claims  should  be  kept  within  the  company,  as  insurance  with  a 
casualty  company  often  results  in  antagonizing  all  accident 
victims,  whether  employees  or  public. 

Be  the  company  large  or  small,  with  claim  department  or  not, 
the  distribution  head  should  do  all  in  his  power  to  minimize 
accidents  to  his  men  and  to  persons  or  property  affected  by  their 
work.  Given  a  sympathetic  attitude  and  a  willingness  to  learn 
from  others,  good  results  will  follow.  There  is  an  increasing 
volume  of  "Safety"  literature  available,  and  this  should  be 
freely  resorted  to. 

METHODS  OF  PREVENTION 
RULES 

With  a  century's  experience  in  distributing  gas,  many  advisable 
precautions  have  become  known.  These  should  be  made 
familiar  to  each  employee  by  definite  rules  applying  exactly  to 
local  conditions.  In  addition,  the  thought  of  accident  preven- 
tion should  be  borne  in  mind  throughout  all  instruction  manuals. 

DRILLS 

One  of  the  dangers  ever  present  in  gas  distribution  is  that  of 
asphyxiation.  Each  employee  should,  therefore,  be  familiar 
with  the  details  of  resuscitation  treatment,  and  to  insure  this, 
periodical  drills  should  be  required.  The  benign  possibilities  of 
such  widespread  knowledge  among  company  employees  are 
realized  only  through  experience.  The  day  has  passed  when 

(46) 


ACCIDENTS  47 

only  the  street  men  are  supposed  to  be  interested  in  asphyxiation 
cases.  In  winter,  every  complaint  man  should  be  provided  with 
the  restoratives  for  internal  use,  and  through  his  drills,  be 
competent  to  induce  artificial  respiration.  (See  A  and  B, 
Figure  57,  page  183.) 

TREATMENT  OF  ACCIDENTS 
To  EMPLOYEES 

Employees  should  be  considered  as  being  in  the  service  of  the 
company  from  the  time  they  leave  home  for  work  until  their 
return.  Where  the  employee  has  a  good  record,  and  the  accident 
is  not  due  to  his  own  gross  negligence,  at  least  three-quarter  time 
and  the  payment  of  any  large  sickness  expense,  should,  in  the 
absence  of  any  legal  compensation,  be  allowed  during  disability. 
A  careful  investigation  of  each  accident.and  an  accident  record 
of  each  employee,  should  suffice  to  avoid  "fake"  cases  and 
malingering.  A  record  for  the  various  districts,  kept  by  the 
distribution  head,  showing  accident  payments  in  relation  to 
payroll,  will  be  valuable  as  disclosing  any  great  differences 
calling  for  investigation  and  justification.  This  applies  to  all 
classes  of  accidents. 

In  return  for  the  above  generous  treatment,  the  employee 
should  be  required,  besides  promptly  reporting  any  accident,  no 
matter  how  trivial  it  may  seem,  to  submit  to  whatever  medical 
treatment  is  deemed  advisable. 

To  OUTSIDERS 

Where  the  injury  is  to  a  person  not  in  the  company's  employ, 
prompt  investigation  should  be  followed  by  necessary  attention 
and  settlement,  except  where  the  company  believes  there  is  no 
moral  or  legal  liability  and  large  payments  are  demanded.  The 
disadvantage  at  which  a  corporation  is  placed  by  a  jury  trial, 
as  well  as  the  value  of  a  community's  good  will,  afford  ample 
justification  for  any  settlements  involving  little  expense,  where 
the  company  is  not  at  fault  but  the  individual  apparently  is 
honestly  convinced  to  the  contrary.  As  mentioned  before,  the 
company  should  be  prepared  to  treat  accidents  to  outsiders  due 
to  inhalation  of  gas,  even  though  from  their  own  negligence  or 
suicidal  intent. 

To  PROPERTY 

The  same  considerations  apply  to  accidents  to  the  property  as 
to  the  persons  of  outsiders.  Most  of  these  cases  are  trivial,  and 


SECTION  I 

MAINS 


CHAPTER  XII 

MATERIAL   . 
CAST  IRON 

Cast  iron  has  been,  and  is  still,  used  almost  universally  for 
mains.  Upon  considering  the  causes  for  the  universal  preva- 
lence of  cast-iron  mains  for  gas  work,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
when  the  first  gas  works  was  built  in  this  country,  *wrought  iron 
was  not  available,  and  later  on,  when  it  began  to  be  made,  the 
price  was  higher,  size  for  size,  than  cast  iron,  and  even  now,  for 
sizes  6  to  30-inch  inclusive,  cast  iron  is  cheaper  than  wrought 
iron.  Therefore,  cast  iron  has  had  the  field  to  itself,  and  has,  in 
the  main,  proved  so  satisfactory  that  the  engineer  who  decides 
to  install,  on  a  large  scale,  wrought  iron  instead  of  cast  iron, 
incurs  a  great  responsibility. 

First  of  all,  on  that  most  important  point,  length  of  life,  it  is 
known  that  cast  iron  will  last  indefinitely  in  good  soils,  and 
many  years  under  the  worst  conditions.  While  wrought  iron 
has  not  been  used  to  a  sufficient  extent,  and  for  a  long  enough 
period,  on  main  work  to  furnish  conclusive  data  as  to  the  number 
of  years  that  it  may  be  expected  to  last  when  protected  by  a 
proper  coating,  enough  experience  has  been  gained  from  coated 
services  to  show  that  great  care  is  necessary  in  the  coating  to 
make  reasonably  sure  an  existence  of,  say,  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  The  question  as  to  the  best  coating  and  the  supervision 
of  its  application  are  responsibilities  of  no  small  order. 

Second.  In  towns  of  100,000  or  over,  the  present  congestion  of 
streets  with  underground  structures  causes,  in  main  laying, 

*  Where  the  words  "wrought  iron"  occur  in  this   chapter  by    themselves,  they  stand 
also  for  steel. 

(51) 


SECTION  I 

MAINS 

CHAPTER  XII 

MATERIAL  t 
CAST  IRON 

Cast  iron  has  been,  and  is  still,  used  almost  universally  for 
mains.  Upon  considering  the  causes  for  the  universal  preva- 
lence of  cast-iron  mains  for  gas  work,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
when  the  first  gas  works  was  built  in  this  country,  *wrought  iron 
was  not  available,  and  later  on,  when  it  began  to  be  made,  the 
price  was  higher,  size  for  size,  than  cast  iron,  and  even  now,  for 
sizes  6  to  30-inch  inclusive,  cast  iron  is  cheaper  than  wrought 
iron.  Therefore,  cast  iron  has  had  the  field  to  itself,  and  has,  in 
the  main,  proved  so  satisfactory  that  the  engineer  who  decides 
to  install,  on  a  large  scale,  wrought  iron  instead  of  cast  iron, 
incurs  a  great  responsibility. 

First  of  all,  on  that  most  important  point,  length  of  life,  it  is 
known  that  cast  iron  will  last  indefinitely  in  good  soils,  and 
many  years  under  the  worst  conditions.  While  wrought  iron 
has  not  been  used  to  a  sufficient  extent,  and  for  a  long  enough 
period,  on  main  work  to  furnish  conclusive  data  as  to  the  number 
of  years  that  it  may  be  expected  to  last  when  protected  by  a 
proper  coating,  enough  experience  has  been  gained  from  coated 
services  to  show  that  great  care  is  necessary  in  the  coating  to 
make  reasonably  sure  an  existence  of,  say,  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  The  question  as  to  the  best  coating  and  the  supervision 
of  its  application  are  responsibilities  of  no  small  order. 

Second.  In  towns  of  100,000  or  over,  the  present  congestion  of 
streets  with  underground  structures  causes,  in  main  laying, 

*  Where  the  words  "wrought  iron"  occur  in  this   chapter  by    themselves,  they  stand 
also  for  steel. 

(51) 


52  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

many  deflections  from  a  straight  line,  and  these  make  a  wrought 
iron  system  proportionately  very  much  more  expensive  and 
difficult  than  is  the  case  with  cast  iron. 

Third.  The  thinness  of  the  wrought  iron  renders  very  weak 
all  service  connections  tapped  in  the  pipe  itself.  This  makes 
imperative  the  use  of  some  form  of  a  clip  or  saddle,  and,  espe- 
cially in  city  work  where  services  may  come  every  10  feet, 
another  item  of  considerable  cost  must  be  charged  against 
wrought  iron.  In  addition,  there  is  more  chance  of  leakage  from 
this  form  of  connection  than  from  the  usual  connection  to  a 
cast  iron  main. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  it  is  not  surprising  that  cast  iron 
has  reigned  supreme  as  the  material  for  gas  mains,  especially 
when  it  is  considered  that,  the  large  mains  excepted,  the  leakage 
of  a  cast  iron  main  system  can  be  made  of  slight  consequence  by 
the  use  of  cement  joints. 

The  only  joint  for  cast  iron  pipe  that  has  found  acceptance  in 
this  country  is  the  bell  and  spigot  joint,  formerly  made  up 
exclusively  with  cast  lead,  but  now  more  and  more,  in  small 
sizes,  with  cement,  and  in  large  sizes  with  lead  wool.  The  turned 
and  bored  joint,  though  used  extensively  in  England  at  one  time, 
has  never  found  favor  here.  Neither  have  the  various  types  of 
patent  joints,  either  requiring  a  special  bell  or  used  with  the 
ordinary  bell,  flourished  to  any  extent.  The  prejudice  for  the 
ordinary  bell  and  spigot  joint  is  explained  easily  when  the 
records  of  modern  pipe  are  known,  and  when,  in  addition,  it  is 
stated  that  the  common,  everyday  joint  is  far  and  away  superior 
to  any  patent  joint  in  its  adaptability  to  the  various  conditions 
of  underground  work. 

It  is,  of  course,  important  that  a  bell  should  be  strong  enough 
to  resist  any  splitting  strain  caused  by  caulking  lead  or  driving 
cement.  In  early  days,  the  point  was  not  always  borne  in 
mind  by  designers,  but  the  present  A.  G.  I.  standard  provides  a 
bell  about  whose  strength  there  can  be  no  question. 

WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Wrought  iron  has  never  been  used  to  any  extent  as  a  material 
for  mains  distributing  gas  under  ordinary  pressures.  The  only 
exception  to  this  is  the  system  of  the  Standard  Gas  Light 
Company  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  as  since  the  purchase  of 
the  Standard  by  the  Consolidated  Company,  no  more  wrought 


MATERIAL  FOR  MAINS  53 

iron  mains  have  been  laid,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  any  saving 
due  to  small  leakage  claimed  as  a  result  of  wrought  iron,  was  not 
sufficient  to  overcome  the  objections  to  wrought  iron  mains. 
The  Standard  Company  experienced  great  trouble  from  the 
breaking  of  the  cast  iron  branches  used,  and  a  large  stock  of 
split  branches  was  needed  to  clamp  over  the  broken  ones,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  repair  of  a  broken  main  by  a  split  sleeve. 

The  reasons  that  ordinarily  render  the  use  of  cast  iron  prefer- 
able to  wrought  iron  have  been  already  spoken  of.  There  are, 
however,  certain  conditions  arising  in  ordinary  distribution  work 
where  wrought  iron  may  sometimes  be  used  to  great  advantage. 
In  small  towns,  or  the  residential  suburbs  of  a  large  city,  —  in 
other  words,  in  any  place  where  the  services  will  never  average 
closer  than  50  feet  and  the  probable  consumption  never  exceed 
the  capacity  of  a  3-  or  4-inch  main,  —  a  wrought  iron  main, 
provided  (when  laid)  with  tees  for  all  probable  services,  furnishes 
a  cheaper,  stronger  and  tighter  line  than  could  be  obtained  from 
cast  iron.  The  soil  in  such  localities  generally  is  very  good,  and 
a  well-coated  wrought  iron  pipe  has  a  very  good  chance  of  a  long 
life.  Another  condition  favorable  to  the  use  of  wrought  iron  is 
on  a  hillside  where  there  is  rock  and  the  opportunity  is  afforded 
of  saving  the  cost  of  blasting  by  laying  in  a  water,  or  a  sewer, 
trench.  Cast  iron  would  be  sure  to  leak  if  laid  on  such  insecure 
foundation  as  is  afforded  by  a  position  part  way  up  in  a  refilled 
trench,  but  wrought  iron  3-inch  or  larger  is  quite  strong  enough 
to  stand  any  settling,  while  the  slope  of  the  hillside  prevents 
serious  trapping. 

The  advantage  of  a  tight  line  possessed  by  wrought  iron,  while 
not  sufficient,  as  we  have  seen,  to  cause  its  use  in  ordinary  work, 
does  force  its  adoption  for  the  high-pressure  lines,  which,  since 
1898,  have  been  used  to  convey  gas  for  long  distances  at  pressures 
ranging  up  to  50  pounds.  On  all  these  lines,  none  of  the  disad- 
vantages attaching  to  the  use  of  wrought  iron  obtain  to  any 
extent,  except  the  question  of  life,  and  as  a  cast  iron  line  could 
not  be  made  as  tight  for  anything  like  the  same  cost,  there  is  no 
doubt  as  to  the  advisability  of  risking  the  life. 

Just  as  for  very  small  mains,  wrought  iron  may  be  preferable  to 
cast  iron,  because  of  greater  strength,  so  for  very  large  mains 
it  seemed  at  one  time  that  steel  might  be  preferable  to  cast  iron 
because  of  less  cost  and  danger  from  breaks.  A  30-inch  main 
may  be  laid  for  less  cost,  in  both  labor  and  material,  if  of  riveted 
steel  than  if  of  cast  iron.  It  will  be  perfectly  tight  and  will 


54  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

never  crack.  Its  advantages  over  cast  iron  in  lighter  weight 
and  cost  increase  very  rapidly  with  the  size  of  the  proposed  main. 
Under  ordinary  city  conditions,  cast  iron  would  be  chosen  as 
against  steel  for  a  30-inch  main,  because  a  pipe  of  that  size  would 
have  a  line  sufficiently  crooked  to  make  riveted  work  intricate 
enough  to  throw  the  balance  in  favor  of  cast  iron.  As  the  size 
increases,  the  great  cost  and  dimensions  of  any  specials  make 
more  and  more  necessary  a  very  straight  line  even  for  cast  iron, 
and,  therefore,  the  riveted  steel  shows  up  to  better  advantage. 
Where  it  is  a  question  of  bringing  gas  from  a  works  situated  on 
the  outskirts,  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  line  for  the  main 
would  be  a  very  straight  one,  and  then  even  for  30-inch,  riveted 
steel  would  be  preferable  on  that  score.  An  added  advantage  of 
steel  is  that  its  use  furnishes  a  main  which  at  any  time  may  be 
converted  into  a  high-pressure  feeder.  Such  a  change  of 
pressure  applied  to  a  cast-iron  main  with  cast  lead  joints  would 
mean  a  good  deal  of  trouble. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  why  does  the  60-inch  riveted  steel 
pipe,  laid  ten  years  or  more  ago  by  the  Consolidated  Gas  Company 
of  New  York,  furnish  the  only  example  known  to  the  writer  of  a 
large  steel  main,  and  why  has  the  same  company  recently  used 
cast  iron  for  its  72-inch  main  laid  in  a  tunnel  under  the  East 
River?  Because  gas  engineers  are  not  satisfied  as  to  the  long 
life  of  a  steel  pipe,  and  its  probable  shortness  of  life  as  compared 
with  cast  iron  outweighs  any  of  the  advantages  of  steel  just 
detailed.  The  60-inch  pipe  is  now  in  a  very  bad  condition 
in  spots. 

OTHER   MATERIAL 
WOOD 

In  the  early  days,  when  cast  iron  was  expensive  and  hard  to 
procure,  hollow  logs  were  used  for  gas  mains,  and  served  the 
purpose  pretty  well.  In  fact,  there  are  probably  several  places 
which  still  have  some  wood  mileage.  The  difficulty  of  making 
tight  service  connections  was  a  serious  drawback  to  the  use  of 
wood.  However,  as  between  2-inch  wood  and  2-inch  cast  iron, 
it  is  quite  probable  that  the  balance  stands  in  favor  of  the 
former,  because  of  the  latter's-liability  to  breakage. 

FIBRE 

About  ten  years  ago  a  fibre  pipe  was  tried  by  a  few  gas  com- 
panies, but  the  saving  over  cast  iron  was  not  great,  and  con- 


MATERIAL  FOR  MAINS  55 

densation  was  found  to  soften  the  pipe  after  some  months 
exposure.  In  addition,  the  fibre  material  was  not  conducive  to 
tight  service  connections. 

SEWER  PIPE 

Vitrified  clay  pipe  has  been  tried  to  a  small  extent  in  Madison, 
Wisconsin,  and  Denver,  Colorado,  and  their  experience  has  been 
unfavorable  to  its  use,  notwithstanding  a  great  saving  in  first 
cost  as  compared  with  cast  iron.  Many  bells  were  found  broken 
after  a  year's  time,  the  breaks  being  attributed  to  expansion  and 
contraction.  Even  without  such  breaks,  the  difficulty  of 
making  a  tight  service  connection,  and  the  greater  number  of 
joints  in  the  main  itself,  would  be  sufficient  to  condemn  this 
innovation. 

DESIGN  OF  PIPE  AND  SPECIALS 
STEEL 

The  use  of  steel  pipe  in  the  ordinary  main  system  is  so  slight, 
and  the  consequent  saving  in  cost  to  be  gained  by  using  any  light- 
er pipe  than  the  ordinary  standard  is  so  inconsiderable,  that  the 
gas  engineer  accepts  wisely  the  standard  steel  pipe  as  commer- 
cially made  for  water  and  steam  use,  knowing  that  it  will  be 
satisfactory  for  the  insignificant  pressure  used  in  gas  distribution, 
even  though  "commercial"  steel  pipe  is  of  ten  10  per  cent  under 
standard  weight.  When  used  for  gas,  most  of  the  thickness  of  a 
steel  pipe  is  useful  mainly  to  give  a  longer  life  against  corrosion 
and  occasionally  to  resist  external  strains. 

The  ordinary  screw  joint  is  used  for  sizes  6-inch  and  under. 
For  8-inch  and  over,  a  plain  end  pipe  with  a  malleable  iron  or 
steel  sleeve  joint,  provided  with  rubber  gaskets,  is  cheaper  and 
usually  preferable. 

For  specials,  the  commercial  malleable,  or  cast  iron,  fittings, 
made  for  steam  work,  are  used,  except  for  drip  pots,  whether 
"line"  or  "side,"  and  these  would  be  the  same  as  for  cast-iron 
mains.  Ordinarily,  in  steel  lines,  tees  and  crosses  are  the  only 
specials  needed,  bends  being  rendered  unnecessary  by  bending 
the  pipe. 

CAST  IRON 

SHORT  HISTORY  OF  PAST  STANDARDS 

The  first  cast  iron  pipe  and  specials  used  in  this  country  were 
imported  from  England  and  undoubtedly  varied  with  each 


56  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

maker.  The  first  American  manufacturers  made  their  patterns 
presumably  from  the  English  product.  The  first  attempt  at  a 
standard  was  made  as  late  as  1 890,  by  the  Society  of  Gas  Lighting, 
and  the  patterns  approved  by  it  were  adopted  by  a  few  of  the 
eastern  manufacturers,  and  in  1898,  with  some  corrections,  by  the 
American  Gas  Light  Association  as  its  standard.  It  was  hoped 
that  the  action  of  this  Association  would  result,  after  a  reason- 
able time,  in  a  uniformity  in  pipe  and  specials.  There  undoubt- 
edly was  some  extension  of  the  use  of  the  standard,  but  as  a 
whole,  the  gas  companies  either  continued  to  use  any  pattern 
sent  by  the  manufacturer,  or,  in  a  few  cases,  devised  a  special 
standard  of  their  own.  The  justification  for  such  an  individual 
standard  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  1898  standard  was  open  to  valid 
criticism  in  points  of  design  and  also  that  it  was  incomplete. 

By  1900  it  had  become  apparent  that  the  members  of  the 
American  Gas  Light  Association  were  not  adhering  to  their  1898 
standard,  yet  it  was  not  until  1905  that  the  American  Gas  Light 
Association  accepted  as  its  standard,  as  a  revision  of  the  1898 
standard,  a  set  of  plates  which  were  thought  to  represent  good 
practice,  and  yet  were,  in  a  way,  a  composite  of  existing 
standards. 

In  1906,  the  American  Gas  Light  Association  merged  into  the 
American  Gas  Institute.  The  latter  could  not  be  asked  to 
accept  the  1905  standard,  for,  in  the  meantime,  many  minor 
errors  in  it  had  come  to  light.  In  the  next  five  years,  several 
committees  were  appointed  and  reported,  and  finally,  in  1911, 
the  Institute  adopted  drawings  for  bell  and  spigot  castings 
based  largely  on  the  1905  standard.  This  was  followed,  in  1913, 
by  drawings  for  flanged  castings  and  by  specifications  governing 
the  manufacture  of  all  cast  iron  pipe  and  specials. 

ADVANTAGES  IN  THE  USE  OF  A  STANDARD 

Both  makers  and  users  of  cast  iron  pipe  and  specials  rapidly 
are  becoming  impressed  with  the  economic  advantage  of  having 
but  one  standard  for  all  gas  work  in  this  country,  and  as  fast  as 
old  patterns  are  worn  out  they  are  replaced  by  ones  of  standard 
dimensions.  Every  user  should  be  sure  to  specify  A.  G.  I. 
standard  when  ordering  his  castings. 

INSPECTION  OF  PIPE  AND  SPECIALS 

The  inspection  of  pipe  and  specials  at  the  point  of  manufacture 
is  quite  advantageous,  as  it  insures  freedom  from  delay  and 


MATERIAL  FOR  MAIXS  57 

trouble  due  to  defective  material,  these  defects  usually  not  being 
apparent  until  the  material  has  been  laid  and  sometimes  covered 
over.  The  cost  of  foundry  inspection  is,  however,  prohibitive 
to  all  but  the  largest  gas  companies,  except  where,  as  may  be 
often  the  case,  the  services  of  an  inspector  may  be  secured  by 
the  day  as  needed.  There  are  a  number  of  such  pipe  inspectors, 
especially  at  the  eastern  pipe  foundries,  who  work  by  the  day  for 
various  companies  and  municipalities.  It  will  pay  any  company 
laying  over,  say,  5  miles  of  main  a  year,  to  make  the  attempt  to 
have  its  pipe  and  specials  inspected  by  such  a  man. 

Whether  there  is  foundry  inspection  or  not,  a  company  should 
require  its  material  to  be  made  according  to  the  A.  G.  I.  specifica- 
tion. Where  there  is  no  foundry  inspection,  the  company  gener- 
ally will  lose,  rather  than  gain,  in  buying  of  the  lowest  bidder 
without  regard  to  individual  reputation.  Years  of  foundry 
inspection  have  shown  that  the  same  kind  of  inspection  means 
rejection  varying  from  about  2  per  cent  at  the  best  foundries 
to  60  per  cent,  or  even  more,  at  the  worst.  Material  not 
subject  to  foundry  inspection  should  be  examined  carefully 
on  receipt. 

STOCK  OF  SPECIALS 

The  only  justification  for  the  existence  of  a  great  variety  of 
special  castings,  either  in  a  "  standard  "  or  in  a  storeyard,  is  that 
the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  a  particular  design 
more  than  compensates  for  the  interest  on  the  increased  invest- 
ment in  stock  required  because  of  the  existence  of  this  particular 
design.  The  above  statement  is  based  on  the  fact  that,  except 
for  large  mains  and  special  jobs,  a  special  must  be  in  stock  at  the 
time  it  is  required,  or  else  it  will  not  be  used,  for  some  other 
special  will  be  made  to  do  rather  than  incur  great  delay. 

Fortunately  for  the  small  company,  a  great  variety  of  specials 
is  not  an  important  issue,  for  usually  its  mains  are  not  laid  in 
congested  territory.  The  large  companies,  however,  year  in  and 
year  out,  have  a  chance  to  use  every  special  that  ever  was  cast, 
and  their  officers  have  a  good  opportunity  to  use  judgment  as  to 
just  what  specials  are  in  sufficient  demand  to  warrant  being 
always  kept  in  stock.  \Vhere  the  company's  territory  is  large 
enough  to  have  more  than  one  storeyard  in  which  stocks  of 
specials  are  kept,  the  opportunities  for  an  accumulation  of  dead 
material  are  greatly  enhanced. 


58  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

What  is  needed  in  this,  as  in  most  other  problems  in  life,  is 
exact  information.  Two  or  more  times  during  the  year,  there 
should  be  a  report  made  of  the  stock  of  each  kind  of  special. 
This  report  should  be  on  a  special  form,  and  the  specials  should 
be  shown  always  in  the  same  order,  so  that  comparison  with 
previous  reports  is  made  easy.  Once  a  year  the  reports  should 
show,  in  addition  to  the  stock  on  hand,  the  number  of  each  kind 
of  special  used  the  previous  year.  After  two  or  three  years  of 
such  reports,  there  will  be  dependable  knowledge  as  to  the 
number  and  variety  of  specials  used  in  any  given  time,  and, 
therefore,  needed  presumably  in  stock,  for  it  must  be  assumed 
that  the  main  laying  foremen  are  kept  coached  properly  in  the 
use  of  specials.  The  greater  the  variety  of  specials  kept  in 
stock,  the  more  need  for  this  coaching.  Without  it,  the  ordi- 
nary foreman  forgets  about  a  special  that  rarely  is  called  for 
and,  therefore,  never  uses  it  when  the  occasion  comes. 

With  allowances  for  the  effect  of  local  conditions,  as  shown  by 
the  record  above  described,  the  following  general  remarks  apply 
to  the  selection  of  a  stock  of  specials.  In  bends,  90°  will  be  used 
sparingly,  22|°  to  a  somewhat  greater  extent,  but  45°  will  be  in 
good  demand,  especially  where  there  are  manholes  to  contend 
with,  and  40  per  cent  of  the  45°  bends  should  be  two-bell.  An 
all-spigot  bend  is  sometimes  of  advantage,  but  only  the  largest 
companies  can  afford  to  keep  it  in  stock,  and  even  with  them  its 
existence  is  apt  to  be  forgotten.  If  there  are  many  streets  not  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  60°  circle  (or  radial)  bends  are  useful 
as  affording,  by  cutting,  any  lesser  angle.  Bushings  cost  little 
and  are  very  convenient,  especially  where  the  size  of  more  of  the 
new  pipe  laid  differs  from  that  of  existing  pipe  to  which  connec- 
tion is  made.  Caps  are  not  as  useful  as  plugs,  but  should  be 
kept  in  stock  for  the  two  or  three  sizes  of  pipe  most  used,  and 
perhaps  one  cap  of  each  size  in  a  system. 

In  crosses  and  tees,  all-bell  specials  will  be  found  most  con- 
venient for  almost  all  new  work  and  preferable  as  using  up 
spigot  pieces  of  pipe,  but  some  three-bell  crosses  and  two-bell 
tees  should  be  in  stock  for  use  when  inserting  a  branch  into  an 
existing  line  and  also  for  the  few  occasions  in  new  work  where 
an  all-bell  special  proves  inapplicable.  In  drip  pots  where,  for 
any  reason,  many  are  used  to  the  mile,  it  will  pay  to  have  two 
capacities  for  the  one  or  two  sizes  of  mains  most  used,  the  small 
pots  being  installed  where  the  extent  of  main  drained  is  short, 
and  the  large  one  in  the  long  stretches.  Here,  again,  without 


MATERIAL  FOR  MAINS  59 

competent  coaching,  the  main  foreman  will  forget  all  about  the 
existence  of  the  large  pot. 

Only  the  very  large  companies  will  have  any  need  for  hat 
flanges,  and  a  small  stock  in  a  few  sizes  will  suffice.  Plugs  are 
needed  in  fairly  large  quantity  in  some  sizes,  and  every  company 
ought  always  to  keep  in  stock  one  or  two  plugs  of  every  size  main 
in  its  system.  This  provision,  in  connection  with  the  one  above 
spoken  of  for  caps,  may  prove  of  value  in  the  case  of  a  sudden 
necessity  for  making  a  gap  in  a  main.  A  small  stock  of  reducers, 
some  with  bell  on  large  end  and  spigot  on  small  end,  and  others 
with  bell  on  small  end  and  spigot  on  large  end,  should  be  in  stock, 
though  the  bushing  will  always  take  the  place  of  the  last-men- 
tioned reducer.  All-bell  or  all-spigot  reducers  are  never  needed 
except  in  very  special  cases,  and  may  be  ordered  when  wan  ted. 

Sleeves,  both  solid  and  split,  always  are  in  demand,  especially 
the  latter  during  cold  weather,  where  the  amount  of  2-  and  3-inch 
pipe  is  large.  It  is  quite  important  never  to  run  out  of  sleeves, 
and  even  in  the  case  of  mains  16-inch  and  over,  which  do  not 
often  break,  there  should  be  at  least  one  split  sleeve  of  each  size 
always  in  stock.  Of  hub  sleeves  and  service  sleeves,  there 
should  be  enough  to  care  for  the  normal  demand  for  such  specials, 
but  a  shortage  may  be  met  in  both  cases  by  inserting  a  branch. 

"Y"  branches  are,  in  general,  needed  only  when  there  are 
streets  making  angles  of  approximately  45°  with  each  other. 
Where  there  are  only  a  few  such  streets,  a  tee  or  cross  with  a  45°, 
or  circle,  bend,  may  be  used. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM 
GENERAL  LAYOUT 

The  treatment  of  the  subject  matter  under  this  head,  as  well 
as  "Size  of  Mains"  immediately  following,  is  intended  to  be 
suggestive  rather  than  comprehensive.  Few,  if  any,  gas  engi- 
neers have  had,  or  will  have  in  the  future,  the  opportunity  of 
laying  out  entirely  new  low-pressure  distribution  systems  of 
large  extent.  In  practice  it  always  will  be  found  that  local  con- 
ditions of  city  plan,  railroads,  water  courses,  etc.,  will  govern 
layouts  and,  to  a  large  extent,  prevent  any  general  adoption  of  a 
symmetrical  plan.  Therefore,  no  attempt  is  made  to  describe 
any  layouts.  Work  of  this  character  should  be  entrusted  only 
to  men  of  experience,  for  whom  this  book  is  not  intended 
primarily,  and  whose  knowledge  will  enable  them  to  give  their 
proper  relative  weight  to  the  many  more  or  less  conflicting  con- 
ditions entering  into  the  design  of  a  distribution  system. 

A  very  full  treatment  of  this  subject  as  applied  to  the  rein- 
forcing of  the  existing  main  system  of  a  large  city,  will  be  found 
in  the  paper  on  "  High  Pressure  Gas  Distribution,"  by  J.  D.  von 
Maur,  published  in  the  1908  Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas 
Institute. 

SIZE  OF  MAINS 
ENTIRELY  NEW  SYSTEM 

A  main  system,  in  order  to  be  deemed  satisfactory,  must  have 
a  small  leakage,  and  contain  pipes  of  size  sufficient  to  insure  no 
excessive  pressure  variation  in  the  supply  to  any  consumer. 
Both  requirements  are  met  in  general  by  the  enlargement  of  mains. 
Except  perhaps  in  the  congested  sections  of  the  very  largest 
cities,  given  the  money,  any  main  system  can  be  brought  to  a 
condition  approaching  the  ideal.  What  the  features  of  such  an 

(60) 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  61 

ideal  condition  are  will  now  be  discussed,  taking,  first,  the 
problem  presented  by  the  installation  of  an  entirely  new  system. 

"Given  a  network  of  mains  in  a  town  having  no  marked  dif- 
ferences of  elevation,  and  assuming  no  consumption  or  leakage,  it 
would  be  a  simple  thing  to  raise  and  maintain  the  same  pressure 
at  all  points  in  the  mains  without  regard  to  the  location  of  the 
gas  works.  The  whole  problem  of  gas  distribution  arises  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  not  a  question  of  static  pressure,  but  of  keeping 
up  pressures  at  distant  points  towards  which  the  gas  is  flowing, 
because  it  is  escaping  there  through  gas-consuming  appliances; 
and  since  the  gas  will  flow  through  the  mains  only  when  the 
pressure  is  greater  at  the  point,  or  points,  of  entrance  than  it  is  at 
the  points  of  consumption,  it  is  evident  that  the  pressures  in  the 
areas  near  the  source,  or  sources,  of  supply  naturally  will  be  in 
excess  of  that  in  areas  which  the  gas  reaches  after  a  longer  travel. 
If  the  rate  of  consumption  grows  to  be  any  appreciable  part  of 
the  capacity  of  the  pipes,  a  marked  drop  in  pressure  will 
appear,  and  the  desired  uniformity  of  pressure  over  the  entire 
network  of  mains  will  suffer  the  more  as  the  rate  of  consumption 
encroaches  on  the  capacity."  What  this  drop  in  pressure 
should  be  is  like  all  other  elements  entering  into  the  problem 
being  considered,  —  a  question  of  judgment.  I  twill  be  assumed, 
except  for  a  small  region  close  to  the  works,  no  point  in  the  main 
system  should  experience  a  greater  pressure  variation  than  2 
inches.  Also,  that  this  will  mean  that  the  greatest  permissible 
variation  in  the  pressure  at  the  works  outlet  will  be  2.5  inches. 
This  last  figure  is  based  on  the  idea  that  during  the  time  of 
least  consumption,  the  pressures  throughout  the  system  will 
be  uniform  and  that,  as  the  consumption  increases  up  to  peak 
load,  a  gradual  increase  of  pressure  at  the  works  to  the  extent  of 
2.5  inches  will  keep  the  pressure  at  the  ends  of  the  main  system 
uniform,  while  the  variations  at  various  points  nearer  the  works 
will  not  be  more  than  2  inches,  except  in  the  immediate  region 
of  the  works,  which  was  not  to  be  considered,  because  as  a  rule 
but  few  consumers  would  be  involved. 

For  the  maximum  pressure  to  be  given  to  any  consumer,  6 
inches  will  be  taken,  and  for  the  minimum  2  inches.  These 
figures  represent  the  views  of  most  gas  engineers,  with  possibly  a 
few  voices  willing  to  speak  for  as  high  as  8  inches,  and  arguing 
that  with  constancy  of  pressure,  a  high  pressure  is  of  advantage 
to  the  consumer  everywhere  except  only  on  flat  flame  burners, 
which,  on  the  whole,  have  no  excuse  for  being.  Any  pressure 


62  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

lower  than  2  inches  cannot  be  considered  good  service  for  gas 
ranges,  mantle  burners,  or  any  other  use  of  atmospheric. flames.* 

For  the  maximum  instantaneous  demand  per  consumer,  as 
measured,  say,  for  five  minutes  during  peak  load,  20  cubic  feet 
per  hour  will  be  taken  for  the  ordinary  town,  this  being  equivalent 
to  about  15  cubic  feet  per  maximum  hour. 

The  number  of  present  consumers  either  is  known  from  a 
canvass,  or  can  be  estimated  from  the  population  to  be  supplied, 
using  a  divisor  of  4,  with  the  idea  that  now  or  later  the  main 
system  will  cover  all  the  houses.  In  our  problem,  however,  the 
future  consumers  are  of  most  importance.  What  is  the  expected 
demand  in  the  future?  Another  question  entirely  peculiar  to  the 
situation  is:  For  how  many  year's  growth  should  the  proposed 
system  provide?  Where  the  layout  of  the  territory  is  such  that 
the  trunk  main  feeding  from  the  works  is  not  excessively  long 
before  it  begins  to  branch  out,  a  provision  for  twenty  years  is 
preferable  to  one  for  a  shorter  time.  For  the  rate  of  growth  in 
consumption,  or  rather  in  hourly  output  at  peak  load,  2  per  cent 
a  year  is  sufficient.  This  figure  is  based  on  the  idea  that  the 
population  will  increase  2\  per  cent  a  year  and  the  annual  con- 
sumption possibly  5  per  cent,  but  because  of  the  increasing  use 
of  gas  for  industrial  purposes,  the  maximum  hourly  output  will 
each  year  be  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  daily  send  out. 

Another  way  of  arriving  at  the  future  output  is  to  estimate 
what  will  be  the  population,  and  from  this  get  the  yearly  output 
by  assuming  a  sales  figure  per  capita,  which,  in  the  case  of  a  town 
of  10,000,  might  be  put  at  2500  cubic  feet.  [This  figure  increases 
with  the  population,  and  reaches  9200  cubic  feet  in  New  York 
City.]  To  convert  the  yearly  output  into  the  maximum  day,  a 
divisor  from  170  to  300  might  be  used,  and  to  convert  the 
maximum  day  to  the  maximum  hour,  a  divisor  from  8  to  10. 
This  method  of  obtaining  the  future  maximum  hourly  output 
appears  to  involve  more  chance  of  error  than  the  method  of 
estimating  a  percentage  increase  in  what  experience  has  shown 
will  be  the  present  maximum  hour. 

The  area  of  probable  future  distribution  may,  or  may  not,  be 
hard  to  estimate.  If  it  should  be  considered  that  10,000  feet 
will  be  the  distance  from  the  works  to  the  farthest  consumer, 
then  from  the  pressure  limitations  already  assumed,  there  will  be 

*  In  considering  these  pressures  it  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  that  we  are  dis- 
cussing the  layout  of  an  entirely  new  system,  not  the  reconstruction  or  operation  of  an 
existing  system. 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  63 

an  allowable  drop  for  the  10,000  feet,  of  6  inches — 2  inches,  or 
0.4  inch  per  thousand  lineal  feet  of  main. 

The  application  of  the  above  assumptions  to  a  specific  problem 
would  be  as  follows: 

Present  population =    20,000 

Growth  to  provide  for =20  years 

Maximum  pressure =6  inches 

Minimum  =2.0 

Maximum  variation  in  pressure  at  works     ......       =2          " 

Distance  from  works  to  farthest  consumer  ......       =    6000  feet 

Size  of  trunk  main  from  works  to  point  of  first  principal  branch 

connection,  1200  feet  distant =    (?) 

20000 

—  =  5000  =  present  consumers. 
4 

5000X20=  100000  cubic  feet  per  hour  =  output  at  peak  load. 
100000(l  +  20X.02)  =  140000cu.ft.perhour  =  outputatpeakload20yearshence. 

=  delivery  trunk  main  should  be  designed  for. 

6000 

Drop  allowable  in  trunk  main=  (6.0-2.0)  -+- =  0.8 

^1200 

The  problem  then  is:  What  size  main  is  required  to  carry  140,000 
cubic  feet  per  hour  for  1200  feet  with  a  loss  of  0.8  inch?  A  Cox 
computer,  using  a  specific  gravity  of  .65,  and  a  constant  of  1350, 
shows  that  a  20-inch  main  would  be  needed. 

In  a  similar  way,  the  sizes  of  the  continuation  of  the  trunk 
main  and  its  principal  branch  mains  may  be  figured  out,  although 
it  becomes  at  times  very  hard  to  estimate  how  large  a  district, 
and  therefore  how  much  gas,  any  particular  main  will  be  called 
on  to  supply.  In  the  case  of  these  secondary  mains,  as  they  may 
be  called,  it  sometimes  is  more  convenient  to  estimate  on  a 
definite  area  of  supply,  rather  than  the  number  of  inhabitants, 
or  consumers.  Just  how  this  is  done  will  be  explained  later  on, 
as  also  will  be  the  considerations  that  determine  the  size  of  the 
ordinary  mains,  viz.,  those  supplying  not  more  than  1000  feet 
of  street. 

EXISTING  SYSTEM 

The  ordinary  conditions  calling  for  the  determination  of  the 
proper  size  of  a  main  are,  first,  where  an  existing  main  is  insuf- 
ficient; and  second,  where  an  entirely  new  territory  is  to  be 
supplied  by  an  extension  to  the  present  system.  Under  the 
first  condition,  the  new  main  may,  (a)  never  be  called  on  to 
supply  any  output  greatly  in  addition  to  that  now  supplied  by 
the  existing  system,  or  (b)  be  so  located  that  it  must  in  the 


64  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

future  supply  increased  consumption,  due  to  new  houses  on  the 
present  mains  and  also  to  extension  into  new  territory.  The 
case  (a)  is  generally  limited  to  built-up  portions  of  a  town,  where 
it  is  thought  that  the  present  consumption  will  show  but  a  slow 
growth.  The  size  of  the  new  main  may  be  estimated  cor- 
rectly by  pressure  observations  along  the  main  to  be  replaced. 
Thus,  suppose  a  12-inch  main,  900  feet  long,  with  no  outlet,  but 
feeding  at  its  far  end  a  network  of  small  mains.  At  the  time  of 
peak  load,  the  pressure  at  the  beginning  of  the  12-inch  is  2.3 
inches,  and  at  the  end  1.5  inches.  The  use  of  the  computer  will 
show  that  the  main  is  carrying  45,000  cubic  feet  per  hour.  Also 
that  a  16-inch  laid  in  place  of  the  12-inch  will  carry  the  45,000 
cubic  feet  with  a  loss  of  but  0.2  inch,  so  that,  with  the  given 
initial  pressure  of  2.3  inches,  the  terminal  pressure  will  be  2.1 
inches  and  with  56,000  cubic  feet  delivery,  the  terminal  pressure 
would  be  2  inches.  The  case  assumed  is  rather  more  simple 
than  would  occur  in  practice,  for  usually  the  main  would  be 
delivering  gas  at  every  cross  street  along  its  length.  If  so,  the 
section  scale  in  the  computer  would  come  into  use.  Again,  it  is 
not  easy  always  to  be  sure  what  effect  the  change  in  any  one  size 
of  main  may  have  in  altering  the  relative  deliveries  in  a  inter- 
connected system  of  mains.  Consequently,  under  most  condi- 
tions, an  error  of  0.2  inch  or  0.3  inch  might  occur  as  between 
prediction  and  fulfillment. 

In  case  (b),  where  the  new  main  will  later  on  supply  additional 
territory,  the  difficult  question  often  is  not  only  how  much  will 
be  the  ultimate  consumption  of  the  territory,  but  how  large  will 
be  the  territory  itself.  This  determination  of  respective  areas  of 
supply  is  especially  difficult  when  there  is  more  than  one  starting 
point  of  supply,  as  in  cities  with  one  or  more  works  and  holder 
stations.  A  determination  having  been  reached,  one  method  of 
deducing  the  consumption  is  as  follows,  being  worked  with 
constants  true  for  Philadelphia.  The  area  of  the  region  deter- 
mined on,  expressed  in  square  feet  (obtained  byaplanimeter  if  of 
very  irregular  shape)  is  divided  by  250,000,  and  the  quotient 
multiplied  by  1550.  The  result  is  the  number  of  feet  of  mains 
necessary  to  supply  the  region,  for  experience  has  shown  that 
1550  feet  of  main  is  required  to  supply  every  250,000  square  feet. 
The  figure  already  obtained,  divided  by  100  and  multiplied  by  55, 
will  give  the  maximum  hourly  consumption  of  the  region  in  ques- 
tion when  built  up,  for  the  present  maximum  hourly  output  in 
Philadelphia  equals  55  cubic  feet  per  100  feet  of  main.  The 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  65 

maximum  consumption  of  the  additional  territory  thus  obtained, 
being  added  to  the  existing  consumption  which  must  be  cared  for 
by  the  proposed  main,  its  size  may  be  determined  easily  along  the 
lines  laid  down  in  discussing  a  new  system. 

The  second  condition  spoken  of  on  the  preceeding  page,  viz., 
where  an  entirely  new  territory  is  to  be  supplied  by  an  extension 
of  the  present  system,  is,  of  course,  handled  precisely  as  was  the 
new  territory  belonging  to  case  (b)  just  discussed. 

In  the  only  cases  so  far  considered  in  this  chapter,  the  size  of 
the  main  has  been  determined  entirely  with  reference  to  the 
expected  demand  on  it.  If  the  same  principle  were  applied  to 
every  main  laid,  there  would  be  many  streets  which  a  2-  or  3-inch 
would  supply  amply.  For  either  size,  cast  iron  is  out  of  the 
question,  because  of  the  structural  weakness  of  such  small  pipe. 
As  has  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  "Material, "(page  53), 
steel  is  well  adapted  for  those  cases  where  the  soil  is  good, 
and  where  there  is  almost  absolute  certainty  that  a  2-  or  3-inch 
will  be  large  enough  for  twenty  or  thirty  years  to  come.  The 
difference  in  cost  between  a  2-inch  or  3-inch,  and  a  4-inch  is  so 
small,  especially  under  paved  streets,  that  a  careless  use  of  these 
small  sizes  generally  will  be  more  expensive  in  the  long  run  than  a 
policy  of  laying  nothing  less  than  4-inch,  except  after  careful 
consideration.  There  are  certain  locations,  where,  because  of 
physical  configuration  or  lay  out  of  streets,  it  practically  is 
certain  that  a  small  stretch  of  main  will  never  be  extended. 
This  being  the  case,  and  the  possibilities  of  consumption  along 
the  stretch  being  pretty  well  known,  there  comes  the  chance  for 
the  2-  or  3-inch.  The  use  of  such  sizes,  on  streets  wrhich  are 
extended  block  after  block  until  finally  what  started  out  as  a  line 
100  feet  long  has  reached  1000,  with  prospect  of  still  further 
extension,  results  in  poor  service  and  ultimately  increased  ex- 
pense. The  advocates  of  2-inch  mains  for  towns  as  large  as 
100,000,  even  though  such  mains  are  only  400  or  500  feet  long  and 
connect  at  both  ends  to  4-inch,  or  larger,  have  the  burden  of 
proof  upon  them  in  these  days  of  paved  streets  and  heavy  in- 
stantaneous demand  of  gas  for  water  heating,  or  for  industrial 
purposes. 

As  stated  above,  4-inch  is  the  smallest  size  to  be  laid  in  any 
town  without  careful  consideration.  In  cities  of  500,000,  or  over, 
the  policy  of  laying  more  6-inch  than  4-inch  often  is  justified, 
while  if  the  development  is  that  of  flats  many  stories  high,  8-inch 
should  be  considered  frequently.  If  the  development  of  terri- 


66  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

tory,  and  the  opening  of  definite  streets,  always  could  be  fore- 
seen correctly,  the  policy  of  laying  mains  capable  only  of  caring 
for,  say,  1000  feet  of  street  would  be  justified,  but  as  develop- 
ment usually  does  not  occur  exactly  as  anticipated,  the  company 
in  a  large  city  which  has  used  4-inch  very  extensively,  soon  finds 
itself  with  a  lack  of  pressure  throughout  a  large  territory,  and 
whether  this  is  cured  by  enlarging  mains  and  maintaining  the 
ordinary  system  of  low  pressure  distribution,  or  by  special  high 
pressure  main  feeding  into  the  low  pressure  network,  the  cost  of 
this  remedial  work,  with  congested  conditions  and  paved  streets, 
generally  will  make  the  total  investment  for  the  territory  in 
question  greater  than  if  a  liberal  policy  in  the  use  of  6-inch  mains 
had  been  followed.  When  it  is  realized  that  if  the  cost  of  a  6-inch 
main,  laid  before  paving,  is  called  100,  the  cost  of  the  same  work 
through  asphalt  paving  is  180,  it  is  very  apparent  that  the  small 
percentage  of  increase  on  the  total  cost  represented  by  the 
material  cost  of  6-inch  over  4-inch,  is  apt  to  prove  a  cheap 
insurance  from  future  expense. 

Where  the  ordinary  mains  are  a  little  larger  than  their  usual 
demand  would  require,  experience  generally  will  show  that  the 
number  of  sizes  of  main  needed  in  any  system  will  be  few. 
When  6-inch  is  the  general  size  used,  8-inch  practically  will 
never  be  needed,  and  12-inch  only  sparingly,  for  the  network  of 
6-inch  mains  will  be  fed  by  16- or  20-inch,  and  they  in  turn  sup- 
plied by  24-inch,  30-inch,  36-inch,  or  even  larger.  This  reduction 
of  the  number  of  sizes  in  use  in  a  large  city  is  an  inevitable  result 
of  following  out  the  essentially  wise  policy,  already  touched  on,  of 
overestimating,  rather  than  underestimating,  the  size  of  any  main. 
A  point  of  paramou'nt  importance  in  this  connection  not  yet 
alluded  to,  is  the  limited  space  available  for  underground  struc- 
tures, a  space  which  rapidly  is  proving  inadequate  to  the  demands 
of  modern  civilization.  To  lay  a  12-inch  in  place  of  a  16-inch,  a 
16-inch  in  place  of  a  20-inch,  etc.,  in  a  street  rapidly  becoming 
congested,  unless  it  absolutely  is  certain  that  the  larger  size  will 
never  be  needed,  is  a  short-sighted  policy  that  will  cost  dearly  in 
the  end.  Again,  in  the  outskirts,  where  underground  congestion 
need  not  be  considered,  the  same  chance  of  not  appreciating  how 
far  a  territory  would  develop  (spoken  of  in  connection  with  2-inch 
mains)  makes  wise  a  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  feeding  mains. 
A  peculiarly  aggravated  case  is  where  the  feeding  main  is  quite 
long,  traversing  a  tract  of  undeveloped  land  to  get  to  a  settlement 
beyond.  To  lay,  say,  15,000  feet  of  12-inch  under  these  condi- 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  67 

tions,  and  then  find  in  five  years  that  the  main  is  becoming  over- 
loaded, is  by  no  means  as  economical  as  laying  a  16-inch  in 
the  first  place. 

EXTENSION  IN  ADVANCE  OF  PAVING 

Whether  a  main  should  be  laid  in  any  street  prior  to  the  need 
for  gas,  to  avoid  future  disturbance  of  paving,  is,  in  general,  more 
often  a  legal  or  an  economic,  rather  than  an  engineering,  question. 
When  the  decision  as  to  the  extension  rests  with  the  gas  company, 
and  the  probable  data  of  needed  gas  supply  indicates  that  the 
interest  on  the  anticipated  investment  will  be  equal  to,  or  less 
than,  the  cost  of  paving,  it  is  good  policy  to  lay  the  main,  selecting 
as  far  as  possible  the  location  which  will  involve  the  shortest 
future  services.  Governmental  bodies  often  attach  undue 
importance  to  the  completion  of  all  underground  structures  prior 
to  paving,  losing  sight  of  the  many  cases  where  the  loss  in  capital 
for  structures  provided  but  never  used,  and  in  interest  for  all  the 
structures,  far  exceeds  the  cost  of  paving  repairs  that  would  be 
needed  if  structures  were  installed  only  as  required.  On  the 
other  hand,  public  service  companies  should  not  be  penny  wise 
and  pound  foolish  as  to  main  extensions. 

LOCATION   DETAILS 
FOOTWAY  vs.  ROADWAY 

The  question  as  to  whether  a  footway  or  a  roadway  location  is 
preferable  fora  main,  is  one  which  often  is  decided  by  the  condi- 
tions obtaining  for  the  particular  main  in  question.  A  few 
general  considerations,  however,  may  be  stated.  Where  services 
will  be  needed  on  one  side  only,  and  there  will  be  a  main  on 
each  side  of  the  street;  where  both  the  roadway  and  footway  are 
very  wide;  where  the  roadway  would  involve  greater  paving 
expense  than  the  footway,  in  all  these  cases  a  roadway  location 
requires  specific  justification.  On  the  other  hand,  a  footway 
location  may  possess  the  following  objectionable  features,  none  of 
which  pertain  to  a  roadway  location :  liability  of  present  or  future 
harm  to  trees;  opposition  of  householders  to  disturbance  of 
footway  paving,  either  when  laying  the  main  or  when  searching 
for  leaks  later  on  ;  necessity  for  greater  depth  when  there  is  but 
one  main,  and  services  are  run  to  opposite  side;  proximity  to 
house  walls,  increasing  chance  for  a  broken  main  to  deliver 
enough  gas  into  a  house  during  the  night  to  cause  asphyxiation. 


68  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

Applying  these  truths  to  specific  cases,  a  footway  location 
generally  is  preferable  where  there  is  business  on  one  side  of  the 
street  only,  or  where  there  is  a  main  on  each  side  of  the  street, 
except  where  it  involves  more  installation  expense,  or  would 
bring  the  main  nearer  than  five  feet  to  the  house  wall.  A  road- 
way location  generally  is  preferable  where  it  will  avoid  chance  of 
injuring  trees,  or  cement  footway  paving,  and  in  most  cases  of 
only  one  main  on  a  street.  In  Philadelphia,  where  the  normal 
development  is  that  of  houses  14  to  18  feet  wide,  built  up  in  solid 
rows  on  streets  varying  from  a  total  width  of  40  feet,  with  18  feet 
from  curb  to  curb,  to  streets  60  feet,  with  34  feet  from  curb  to 
curb,  the  street  being  asphalt,  and  the  footways  cement,  with 
perhaps  a  narrow  grass  strip  at  the  curb,  the  roadway  location  is 
preferred.  The  work  is  done  almost  invariably  before  any 
paving  is  laid,  and  usually,  because  of  trees,  the  grass  strip  is  not 
available  for  the  main.  Therefore,  a  footway  main  would  involve 
future  disturbance  of  footway  paving  in  case  of  leaks,  and  a 
greater  depth  on  account  of  carrying  services  across  the  street. 
This  refers  to  the  usual  case  of  one  main  in  the  street.  Where 
two  mains  are  laid  because  of  greater  width  than  60  feet,  or 
because  of  car  tracks,  as  will  be  spoken  of  later,  the  general 
policy  still  is  to  prefer  a  roadway  location,  except  for  great 
width,  as  for  instance  80  feet  or  more,  accompanied  by  44  feet 
or  more  from  curb  to  curb.  In  such  cases,  the  footways  are  so 
wide  that  a  location  in  the  roadway  would  mean  quite  a  long 
service,  and  it  generally  is  possible  to  so  lay  in  the  footway  as  not 
to  interfere  with  trees,  or  to  be  under  much  cement  paving. 

ONE  vs.  Two  MAINS  ON  A  STREET 

Whether  there  should  be  one  or  two  mains  in  any  street 
usually  is  a  question  of  comparative  cost,  though  occasionally  in 
small  towns,  where  streets  have  been  paved  before  the  advent  of 
gas,  no  permission  will  be  granted  for  disturbing  the  paving 
either  for  mains  or  services,  and  a  main  must  be  laid  in  each 
footway.  This  is  not  a  great  hardship  often,  however,  for  the 
saving  in  the  length  of  services  repays  a  good  deal  of  the  cost  of 
the  extra  main.  In  cities  with  a  congestion  of  underground 
structures,  it  often  is  advisable  to  lay  two  mains  in  order  to  avoid 
danger  to  services,  due  to  their  crossing  over  and  under  many 
structures,  and  being  exposed  to  injury  every  time  the  street  is 
opened.  Also,  it  often  is  difficult  to  find  a  way  across  the  street 
without  laying  so  nearly  level  as  to  risk  future  traps.  Of  course, 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  69 

the  cases  where  no  way  can  be  found  without  a  service  drip, 
should  of  necessity  mean  two  mains,  for  ordinarily  there  are  too 
many  services  to  a  block  to  warrant  a  drip  on  each  service, 
instead  of  two  mains. 

Subject  to  exceptions,  because  of  individual  cases  where  cost 
might  govern,  the  Philadelphia  practice  is  to  lay  one  main  on 
streets  70  feet  or  less  in  total  width,  and  without  car  tracks,  and 
two  mains  on  wider  streets.  With  one  car  track,  in  congested 
portions,  two  mains  would  be  laid  on  all  streets  except  where  the 
services  were  not  close  together;  and  in  the  outskirts,  on  streets 
60  feet  and  over  in  total  width.  With  two  car  tracks,  two  mains 
always  would  be  laid,  except  where  services  were  not  more  than 
four  to  every  100  feet  of  main. 

The  question  of  paving,  of  course,  influences  the  relative  cost 
of  one  vs.  two  mains  tremendously.  The  condition  most  apt  to 
be  met  with  when  any  paving  enters  into  the  problem,  is  where 
the  street  is  paved  with  asphalt  and  no  main  has  been  laid 
because  the  development  of  the  land  was  in  doubt.  Houses  are 
now  being  built  on  both  sides  of  a  block  400  feet  long,  25  on  each 
side.  When  the  street  is  60  feet  or  more  in  total  width,  two 
footway  mains  generally  will  prove  cheaper  than  one  main  with 
services  crossing  the  asphalt.  Where  only  one  side  is  being  built 
up,  and  it  is  a  question  what  will  be  the  development  of  the  other 
side,  of  course,  the  footway  location  is  to  be  secured  if  possible. 

DISTANCE  IN  OR  OUT  FROM  CURB 

There  are  many  advantages  in  having  a  standard  location,  i.  e., 
in  always  laying  a  main  at  a  fixed  distance  from  the  curb  line. 
There  are  some  towns,  it  is  true,  where  few  curbs  are  in  existence, 
and  distances  are  measured  from  the  fence  line,  but  these  are 
comparatively  few.  A  fixed  location  obviates  the  necessity  of 
furnishing  sketches  to  service  gangs,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  side  of 
the  street  and  whether  in  roadway  or  footway,  is  all  that  is 
required  to  uncover  the  main.  Also,  the  location  of  street  leaks 
is  made  easier. 

In  small  towns,  the  location  of  the  main  generally  is  entirely  in 
the  power  of  the  company,  and  in  cities,  where  location  is  by 
permit  and  as  prescribed  by  local  authority,  a  standard  distance 
generally  is  assigned  to  every  class  of  underground  structure. 
Thus,  the  gas  main  is  located  3  feet  6  inches  out  from  the  curb,  the 
water  pipe  at  4  feet  6  inches,  the  telephone  conduit  at  6  feet,  the 


70  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

sewer  at  8  feet,  and  the  street  railroad  conduit  at  9  feet,  just 
outside  the  track.  The  theory  is  all  right,  but  in  practice  two 
difficulties  are  encountered,  viz.,  that  the  available  space  is  not 
sufficient  always  for  the  structures  desiring  to  occupy  it,  and  the 
theoretical  centre  lines  often  are  not  far  enough  apart.  Also, 
the  water  pipe  and  sewers  laid  by  municipal  departments  are  not 
so  apt  to  be  placed  at  their  standard  locations  as  they  should  be, 
for  the  reason  that  neither  the  water  nor  the  sewer  department 
is  as  amenable  to  discipline  as  the  private  corporations. 

The  best  roadway  location  for  a  gas  main  usually  is  as  close  to 
the  curb  as  possible,  because  it  is  advisable  that  the  services 
cross  the  fewest  number  of  other  structures.  This  condition  is 
fulfilled  by  a  main  close  to  the  curb,  for  it  always  must  be 
assumed  that  if  there  is  only  one  main  in  the  street,  it  will  be 
located  on  the  side  having  the  most  services.  Experience  has 
shown  that  with  a  centre  line  3  feet,  or  3  feet  6  inches  out,  there 
is  very  little  chance  of  any  other  structure  being  laid  between 
the  main  and  the  curb.  A  location  nearer  the  curb  is  unde- 
sirable, because  when  main  laying  occurs  after  curbsetting,  there 
would  be  great  danger  of  the  curb  settling,  and  also  when  laying 
in  a  paved  street,  it  generally  would  be  necessary  on  repaving 
to  remove  the  thin  strip  of  paving  left  between  the  curb  and  the 
inside  edge  of  the  trench,  —  quite  an  additional  expense.  Three 
feet  six  inches  will  do  for  mains  12-inch  and  under,  extending  to 
5  and  6  feet  for  sizes  up  to  30-inch.  Where  a  main,  generally  a 
large  one,  is  not  used  for  services,  the  reason  for  a  near-curb 
location  is  absent,  and  one  near  the  centre  of  the  street  generally 
is  preferable,  for  this  usually  will  mean  fewer  services  of  all  kinds 
crossing  the  trench  and  adding  to  the  laying  difficulties.  Such 
mains  are  so  few  that  there  is  no  objection  to  deviating  from 
the  standard  location. 

A  standard  location  for  a  footway  main  may  be  difficult  to 
establish  because  of  varying  tree  locations  and  widths  of  foot- 
ways (both  total  and  paved  widths).  In  Philadelphia,  where 
the  total  footway  width  generally  is  12  or  13  feet,  and  the 
houses  are  built  on  the  property  line,  a  location  of  5  feet  inside 
the  curb  is  acceptable,  for  it  clears  any  trees,  and  while  usually  it 
runs  under  the  footway  paving,  this  cannot  be  avoided,  for  a 
location  under  the  grass  strip  would  bring  tree  trouble.  The 
5-foot  location  also  ensures  a  fair  distance  from  the  house  walls. 
In  a  town,  or  the  residential  portions  of  a  city  where  there  are 
wide  footways  and  the  houses  are  back  from  the  property  line,  a 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  71 

location  inside  of  the  paved  portion  of  the  footway,  say  10  or  12 
feet  inside  the  curb,  will  be  preferable,  unless  because  of  an 
inside  row  of  trees. 

So  far  the  influence  of  the  proximity  of  other  structures  as 
affecting  the  location  of  the  gas  main,  has  not  been  considered. 
Naturally,  it  is  desirable  that  a  pipe  should  not  settle  after  it  is 
laid,  nor  be  liable  to  injury  by  street  openings  made  for  other 
structures.  For  protection  against  future  settling,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  as  far  away  as  possible  from  recent  trenches  of  depth 
greater  than  that  proposed  for  the  gas  main.  Sewers  are  usually 
the  only  structures  whose  trenches  form  any  menace,  and  of 
course,  in  many  cases  the  sewer  has  been  laid  so  long  that  there  is 
no  more  settling  to  be  feared.  If,  however,  the  sewer  has  been 
laid  but  a  few  years,  it  generally  is  advisable  to  lay  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  street,  rather  than  come  nearer  than  three  feet 
from  centre  of  sewer  to  centre  of  main.  When  there  is  no  sewer, 
its  probable  future  location  should  be  obtained  before  deciding 
on  the  location  for  the  gas  main. 

Under  city  conditions,  it  often  is  not  possible  to  be  so  located 
that  the  main  will  not  be  more  or  less  uncovered  when  another 
structure  is  repaired,  or  laid.  One  of  the  advantages  of  a  location 
close  to  the  curb  is  that  it  generally  is  an  insurance  against  inter- 
ference on  the  curb  side.  In  laying  parallel  to  a  conduit  system 
with  frequent  manholes,  it  is,  of  course,  advisable  to  keep  far 
enough  away  to  clear  the  manhole  walls  without  deviating  from  a 
straight  line.  Where  conditions  are  so  congested  that  the  only 
available  location  is  over,  or  under,  some  structure,  if  laying  over 
a  conduit  will  give  sufficient  depth,  then  even  with  the  necessary 
deviations  for  manholes,  this  should  be  preferred  to  a  location 
over  a  sewer  or  water  pipe,  for  a  solid  support  may  be  obtained 
from  the  conduit,  the  chances  of  its  needing  repairs  are  fewer,  and 
the  dangers  incident  to  a  break  in  water  main,  or  sewer,  are 
avoided.  If  there  is  no  chance,  except  to  go  under  some 
structure,  then  lay  under  the  water  pipe. 

DEAD  ENDS 

Connected  with  the  general  subject  of  main  locations  is  the 
question  of  "dead  ends,"  or,  expressed  in  another  way,  under 
what  conditions  should  mains  be  laid  where  no  services  are 
required,  and  the  main  serves  only  to  close  what  otherwise  would 
be  a  gap.  Formerly  these  objections  were  advanced  against  a 


72  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

dead  end,  —  first,  it  increased  the  chance  of  interruption  of 
supply;  second,  it  was  apt  to  be  a  cause  of  poor  supply;  and 
third,  where  the  use  of  gas  was  small,  the  gas  supplied  was  apt  to 
be  of  low  candle  power,  as  there  might  be  many  hours  between 
the  time  of  leaving  the  works  and  reaching  a  burner.  With  the 
use  of  larger  street  mains  and  better  methods  of  manufacture, 
the  last  two  objections  to  a  dead  end  do  not  exist,  and  only  the 
first  remains,  but  under  proper  distribution  organization,  any 
chance  of  interruption  of  supply  through  normal  distribution 
work  is  rendered  negligible,  and  the  danger  arising  from  outside 
causes  is  also  so  slight  as  not  to  warrant  connecting  up  the 
ordinary  dead  end. 

In  Philadelphia,  the  city  plan  comprises  two  sets  of  "  principal " 
streets  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  about  450  feet  apart. 
Through  every  block  thus  formed,  minor  streets  may  be  laid  out 
as  suits  the  owners  of  the  abutting  land.  Usually  two  such 
minor  streets  are  opened,  parallel  to  each  other,  but  in  one  block 
they  may  run  north  and  south  and  in  an  adjoining  block  east  and 
west.  This  lack  of  continuity  in  the  minor  streets  affords  many 
places  where  to  continue  a  main  in  a  minor  street  until  it  joined 
a  main  in  a  principal  street,  would  mean  60  to  100  feet  of  main 
passing  by  the  gable  end  of  a  house,  and  not  needed  for  services. 
Therefore,  in  minor  streets,  the  Philadelphia  practice  is  to  lay  the 
shortest  length  of  main  necessary  for  supply  to  services,  no 
matter  how  many  dead  ends  might  be  caused.  This  usually 
means  that  the  mains  fed  from  one  end  are  not  longer  than  400 
feet.  Where  the  minor  streets  happen  to  be  continuous,  and  the 
main  extends  over  two  blocks,  a  dead  end  would  be  avoided  at 
the  end  of  the  third  block  if  there  were  no  connections  at  the 
intersecting  principal  streets,  for  otherwise  there  would  be  a  main 
about  1400  feet  long,  fed  from  one  end  only,  and  it  would  be 
considered  advisable  to  lay  the  necessary  sixty  or  one  hundred 
feet  to  avoid  the  dead  end. 

LOCATION  OF  BRANCHES 

There  is  often  a  chance  for  a  good  deal  of  judgment  in  the  loca- 
tion of  branches  for  mains  not  immediately  needed.  This  is 
true  especially  in  Philadelphia,  where,  as  already  has  been 
explained,  the  definite  location  of  minor  streets  is  uncertain  until 
actually  opened.  In  mains  under  12-inch,  it  generally  is  not 
advisable  to  locate  branches  in  this  uncertainty.  Where  the  line  of 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  73 

the  intersecting  street  is  known,  but  there  is  doubt  as  to  how  the 
houses  will  face,  and  which  side  of  the  street  will  contain  the  most 
houses,  and,  therefore,  other  things  being  equal,  should  be  chosen 
for  the  future  main,  it  will  not  pay  to  locate  the  branch  in  mains 
under  12-inch  unless  the  street  on  which  the  main  is  being  laid 
is  unpaved,  and  will  be  paved  before  the  intersecting  street  is 
developed.  In  this  case,  in  order  to  save  paving,  a  branch 
should  be  located,  and  the  proper  side  line,  or  lines,  extended  from 
it  to  the  limits  of  the  proposed  paving.  If  later  on,  the  side 
chosen  proves  inferior  to  the  other  side,  a  crossing  should  be 
made,  preferably  at  45°.  Where  the  street  on  which  the  main 
work  is  being  done  is  paved,  there  is,  of  course,  no  reason  for 
deciding  upon  a  branch  location  in  an  uncertainty. 

In  mains  12-  and  16-inch,  the  cost  of  inserting  a  branch  after 
the  pipe  is  laid,  is  enough  to  make  it  generally  worth  while  to 
decide  as  best  may  be,  on  the  location  of  all  branches  as  the  main 
is  laid.  In  this  case,  where  there  is  no  paving  expense  to  be 
saved,  the  side  line  would  consist  of  a  short  bagging  piece  out  of 
each  arm  of  the  branch,  in  order  to  make  an  investment  which 
never  may  be  used,  as  small  as  possible.  For  mains  20-inch  and 
over,  the  use  of  hub  sleeve,  or  hat  flange,  for  connecting  to  branch 
mains,  makes  it  advisable  to  omit  the  branch  in  most  cases  of 
doubt,  where  paving  expense  will  not  be  increased. 

Where  there  is  a  standard  distance  for  the  gas  main,  of  course, 
all  branches  will  be  set  with  reference  to  this  distance.  Informa- 
tion should  be  obtained  as  to  the  location  of  other  structures 
proposed  for  the  intersecting  street,  and  this  may  prove  the 
deciding  factor  as  to  the  side  chosen. 

Experience  in  Philadelphia  shows  that  the  use  of  tees,  as 
compared  to  crosses,  is  about  4  to  1.  Of  course,  a  good  deal  of 
this  is  owing  to  the  discontinuity  of  the  minor  streets,  but  it 
also  is  true  that  for  the  principal  streets,  tees  are  more  often 
needed,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  tendency  of  the  average 
gang  foreman  is  to  lay  a  cross  where  two  tees  would  best  care  for 
the  needs  of  the  intersection. 

The  foregoing  has  been  written  from  the  standpoint  of  main 
extension  in  a  developing  territory.  When  renewing  mains,  the 
location  of  branches  generally  is  determined  by  existing  pipe. 
If,  however,  an  intersecting  pipe  is  of  a  size  so  small  that  it 
probably  will  be  replaced  later  on,  and  it  is  not  at  the  standard 
location,  or  on  the  preferable  side  of  the  street,  then  the  branch 
should  be  located  in  the  line  of  the  proposed  new  intersecting 


74  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

main,  and  connection  made  to  the  existing  main  in  the  most 
economical  way,  this  generally  involving  crossing  over  at  a  45° 
angle,  and  laying  pipe  of  a  size  smaller  than  the  standard  size,  in 
order  to  keep  down  any  investment  to  be  abandoned  later  on. 

DEPTH 

The  four  reasons  for  laying  mains  deeper  than  would  suffice  in 
an  impaved  street  just  to  cover  them,  and  in  a  paved  street,  to 
clear  the  paving,  are,  first,  to  enable  services  to  drain  into  the 
mains;  second,  to  protect  from  injury,  due  to  stresses  brought 
about  by  street  traffic ;  third,  to  decrease  chances  of  leakage,  due 
to  temperature  changes;  fourth,  to  avoid  other  sub-surface 
structures.  The  first  reason  probably  could  be  satisfied  in  most 
cases  by  a  depth  of  two  feet,  and  in  latitudes  south  of  Washington, 
in  small  towns  with  no  heavy  street  traffic,  such  a  depth  might  be 
made  the  standard  with  mains  of  standard  weight,  and  4-inch 
the  smallest  size.  (In  every  case  here  mentioned,  depth  means 
distance  from  the  top  of  the  main  to  the  street  surface). 

In  cities  and  large  towns,  3  feet  is  considered  the  proper  depth 
to  satisfy  the  second  and  third  reasons,  and  probably  is  standard 
practice  throughout  the  country,  except  in  the  New  England 
States  and  those  on  the  northern  frontier,  where  4  feet  or  more 
is  the  practice  of  some  managers  to  avoid  temperature  changes. 
Unfortunately  there  is  very  little  data  as  to  just  at  what  point  a 
rise,  or  fall,  in  main  temperature  begins  to  cause  GO  many  broken 
mains,  or  leaky  joints,  as  to  make  the  increased  cost  of  greater 
depth  advisable  to  decrease  the  temperature  range.  It  is  prob- 
able that  most  mains  are  laid  and  joints  made  with  the  pipe  tem- 
perature ranging  from  60°  to  70°.  Main  temperature  records  for 
11  years  in  Philadelphia  indicate  that  for  normal  years,  the 
range  is  from  30°  to  78°.  Therefore,  the  greatest  stress  comes 
on  the  main  in  the  winter,  and  both  for  lead  and  cement  joints  it 
would  seem  to  be  good  policy  to  keep  the  pipe  temperature  while 
laying  under,  rather  than  over  60°.  Philadelphia  experience  has 
shown  that  during  normal  winters,  leaky  joints  and  broken 
mains,  in  sizes  4-inch  and  over,  are  not  many,  and  even  in  one 
very  cold  winter,  with  the  frost  line  at 30  to 36  inches,  instead  of 
the  usual  17  to  20  inches,  the  trouble  experienced  with  mains  4-inch 
and  over,  properly  laid,  would  not  justify  a  standard  depth  of 
more  than  3  feet.  In  other  words,  the  pipe  temperatures  at  which 
the  Philadelphia  mains  are  laid,  seem  to  be  low  enough  so  that  a 
drop  to  30°  does  not  set  up  a  stress  strong  enough  to  crack  the 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  75 

ordinary  sized  pipe,  or  break  the  cement  joint.  Main  tempera- 
ture records  from  cold  climates  extending  over  several  years,  and 
referring  to  various  depths,  together  \vith  leaks  in  mains  at 
various  depths,  would  be  of  great  value  to  enable  some  opinion 
to  be  formed  as  to  just  what  minimum  temperature  justified 
certain  depths,  or  rather  below  what  minimum  temperature, 
leaks  became  so  frequent  as  to  necessitate  a  depth  secure  against 
such  temperature. 

Considering  pipe  16-inch  or  over,  the  amount  of  such  sizes  in 
any  one  city  is  comparatively  limited,  and  as  the  joint,  whether 
of  cement  or  lead,  of  such  pipe  when  opposed  to  a  contraction 
stress,  seems  to  be  the  weakest  point,  the  pipe  probably  begins  to 
leak  under  less  range  of  temperature  than,  say,  a  6-inch,  where 
with  cement  joints,  the  joint  is  stronger  than  the  pipe.  Hence, 
considering  the  cost  of  finding  and  stopping  leaks  in  a  large 
pipe,  the  laying  of  large  mains  at  a  greater  depth  than  3  feet 
might  in  any  city  of  the  same,  or  higher,  latitude  than  Phila- 
delphia be  regarded  as  a  wise  measure. 

The  above  paragraphs  were  written  prior  to  1912.  During  the 
first  two  months  of  that  year,  the  temperatures  east  of  longitude 
105°  \V.  were  the  lowest  for  40  years.  In  other  words,  these  were 
the  most  severe  conditions  ever  experienced  by  modern  gas  dis- 
tribution systems.  They  resulted  generally  in  an  unprecedented 
number  of  main  and  service  leaks,  severely  taxing  the  physical 
resources  of  many  companies.  An  investigation  of  36  cities, 
embracing  extremes  of  population,  showed  as  follows: 

1.  The  broken  mains  usually  were  4-inch  or  smaller, 
and  with  poor  foundation. 

2.  Breaks  were  most  numerous  in  those  cities  where 
the  frost  line  just  reached  the  main. 

3.  Breaks  or  leaks  were  few  comparatively  where  the 
frost  line  went  decidedly  below  the  main. 

Therefore,  it  is  justifiable  to  conclude  that  even  under  extreme 
conditions,  mains  4-inch  and  larger,  with  a  good  foundation,  will 
give  little  trouble,  and  that  except  in  such  localities  where  a 
depth  of,  say,  4  feet  always  will  be  below  frost,  there  is  no  advan- 
tage commensurate  with  the  increased  expense,  to  be  gained  by 
laying  mains  with  more  than  3  feet  cover. 

Considering  the  fourth  reason,  —  the  avoidance  of  other 
structures,  — just  how  much  of  a  deviation  above  or  below  the 
standard  depth  should  thus  be  caused,  ordinarily  is  a  case  for 
individual  judgment.  Where  the  main  is  small,  the  cost  of 


76  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

moving  the  structure  usually  is  not  justified  if  the  choice  lies 
between  going  above  or  below  it.  Where  the  main  is  large,  sewer 
drains  from  houses,  or  street  inlets,  water  services,  or  any  small 
structures,  should  be  removed  rather  than  to  deviate  from 
standard  cover  by,  say,  more  than  9  inches  down  or  6  inches  up, 
or  than  to  use  specials  to  make  the  necessary  deviations  in  line. 
A  small  water  main,  or  a  connection  to  a  fire  hydrant  would  not 
be  changed  except  to  avoid  somewhat  more  deflection  than  above 
considered.  For  any  main,  except  for  comparatively  short 
distances,  say,  less  than  50  feet,  4  feet  cover  is  preferable  to  2, 
5  feet  to  21  inches,  and  6  feet  to  18  inches. 

VALVES 
USE  FOR  VALVES 

The  ordinary  distribution  pressure  obtaining  in  gas  mains 
makes  the  shutting  off  of  gas  flow  by  means  of  stoppers  or  bags  so 
easy  that  the  universal  use  of  valves  at  almost  every  street  inter- 
section, following  water  practice,  is  not  justified,  and  there 
probably  is  only  one  large  city,  viz.,  Boston,  where  the  main 
system  may  be  valved  off  in  small  sections.  The  only  justifica- 
tion for  continuing  there  the  installation  of  valves  is  that  the 
investment  already  is  so  considerable  that  the  comparatively 
slight  annual  expense  involved  is  worth  while.  When,  however, 
the  maintenance  cost  of  such  a  valve  system  is  considered,  and 
the  few  occasions  for  its  use  known,  the  conclusion  seems  inevit- 
able that  the  maintenance  of  an  extensive  system  of  valves  is 
an  unjustifiable  extravagance.  Before  the  days  of  fuel  use  of 
gas,  when  there  was  no  reason  why  the  supply  should  not  be  shut 
off  during  daylight  hours,  valves  were  a  great  convenience  in 
shutting  off  for  repair  work,  or  in  testing  a  section  of  main  for 
leakage.  At  the  present  time,  however,  gas  supply  is  supposed 
never  to  be  cut  off,  except  when  renewing  the  service  to  the 
consumer  in  question,  and  even  then  there  are  many  occasions 
when  the  old  service  must  be  kept  in  use  until  the  new  one 
practically  is  completed.  Therefore,  the  ordinary  street  main 
valve  is  closed  only  in  times  of  great  emergency,  and  these  occur 
too  seldom  and  are  coped  with  too  successfully  by  the  process  of 
bagging  off,  to  warrant  a  general  use  of  valves. 

There  are,  however,  some  locations  where  valves  amply  are 
justified.  Such  are  wherever  there  is  some  especial  reason  to 
believe  an  occasion  will  arise  for  desiring  a  speedy  shut-off  in 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM 


77 


VALVt      TEi-ST      PIP&5 
Figure  1,  page  78. 


78  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

certain  definite  locations,  as,,  for  instance,  on  mains  leading  from 
holder  or  manufacturing  stations;  on  branch  lines  of  large  size 
from  trunk  mains,  where  such  branch  line  supplies  a  definite 
district  at  points  where  occasionally  need  arises  to  change  the 
direction  of  gas  flow;  on  large  mains  crossing  trunk  sewers, 
exceeding,  say,  8  feet  in  diameter,  especially  when  such  sewers  are 
known  to  be  of  poor  construction,  and  liable  to  collapse  during 
any  hard  storm ;  on  bridge  mains  over  pieces  of  water  liable  to 
freshets.  In  the  last  two  locations  mentioned,  two  valves,  one 
on  each  side  of  bridge,  or  sewer,  are,  of  course,  needed  if  the 
supply  of  gas  may  come  from  either  direction. 

TYPE  OF  VALVE 

The  type  of  valve  to  be  used  preferably  is  of  double-gate  con- 
struction. Three  holes  should  be  tapped  in  the  valve  body,  and 
pipes  brought  to  the  surface  as  shown  in  Figure  1.  The  hole 
between  the  gates  affords  a  chance  of  testing  the  tightness  of  the 
valve,  as  a  burner  attached  to  the  proper  standpipe  will  go  out 
if  the  valve  is  perfectly  tight.  Also,  in  case  a  slight  leak  develops, 
the  central  standpipe  affords  a  means  of  pouring  water  down 
between  the  gates,  and  thus  securing  absolute  tightness.  The 
holes  on  each  side  of  the  gates  afford  a  chance  to  observe  the  dif- 
ference in  pressure  conditions  occasioned  by  shutting  the  valve, 
while,  the  valve  being  open,  any  one  of  the  three  standpipes  are 
available  for  a  pressure  record  of  the  main. 

VALVE  Box 

There  is  room  for  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  size  and 
design  of  valve  box.  The  type  used  in  Philadelphia  is  shown  in 
Figure  2,  and  was  adopted  in  the  belief  that  it  was  large  enough 
to  allow  in  most  cases,  the  repacking  of  the  gland,  and  that  the 
occasion  for  any  other  work  on  a  valve  would  be  so  rare  as  not  to 
warrant  the  expense  involved  by  placing  every  valve  in  a  man- 
hole large  enough  to  care  for  every  contingency. 

INSPECTION  OF  VALVES 

In  order  to  ensure  its  effectiveness  in  an  emergency,  every  street 
main  valve  should  be  inspected  at  regular  intervals.  Once  a  year 
is  often  enough,  and  summer,  or  fall  before  the  advent  of  cold 
weather,  is  a  good  time. 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM 
Q 


79 


VALVEi    BOX 

Figure  2,  page  78. 


80  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

This  inspection  should  be  made  in  the  following  manner: 
Remove  the  nuts  holding  the  stuffing  box  gland  in  place  and  raise 
the  latter.  If  there  is  no  leak  around  the  stem  and  the  packing 
is  in  good  condition  but  dry,  apply  a  little  graphite  grease  on 
its  upper  surface,  and  by  means  of  an  oil  can,  squirt  oil  dag 
between  the  packing  and  the  valve  stem.  If  there  is  a  slight 
leakage  it  probably  can  be  stopped  by  caulking  the  packing, 
unless  the  latter  is  in  poor  condition.  Any  necessary  replace- 
ment of  packing  may  be  made  by  separating  the  flax  into  the 
individual  strands  (about  ^g-inch  diameter)  and  then  caulking 
them  into  place.  An  application  of  oil  dag  in  this  as  in  the 
former  case  will  ensure  lubrication  of  the  stem  through  and 
below  the  packing,  beyond  the  penetrating  power  of  the  graphite 
grease. 

The  valve  stem  should  be  turned  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
it  is  not  stuck  in  place.  This  turning  should  be  through  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  whole  distance  from  open  to  shut,  except 
where  not  possible  because  of  conditions  of  gas  supply.  A  valve 
may  be  closed  one-quarter  without  affecting  pressure  in  any  way, 
and  under  ordinary  conditions,  much  further  without  causing 
serious  loss  in  pressure.  In  the  case  of  valves  normally  shut, 
whether  they  may  be  lifted  at  all,  and  if  so,  off  their  seats,  will 
depend,  in  the  first  instance,  upon  whether  the  chance  of  getting 
dirt  under  the  seats  is  too  great  to  warrant  moving  the  valve; 
and  in  the  second,  upon  the  local  conditions  of  supply. 

A  good  mixture  of  graphite  grease  is  composed  of  one  part  of 
cup  grease  to  ten  parts  of  Dixon  No.  2  flake  graphite.  The  oil 
dag  is  a  trade  preparation,  and  as  used,  is  diluted  with  fifteen 
parts  of  lubricating  oil. 

DRIPS 

The  great  increase  in  the  number  of  underground  structures, 
brought  about  by  the  demands  of  modern  civilization,  has 
resulted  in  many  more  drips  to  the  mile  than  was  the  case  in  the 
early  days  when  the  gas  main  shared  the  street  with  the  water  and 
the  sewer.  In  many  cities,  one  drip  to  each  intersection  in  the 
central  sections  is  quite  a  general  rule.  Where  grades  are  fairly 
steep,  drips  often  may  be  avoided  by  laying  deep  or  shallow. 
The  objection  to  being  deep  is,  of  course,  the  extra  cost,  and  to 
being  shallow,  the  increased  chance  of  breaks  or  leaks.  Usually 
it  is  better  to  accept  the  drip  and  get  back  to  standard  grade  at 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM 


si 


SIDE    DR.IP    POT 

Figure  3,  page  82. 


82  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

once  than,  say,  to  lay  100  feet  of  main,  with  less  than  2  feet,  or  more 
than  4  feet,  cover,  to  avoid  a  drip.  As  will  be  seen  later  on,  in 
discussing  the  maintenance  of  a  main  system,  by  proper  organiza- 
tion a  drip  does  not  mean  any  appreciable  operating  expense 
if  it  contains  no  condensation. 

The  line  drip  pot  is  the  preferred  form  for  ordinary  use. 
Where  the  main  in  question  leads  from  a  holder,  or  manufacturing 
station;  unless  the  drip  does  not  drain  more  than  several  hundred 
feet,  it  generally  is  a  mistake  to  install  the  usual  line  pot,  as  its 
capacity  is  too  limited.  Instead,  a  side  drip  pot  formed  of  pipe, 
large  enough  to  give  the  capacity  desired,  with  connections  as 
shown  in  Figure  3,  should  be  used.  The  capacity,  if  possible, 
should  be  equal  to  from  3  to  7  days'  condensation  at  the  maximum 
period.  On  the  ordinary  main  system,  wherever  drips  drain  but 
small  stretches,  a  line  pot  of  comparatively  small  capacity  is 
desirable,  and  with  long  stretches,  a  larger  pot.  The  difficulty 
of  ensuring  the  proper  use  of  two  sizes  of  pots  has  already  been 
spoken  of  on  page  58,  discussing  a  proper  stock  of  specials. 

As  in  many  places  the  drips  will  receive  practically  no  con- 
densation, even  the  use  of  a  shallow  pot  might  be  regarded  as  a 
waste  of  material.  The  alternative,  however,  would  be  a  stand- 
pipe,  either  straight  with  a  tap  through  the  top  of  the  main,  or 
with  a  U-shaped  bottom  terminating  in  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of 
the  main.  The  first  arrangement  absolutely  affords  no  capacity 
against  an  accidental  flooding  of  the  main,  and  the  standpipe 
helps  to  obstruct  gas  flow.  The  second  affords  little  capacity 
and  increases  the  steel  underground, -a  sure  source  of  future 
leakage.  Therefore,  good  practice  sticks  to  line  drip  pots 
under  ordinary  conditions.  If,  however,  a  main,  20-inch  or 
larger,  had  to  be  trapped  for  several  inches,  and  this  trap  drained 
only  a  few  hundred  feet  of  main,  situated  a  long  distance  away 
from  a  holder,  so  there  was  no  reason  to  expect  much  condens- 
ation, the  installation  of  a  standpipe  through  the  top  of  the  main 
in  place  of  a  drip  pot  would  not  be  considered  bad  practice. 

Figure  4  shows  the  relation  of  the  drip  standpipe  to  the  drip 
box  and  cover.  A  straight  standpipe  is  preferable,  but  if 
traffic  or  surface  conditions  immediately  over  the  drip  prevent 
this,  an  offset  is  the  alternative.  Under  country  conditions 
with  unpaved  roadways,  such  offset  has  the  advantage  of 
allowing  the  drip  boxes  to  be  more  readily  found,  as  when  within 
the  curb  lines,  the  box  may  be  raised  above  the  ground  level  or 
marked  by  some  stake.  When  the  box  is  in  any  roadway  great 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM 


83 


care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it  resting  upon  the  standpipe,  as 
from  this  result  annoying  leaks.  The  diameter  of  the  standpipe 
usually  is  f-inch  or  1-inch,  but  with  power  pumping  and  on  drips 
whose  contents  are  measured  in  hundreds  of  gallons,  a  2-inch 
standpipe  should  be  used. 

The  type  of  drip  box  recommended  is  similar  to  that  used  for 
services  and  shown  in  A,  Figure  5.  The  cover  should  bear  the 
words  "Gas  Drip." 


DR.IP     BOX      <3c     -5TA1SD      PIPE.. 
Figure  4,  page  82. 

In  laying  mains,  head  work  sometimes  will  decrease  expense 
due  to  drip  installation.  Where  a  larger  main  is  forced  to  fre- 
quent changes  in  grade,  the  condensation  often  can  be  carried  off 
to  smaller  mains  at  branches,  and  thus  a  6-inch  drip  pot  already 
installed,  or  otherwise  necessary,  be  made  to  care  for  the  con- 
densation from  a  12-inch  main.  Perhaps  more  frequently  the 
process  could  be  reversed,  and  one  large  main  made  to  receive 
the  condensation  of  several  small  ones.  Again,  in  growing 


84 


DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 


territory,  where  the  end  of  the  main  just  laid  is  the  low  point,  if 
it  is  reasonably  certain  that  within  a  year  or  two  the  main  will 


Figure  5— A,  Square  Stop  Box,  page  92.    B,  Service  Cock,  page 
91.     C,  Service  Valve,  page  91.     D,  Round  Stop  Box,  page  92. 

be  extended,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the  grade  will  have  to 
change  at  the  point  just  reached,  no  drip  should  be  installed, 


DESIGN  OF  MAIN  SYSTEM  85 

but  instead,  a  hole  bored  in  bottom  of  cap,  or  plug,  and  stand- 
pipe  attached.  The  end  of  the -main  thus  serves  as  a  tempor- 
ary drip,  and  not  only  is  interest  saved  on  the  drip  investment 
for  a  year  or  two,  but  also  the  expense  of  removing  the  drip 
when  extending  the  main. 


SECTION  II 

SERVICES 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MATERIAL 
WROUGHT  IRON  vs.  STEEL 

For  many  years,  wrought  iron  pipe  was  used  almost  exclusively 
for  services.  It  succeeded  to  the  lead  pipe  laid  in  the  very  early 
days,  to  which  it  was  far  superior  from  the  standpoint  of  rigidity 
and  consequent  lessened  liability  to  trapping,  and  than  which  it 
soon  became  much  cheaper.  In  the  early  nineties,  however,  the 
development  of  the  steel  industry  began  to  make  steel  pipe 
cheaper  than  wrought  iron,  and  ever  since  that  time,  less  and 
less  wrought  iron  pipe  has  been  available  for  service  use.  The 
difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  wrought  iron  and  steel  has 
made  the  substitution  of  the  latter  for  the  former  comparatively 
easy,  and  the  practice  has  been  very  common. 

As  might  be  expected  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  industry,  the 
first  steel  pipe  often  was  hard  in  temper  and  defective  in  weld. 
These  characteristics,  joined  with  the  thread-cutting  tools 
designed  for  wrought  iron,  resulted  in  much  annoyance  both  in 
the  shop  and  on  the  street,  and,  worse  than  that,  in  the  shape  of 
leaks  after  services  were  laid.  Therefore,  most  gas  engineers 
objected  to  steel,  and  specified  wrought  iron,  even  at  a  slightly 
increased  cost.  As  the  years  went  on,  the  steel  pipe  became 
fully  as  soft,  and  as  well  made,  as  the  wrought  iron,  and  the 
difficulties  of  thread  cutting  have  now  vanished,  especially  where 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  proper  design  of  dies.  All  the 
time,  however,  there  has  been  another  objection  raised  to  steel 
for  underground  work,  viz.,  its  increased  liability  to  corrosion  as 
compared  with  wrought  iron.  At  first  the  evidence  seemed 
conclusive  enough,  but  only  one  side  was  heard  from,  and 

(86) 


MATERIAL  FOR  SERVICES  87 

investigations  made  by  those  interested  in  the  use  of  steel  have 
convinced  most  people  that  for  service  work  no  one  is  justified 
in  paying  more  for  wrought  iron  than  for  steel.  The  steel  people 
claim  that  in  the  steel  pipe  made  by  the  Speller  process,  the 
metal  forming  the  outer  surface  of  the  pipe  is  treated  so  that  it 
resists  corrosion  better  than  does  wrought  iron.  As  an  additional 
reason  for  the  use  of  steel,  results  have  been  published  showing 
a  greater  resistance  to  torsional  stress  than  is  true  of  wrought  iron. 

PRESERVATIVE   COATINGS 

No  reliable  data  are  in  existence  in  regard  to  the  length  of  life  of 
wrought  iron  or  steel  service  pipe,  whether  laid  bare  or  covered 
with  some  form  of  preservative  coating.  Therefore,  the  general 
practice  of  coating  service  pipes  is  not  based  on  any  actual 
knowledge  of  the  added  length  of  life  to  be  expected  because  of 
the  coating.  The  cost  of  the  coating  is,  however,  such  an 
inappreciable  part  of  the  total  cost  of  installation  that  there  is 
no  justification  in  laying  uncoated  pipe. 

Almost  every  manufacturer  of  a  carbon,  or  asphaltum,  paint 
claims  that  it  is  good  for  service  work,  but  any  conclusive  test 
under  ordinary  conditions  would  require  years  of  time  and  the 
use  of  the  material  for  thousands  of  services.  Consequently, 
most  tests  of  special  paints  have  been  confined  to  a  few  services, 
or  to  test  pieces  buried  for  several  years  under  aggravated  con- 
ditions. None  of  these  tests  has  resulted  in  the  recognition  of 
any  one  make  as  the  best  service  coating.  In  1875,  however, 
Mr.  Andrew  Hickenlooper  began  the  use  of  a  home-made  coating, 
which  he  thought  showed  its  value,  and  The  United  Gas 
Improvement  Company  has  been  using  it  since  1887.  So  with 
this  record,  the  coating  has  been  accepted  quite  widely. 

The  Hickenlooper  mixture  is  prepared  as  follows:  Bring  a 
kettle  of  coal  tar  (20  gallons)  to  a  low  boiling  point,  and  add  20 
pounds  of  fresh  slaked  lime,  sifted  over  the  top,  and  worked  down. 
Boil  down  to  a  paste,  or  a  consistency  about  midway  between 
tar  and  pitch.  Let  it  settle  for  a  few  minutes;  then  add  4  pounds 
of  tallow  and  1  pound  of  powdered  rosin;  stir  until  they  are 
dissolved  thoroughly  and  incorporated  with  the  tar;  then  let  it 
cool  and  settle.  Ladle  off  into  barrels.  When  ready  for  use,  to 
each  barrel  of  45  gallons  of  the  above  mixture,  add  4  pounds  of 
crude  rubber,  dissolved  in  turpentine  to  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream.  Heat  the  mixture  to  about  100°  F.,  and  immerse  the 
service  pipe,  heated  to  about  the  same  temperature.  Care 


88  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

should  be  taken  not  to  exceed  the  temperature  mentioned.  If 
when  first  prepared,  the  tar  was  boiled  too  long,  making  the 
preparation  too  thick,  it  should  be  thinned  with  kerosene  when 
being  heated  for  use. 

An  important  point  to  be  observed  in  preparing  the  coating 
mixture  is  to  get  the  rubber  dissolved  thoroughly,  and  the  dis- 
solved rubber  and  turpentine  of  the  proper  consistency.  Use  a 
good  grade  of  crude  rubber,  free  from  foreign  matter;  cut  it  up 
into  small  pieces,  and  mix  it  to  the  proportion  of  4  pounds  of 
rubber  to  16  gallons  of  turpentine;  this  mixture  to  be  worked 
with  a  paddle  for  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  daily  until  the 
rubber  is  dissolved  thoroughly,  which  takes  from  six  to  eight 
weeks. 

The  boiling  tank  is  of  A-inch  metal,  6  feet  long,  3  feet  deep 
and  3  feet  wide,  with  a  removable  cover,  and  four  1  by  36-inch 
pipe  burners,  equipped  with  standard  appliance  mixers  and 
burner  cocks,  set  crosswise  underneath  the  tank,  the  gas  con- 
sumption being  250  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

The  pipe  is  cleaned  thoroughly  by  rubbing  with  ashes,  a  file 
being  used  first  where  there  is  much  rust  or  scale.  It  is  heated 
to  about  100°  F.  through  a  steam  coil,  which  may  be  laid  on  the 
bottom  or  attached  to  the  sides  of  a  heating  box.  This  is  made  of 
wood,  24  inches  wide,  24  inches  deep,  and  23  feet  long.  The  pipe 
need  not  be  heated  when  the  temperature  outdoors  is  above  70 '  F. 
The  mixture  is  heated  also  through  a  steam  coil  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  the  coating  trough.  This  trough  is  18  inches  wide,  9  inches 
deep,  and  the  same  length  as  the  heating  box. 

A  sloping  dripping  board  is  placed  between  the  top  of  the 
heating  box  and  the  trough,  and  it  is  provided  with  2-inch  hook 
plates,  screwed  on  perpendicularly,  one  at  each  end  and  one  in  the 
centre,  on  which  any  excess  coating  drips  off  the  pipe,  the  board 
being  placed  at  a  sufficient  angle  to  permit  the  drip  from  each 
length  of  pipe  to  fall  on  the  board  and  run  back  into  the  trough. 

Hollow  wooden  caps  with  handles  are  used  to  stop  up  the  pipe 
when  dipping,  the  operator  holding  a  cap  in  one  hand  and  a  box 
hook  in  the  other,  the  latter  supporting  the  weight  of  pipe. 
After  a  thorough  immersion  of  coating,  each  length  is  set  on  the 
hook  plates  to  drip  off. 

At  this  stage  the  coating  drips  off  very  freely,  so  it  is  essential 
to  turn  each  length  around  two  or  three  times,  apply  a  brush  to 
distribute  the  coating,  and  scrape  away  any  excess  coating  around 
the  hook  plates.  Almost  all  the  drip  re-enters  the  trough, 


MATERIAL  FOR  SERVICES  89 

and  very  little  coating  should  be  lost  on  that  account.  While 
the  pipe  is  drying,  the  workmen  should  engage  in  cleaning  other 
pipe. 

Pipe  2\  inches  and  over  in  diameter  is  not  dipped,  as  there  is 
not  enough  used  to  warrant  the  necessary  equipment.  It  is 
heated  and  two  coats  applied  with  a  brush. 

Piling  is  started  when  the  pipe  is  wet  and  still  dripping 
slightly.  In  taking  pipe  off  the  hook  plates,  a  hardwood  handle 
is  inserted  inside  each  end  of  the  pipe,  and  two  lengths  are 
carried  at  a  time.  Lath  is  used  on  the  flooring  and  between  each 
layer  of  pipe,  the  soft  wood  and  wet  coating  being  fairly  adhesive, 
so  that  pipe  can  be  piled  to  advantage  as  many  as  thirty  lengths 
wide  and  high.  It  is  advisable  to  start  two  piles,  one  for  short 
and  one  for  long  pipe. 

Coated  pipe  should  be  protected  from  both  rain  and  sunshine, 
preferably  under  a  shed  with  one  or  both  ends  open  to  admit  air 
for  drying  purposes.  Threaded  ends  exposed  to  the  weather 
should  be  covered  with  a  sheet  of  canvas.  In  piling  pipe  inside  a 
shed  with  two  sides  and  back  closed,  and  the  front  open,  elevate 
the  end  of  pipe  at  the  back  of  the  shed  about  3  inches  above  that 
at  the  front  or  open  end  of  the  shed,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  rain, 
the  water  will  not  percolate  through  the  inside  of  pipe,  as,  if  piled 
level  at  both  ends,  or  with  the  pitch  the  other  way,  the 
rain  will  run  through  and  cause  more  or  less  trouble  in  the 
form  of  rust  later  on. 

The  coating  requires  four  to  six  weeks  to  dry  thoroughly  on  the 
pipe,  according  to  the  weather  conditions;  in  continued  damp 
weather  it  dries  very  slowly;  therefore,  hauling  should  not  be 
attempted  until  the  pipe  is  considered  in  fit  condition  for  use. 
Skeleton,  or  open-type,  trucks  are  best  adapted  for  this  work,  as 
there  is  less  likelihood  of  scraping  the  coating  off. 

The  cost  of  the  coating  as  done  in  Philadelphia,  on  the  basis  of 
about  a  half  million  feet  of  1  j-inch  pipe  a  year,  is  about  0.21  cent 
per  foot  for  material,  and  0.19  cent  per  foot  for  labor  of  cleaning, 
inspecting  and  coating. 

An  investigation  in  1903  of  over  thirty  coated  services  laid  in 
1898,  all  of  them  being  in  good  soil,  showed  that  in  the  five  years 
the  coating  had  been  reduced  to  the  thinnest  possible  covering, 
but  there  practically  was  no  evidence  of  any  corrosion,  so  that 
except  for  the  loss  of  the  coating,  the  pipe  was  as  good  as  new. 
A  second  inspection,  in  1908,  of  36  services  laid  in  1898,  21  of 
which  were  coated,  showed  very  slight  signs  of  corrosion  on  8  of 


90  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

these  coated  services.  The  others,  on  which  corrosion  apparent- 
ly had  not  yet  started,  showed  almost  no  trace  of  coating. 
In  1913,  a  third  of  these  periodical  inspections  was  made  of  27 
services  laid  in  1898,  26  of  these  being  coated.  Of  the  27 
services  examined,  10  showed  no  corrosion,  10  a  slight  amount, 
and  7  showed  general  corrosion,  but  in  only  one  case  was  the 
depth  of  this  corrosion  as  much  as  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch. 

These  investigations  lead  to  the  belief  that  in  good  soil,  coated 
services  may  be  expected  to  last  certainly  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years,  and  perhaps  much  longer.  The  records  in  Philadelphia 
are  so  arranged  that  the  age  of  every  service  laid  since  1897  is 
known,  and  after  thirty  or  forty  years,  some  valuable  information 
will  be  possessed. 

Whenever  there  is  filled-in  ground  composed  of  cinders,  slag, 
ashes  or  miscellaneous  refuse,  it  is  unwise  to  depend  on  any 
coating  such  as  the  Hickenlooper.  At  one  time  an  attempt  was 
made  to  meet  such  a  situation  by  the  use  of  a  special  cement  wash, 
applied  with  a  brush.  A  good  cement  film  can  be  obtained,  but 
this  is  damaged  almost  invariably  by  the  necessary  handling  the 
pipe  undergoes  in  service  work,  and,  therefore,  no  protection  is 
attained.  In  many  instances  pitch  and  cement  have  been  used  as 
protecting  coverings,  the  pipe  being  surrounded  on  the  bottom 
and  side  by  an  uncovered  square  box  or  V-shaped  trough  of  wood, 
and  the  material  poured  or  dropped  in.  If  a  good  adhesion  is 
obtained  between  pipe  and  covering,  the  service  should  have  a 
very  long  life,  but  there  often  is  difficulty  in  obtaining  this 
adhesion  where  cement  is  used,  and  therefore,  most  engineers 
prefer  pitch.  The  cost  of  this  protection,  unless  done  on  a  very 
large  scale,  probably  would  be  not  less  than  10  cents  per  foot,  and 
in  some  cases  of  protection  with  pitch,  it  has  cost  20  cents  per 
foot.  However,  as  there  are  numerous  instances  where  uncoated 
services  have  lasted  less  than  a  year  in  filled  ground,  these  costs 
are  not  excessive  as  compared  with  the  repair  of  a  service  under  a 
paved  street.  During  the  last  year  or  two,  however,  the  reduced 
cost  of  galvanized  pipe  under  normal  conditions  seems  to  point 
the  way  to  the  use  of  this  pipe  not  only  in  bad  fills,  but  every- 
where, in  place  of  coated  pipe,  for  though  the  excess  cost  of 
galvanized  over  black  pipe,  of  about  H  cents  per  foot  in  the 
1^-inch  size,  exceeds  the  straight  coating  costs,  there  is  a  sav- 
ing in  handling  the  galvanized  pipe,  and  also  certain  incidental 
savings,  which,  with  the  abolition  of  a  central  coating  plant  in 


MATERIAL  FOR  SERVICES  91 

a  large  situation,  point  to  the  gradual  universal  use  of  the  galvan- 
ized pipe. 

STOP  COCKS 
TYPE  OF  STOP  COCK 

The  value  of  stop  cocks  will  be  discussed  later  on.  Where  tney 
are  used,  they  should,  for  services  2-inch  and  smaller,  be  of  the 
ordinary  plug  cock  type,  and  either  all-brass,  or  iron  body  with 
brass  plug.  Careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  their  design  and 
composition.  An  ordinary  commercial  gas  cock  should  be 
viewed  with  suspicion  for  service  work,  and  should  be  compared 
with  a  standard  design  before  being  used.  Neglect  of  the  above 
precautions  may  involve  considerable  annoyance  from  leaking 
and  broken  curb  cocks.  A  large  company  should  settle  upon  its 
own  design  and  metal  composition,  and  inspect  the  cocks  at  the 
place  of  manufacture,  where  alone  may  be  obtained  proper 
knowledge  of  the  character  of  grinding  and  greasing. 

For  services  2^-inch  and  larger,  a  plug  cock  is  objectionable, 
because  with  increase  in  size,  the  troubles  peculiar  to  this  type  of 
cock  are  aggravated  greatly.  Even  when  all  possible  care  has 
been  exercised  in  purchase  and  installation,  there  will  be  cases  of 
sticking  cocks,  which  must  be  dug  up  to  be  turned,  or,  when 
turned,  develop  a  leak  as  a  result  of  the  strain  brought  to  bear. 
In  the  sizes  mentioned,  the  trouble  is  serious  enough  to  warrant 
the  use  of  an  all-iron  double  gate  valve.  (The  cost  of  the  gate 
valve  is  little,  if  any,  more  than  a  plug  cock  of  the  same  size.) 
Of  course,  the  use  of  both  valves  and  cocks  for  service  work, makes 
it  quite  essential  that  in  each  particular  case,  the  employee 
should  understand  with  which  he  is  dealing.  In  Philadelphia, 
the  letter  "V,"  cast  in  large  size  on  the  stop  box  cover,  indicates 
that  a  valve  is  on  the  service.  An  arrow  cast  on  the  cover 
indicates  the  direction  of  turning  to  open  the  valve. 

Where  the  policy  is  not  to  have  any  stops  on  services  under 
1^-inch,  it  might  well  be  considered  whether,  for  the  sake  of 
uniformity  in  an  entirely  new  system,  or  the  growing  sections  of 
an  existing  system,  it  would  not  be  good  policy  to  use  valves 
throughout,  notwithstanding  a  slight  extra  expense. 

The  type  of  plug  cock  used  in  Philadelphia  is  shown  in  B, 
Figure  5,  page  84,  and  the  type  of  valve  in  C,  Figure  5.  It 
will  be  noted  that  instead  of  the  usual  square  head,  the  valve  is 


92  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

fitted  with  a  rectangular  head.     This  is  made  of  such  dimensions 
that  the  same  stop  key  used  for  the  plug  cocks  will  fit  the  valves. 

LOCATION  OF  STOP  COCK 

A  location  of  the  stop  cock  at  a  standard  distance  inside  or 
outside  the  curb  is  desirable.  In  selecting  this  location,  the  stop 
box  is  the  determining  factor,  the  position  of  the  stop  cock,  and, 
therefore,  of  the  stop  box,  being  so  chosen  that  the  latter,  whether 
in  footway  or  roadway,  will  be  out  of  the  line  of  travel.  The 
footway  is,  of  course,  preferable  for  the  stop  cock,  as  when  away 
from  street  traffic,  a  lighter  stop  box  may  be  used,  stop  box  and 
stop  cock  troubles  will  be  lessened,  and  in  snowy  regions,  boxes 
will  be  more  accessible  in  winter.  A  footway  location  usually  is 
possible,  except  where  there  are  vaults  extending  out  to  the 
curb  line. 

With  a  roadway  main,  a  roadway  location  for  stop  cock  should 
be  18  inches  outside  the  curb,  a  footway  location  15  inches 
Inside  the  curb,  distances  being  to  centre  of  cock.  With  a 
footway  main  the  cock  should  be  out  3  feet  from  the  property  line. 
This  distance  generally  will  bring  it  within  the  line  of  the  front 
steps.  On  very  long  services  to  buildings  situated  far  back  of 
the  property  line,  if  the  standard  locations  outside  the 
property  line  are  not  advisable  for  any  reason,  it  sometimes  is 
best,  for  readiness  of  access,  to  locate  close  to  the  house,  even 
though  in  so  doing  there  is  a  violation  of  the  good  general  rule 
to  follow,  viz.,  to  locate  the  stop  cock  close  to  the  main. 

STOP  BOXES 

The  stop  box  should  be  in  two  pieces,  so  as  to  be  of  adjustable 
length.  It  should  have  a  broad  base,  so  it  will  not  readily  shift 
its  position,  either  by  settling  or  tipping  over.  For  roadway 
situations,  the  cover  should  be  deep  and  heavy  and  well  rein- 
forced where  the  top  joins  the  side  walls.  A,  Figure  5,  page  84, 
shows  the  type  used  in  Philadelphia  for  service  work  (nearly  all 
footway  location),  as  well  as  drip  work  (nearly  all  roadway  loca- 
tion). A  type  of  box  as  shown  in  D,  Figure  5,  or  else  the  type  now 
used,  but  lighter  in  weight,  probably  would  give  excellent  service 
in  foot  way  locations,  especially  in  cement  work. 


CHAPTER  XV 

DESIGN  OF  SERVICE  SYSTEM 
CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  SIZE  OF  SERVICES 

In  the  old  days,  when  wrought  iron  was  expensive  and  street 
work  cheap,  there  was  justification  in  figuring  closely  upon  the 
size  of  the  service.  At  present,  however,  when  the  difference  in 
cost  between  a  lj-inch  and  a  f-inch  service,  including  cock,  is 
only  15  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  a  new  lj-inch  service, 
not  including  paving,  and  when  the  enlargement  of  a  service 
through  paving  will  add  200  per  cent  to  the  original  investment, 
the  wise  engineer  is  the  one  who  errs  on  the  high,  as  compared 
with  the  low,  side  of  service  size. 

For  every  town,  a  certain  minimum  size  of  service  should  be 
determined.  In  towns  of  100,000  or  less,  1-inch  should  be  the 
minimum  size,  where  there  is  no  likelihood  of  expensive  paving, 
otherwise  lj-inch.  In  towns  of  larger  population,  lj-inch 
should  be  the  minimum  throughout.  The  above  applies  to 
house  services.  For  street  lamp  services,  1-inch  should  be  laid, 
except  perhaps  where  the  number  was  relatively  large,  and  the 
lamp  locations  subject  to  change,  in  which  case  f-inch  might 
be  used.  Where  the  minimum  house  service  is  1-inch,  this  size 
will  be  large.enough  for  many  houses,  and  where  it  is  1  j-inch,  the 
number  of  larger  services  will  be  relatively  small,  except  where 
apartment  houses  outnumber  individual  dwellings. 

There  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion  in  preparing  a  service 
schedule.  Below  is  given  the  one  in  use  in  Philadelphia. 

SIZE  FOR  FUEL  AND  ILLUMINATION 

SERVICE 

Dwellings  of  12  rooms  or  less 1J* 

'   13  to  20  rooms \\* 

'  over  20  rooms  and  not  over  75  outlets       ....  2  * 

Stores,  hotels,  factories,  etc.,  of  15  outlets  or  less      .      .      .      .      .  1J* 

"     "   16  to  30  outlets li* 

""  31  to  75         "          2  ' 

"     "  76  to  130       "          2i* 

(93) 


94  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

SIZE  FOR  GAS  ENGINE 

SIZE    OF 
ENGINE  H.P.  SERVICE 

Under    5 \\"  These  sizes   apply  only 

6  to  10 \\"  when   engine   is    supplied 

11  to  20 2  "  through  a  separate    serv- 

21  to  40 2i"  ice. 

NOTE.  The  sizes  given  apply  to  services  of  100  feet  or  less  in 
length  from  main  to  inside  the  house  wall.  For  longer  services, 
and  for  cases  where  no  size  is  given,  the  size  should  be  determined 
in  the  distribution  engineer's  office. 

Whenever  possible,  in  preference  to  using  the  schedule,  the 
maximum  hourly  gas  requirements,  in  cubic  feet,  should  be 
determined  by  counting,  at  their  full-rated  consumption,  every 
illuminating  and  fuel  appliance  and  every  outlet  and  burner,  and 
then  using  a  computer,  allowing  a  loss  in  pressure  of  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  for  every  10  yards  length  of  service.  The  size  thus 
determined  always  should  be  at  least  as  large  as  that  shown  in  the 
schedule  for  a  building  of  the  size  and  kind  in  question.  Of 
course,  the  service  usually  is  laid  before  the  gas  requirements 
may  be  known  exactly,  and  therefore,  the  schedule  generally 
determines  the  size. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  note,  the  schedule  is  based 
on  the  idea  that  there  should  be  no  more  than  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  loss  of  pressure  in  a  service  at  the  time  of  maximum  demand, 
and,  in  addition,  although  the  average  length  of  the  Philadelphia 
service  is  only  about  28  feet,  the  schedule  is  large  enough  to  allow 
of  longer  services  with  no  more  than  one- tenth  of  an  inch  drop. 
The  schedule  assumes,  for  instance,  that  a  dwelling  of  12  rooms, 
in  common  with  a  store  of  15  outlets,  will  need  at  some  time,  gas 
at  the  rate  of  150  cubic  feet  per  hour.  This  demand  through  an 
1  |-inch  service,  100  feet  long,  will  mean  a  loss  of  about  one-tenth 
of  an  inch.  Of  course,  the  assumption  of  such  a  consumption  for 
the  buildings  described  is  more  or  less  arbitrary,  but  must  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  the  following  facts:  Working  under 
the  above  schedule,  97  per  cent  of  all  the  house  services  in 
Philadelphia  are  lj-inch;  1.4  per  cent  are  1^-inch;  1.2  per  cent 
are  2-inch,  and  four-tenths  of  1  per  cent  are  larger  than  2-inch. 
Therefore,  the  amount  to  be  gained  by  raising  the  upper  limit  of 
the  various  sizes  is  quite  negligible,  and  the  schedule  as  drawn 
allows,  in  many  cases,  ample  leeway  for  the  use  of  instantaneous 
pressure  water  heaters  and  other  large  gas-consuming  appliances, 
without  the  expense  of  service  enlargement.  Of  course,  the 
longer  the  service,  the  more  important  it  is  that  the  size  be  ample 
to  meet  probable  future  requirements,  because  not  only  does  the 


DESIGN  OF  SERVICE  SYSTEM  95 

cost  of  renewal  increase  with  the  length,  but  also  the  loss  in  press- 
ure produced  by  a  given  percentage  increase  in  demand.  Bearing 
this  fact  in  mind,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  increasing  popularity 
of  large  gas-consuming  appliances,  and  of  what  new  developments 
may  be  expected  during  the  life  of  the  service,  it  is  evident  that 
economy  demands  a  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  the  size  of  very 
long  services. 

INSTALLATION  IN  ADVANCE  OF  PAVING 

In  most  large  cities,  the  distance  from  the  main  to  the  footway 
will  not  average  16  feet.  Because  of  this  short  distance,  and  of 
the  many  considerations  affecting  service  location  as  explained 
hereafter,  it  is  inadvisable,  even  to  save  paving,  to  run  services 
in  advance  of  house  erection  or  definite  planning.  To  speak  of 
only  one  of  the  possible  complications,  a  slight  variation  in  the 
actual,  as  compared  with  the  proposed,  width  of  the  dwellings, 
would  throw  out  of  line,  pairs  of  services  intended  to  lie  each 
side  of  division  walls,  and  there  would  result  the  necessity  for 
re-running,  or  of  offsetting,  with  many  resultant  disadvantages. 
When  one  side  of  the  street  is  built  up  before  paving,  by  laying 
the  main  on  the  opposite  side,  there  will  be  left  only  the  short 
services,  and  this  will  not  involve  much  paving  disturbance. 

When  services  are  installed  in  advance  of  house  erection,  the 
pipe  should  be  run  inside  the  curb  as  far  as  the  probable  location 
of  any  future  stop  cock. 

LOCATION  DETAILS 
HOUSE  CONDITIONS 

The  rule  commonly  followed,  and  to  which  there  are  in 
Philadelphia  only  a  few  exceptions  (to  be  described  later),  is  one 
separate  service  to  every  house.  The  most  serious  objection 
against  using  one  pipe  as  a  common  supply  for  part  of  its  length 
to  two  or  more  houses,  is  that  the  fact  of  common  supply  may  be 
overlooked,  and  in  case  of  poor  supply  to  one  of  the  houses,  in 
attempting  to  clear  the  service,  the  supply  to  the  other  houses 
may  be  interrupted,  with  the  danger  of  serious  consequences. 
The  objection  is  serious  enough,  and  the  economy  to  be  gained, 
under  ordinary  city  conditions,  by  making  one  service  serve  two 
houses  is  too  slight  to  warrant  such  practice  ordinarily.  Where, 
however,  the  company  is  comparatively  small,  so  that  the 
employees  do  not  change  often,  and  are  familiar  with  the  condi- 


96  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

tions,  it  is  possible  that  the  danger  may  be  reduced  to  a  point 
where  the  practice  is  warranted  if  the  saving  is  considerable,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  the  houses  are  detached,  or  semi-detached, 
and  located  well  back  from  the  property  line,  but  not  far  from 
each  other.  In  this  case,  a  common  pipe  would  be  laid,  if  pos- 
sible, along  the  division  line  of  the  pair  of  semi-detached  houses, 
branching  somewhere  inside  the  curb,  to  go  one  on  each  side  of 
the  division  wall.  Where  the  houses  are  detached,  the  common 
pipe  would  be  laid  along  a  line  passing  between  the  houses,  and 
would  branch  off  probably  at  right  angles  just  back  of  the  front 
wall  line,  each  branch  entering  at  the  side  wall.  In  both 
instances,  if  stop  cocks  are  used,  they  should  be  placed  after 
the  service  has  branched. 

In  Philadelphia,  the  cases  where  one  service  supplies  more  than 
one  house  are  confined  to  instances  of  rear  buildings,  where  the 
supply  to  the  rear*  building  must  be  through  the  front  one,  and 
to  cases  of  alley  runs,  where  several  houses  face  on  a  footway 
possibly  not  over  4  feet  wide.  Here  a  steel  pipe  from  the 
street  main  acts  as  a  common  supply,  the  individual  services 
to  each  house  teeing  off.  When  the  pipe  is  laid,  a  tee  is  inserted 
for  each  house,  whether  desiring  gas  or  not. 

Returning  to  the  case  of  the  separate  service,  its  location  is 
affected  by  both  internal  and  external  features  of  the  house.  In 
rows  of  houses,  to  save  trenches,  it  is  advisable  to  lay  along  the 
line  of  the  division  wall,  as  thus  one  trench  will  serve  for  a  pair 
of  services.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  advisable  to  avoid  laying 
under  front  steps,  across  areaways,  through  piers  between  cellar 
windows,  or  other  weak  points  of  the  foundation  wall,  or  into 
coal  bins.  In  any  one  instance,  the  location  is  almost  invariably 
a  compromise. 

For  a  very  large  building  with  a  frontage  on  two  streets  having 
gas  mains,  a  service  should  be  run  from  each  street,  if  in  this 
way  the  house  piping  can  be  simplified  appreciably  and  its  cost 
much  reduced.  When  only  one  service  is  run  to  such  a  building, 
it  would,  other  things  being  equal,  be  laid  from  the  street 
involving  the  least  cost  of  main  and  service. 

OTHER  STRUCTURES 

Just  as  in  the  case  of  mains,  a  location  near  other  structures  is 
not  desirable,  so  also  for  services  is  isolation  preferable.  The 
great  majority  of  services  are  laid  to  new  houses  during  erection, 


DESIGN  OF  SERVICE  SYSTEM  97 

and  in  most  of  these  cases,  the  water  service  and  the  sewer  con- 
nection are  laid  at  about  the  same  time.  The  water  trench  is 
about  a  foot,  and  the  sewer  trench  4  feet  or  more,  deeper  than  the 
gas  service,  so  if  the  latter  is  close  enough  to  be  affected  by  the 
inevitable  later  settlement  of  these  two  trenches,  both  of  them 
possibly  carelessly  back-filled,  there  is  danger  of  a  trapped,  or 
broken  service.  Also,  of  course,  if  the  service  is  in  the  trench  of 
either  water  or  sewer  pipe,  it  may  be  damaged  at  the  time  of  any 
opening  for  their  repair.  Consequently,  isolation  is  preferred, 
except  when  the  saving  to  be  gained  by  sharing  the  trench  is  very 
great.  Usually,  laying  in  a  sewer  trench  will  be  confined  to 
streets  where  rock  exists.  Often  after  the  sewer  trench  has  been 
blasted,  there  will  be  opportunity  to  support  the  gas  service  at 
its  proper  depth  by  blocking  resting  on  jutting  rock.  Otherwise, 
pieces  of  pipe  may  be  driven  into  crevices  in  the  trench  side,  and 
the  service  laid  on  them,  or  it  may  rest  on  wooden  uprights, 
standing  on  the  sewer  itself. 

The  most  frequent  case  of  trench  sharing  is  with  the  water 
service,  where  the  distance  of  house  from  street  is  quite  long. 
In  Philadelphia,  the  depth  of  the  water  service  would  be  about 
3  feet,  and  this  is  so  little  deeper  than  required  for  the  gas  service 
that  there  would  be  no  economy  in  making  a  ledge  in  the  water 
ditch  for  the  gas  pipe.  The  practice  is  to  lay  the  water  pipe  on 
the  other  side  of  the  trench,  and  thus  a  separation  of  perhaps 
15  inches  is  obtained,  so  that  a  repair  to  either  will  not  involve 
uncovering  the  other. 

DEPTH 

The  standard  cover  over  the  main  fixes  in  a  general  way  the 
standard  cover  for  services.  With  3  feet  over  the  top  of  the 
main,  and  the  service-tee-service-ell  connection  tapped  into  the 
top  of  the  main,  the  service  has  2  feet  8  inches  cover  at  the  main. 
On  the  same  side  of  the  street  as  the  main,  this  generally  will 
mean  2  feet  6  inches  just  outside  the  curb,  and  a  minimum  of 
2  feet  2  inches  under  the  footway.  On  the  opposite  side  there 
will  be  2  feet  just  outside  the  curb,  and  a  minimum  of  1  foot  8 
inches  under  the  footway.  These  figures  probably  represent  the 
maximum  under  ordinary  conditions.  Often,  for  various 
reasons,  services  have  less  depth,  but  18  inches  is  the  minimum 
permitted  to  the  service  cart  foreman,  and  15  inches  the 
minimum  permitted  to  the  district  superintendent.  Using 
U-inch  services,  the  only  disadvantage  attaching  to  shallow 
depths  not  involving  traffic  strains  great  enough  to  crush  the 


98  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

pipe,  is  the  question  of  temperature.  If  the  service  is  less  than 
2  feet  deep,  it  is  quite  probable  that  in  cold  weather  its  tem- 
perature is  several  degrees  less  than  that  in  the  main,  and, 
therefore,  the  gas  loses  some  candlepower  in  passing  through  it. 
If,  however,  the  meter  should  be  in  a  location  as  cold  as,  or 
colder  than,  the  service  temperature,  then,  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  effect  on  the  meter  diaphragm  of  the  vapors  con- 
densed out  of  the  gas,  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  a  cold  service, 
with  the  resulting  minimum  condensation  in  the  meter.  With  a 
1^-inch  pipe  in  thePhiladelphia  climate,  there  would  be  few  cases 
of  services  closed  by  frost,  even  if  laid  shallow.  This  being  the 
case,  the  question  might  be  asked  why  Philadelphia  services  are 
kept  deep.  One  reason  is  that  the  universal  form  of  footway 
paving  is  artificial  cement  with  a  cinder  base,  and  it  is  essential, 
for  the  long  life  of  the  pipe,  that  it  be  in  good  soil  at  a  safe 
distance  below  this  base.  Again,  the  Philadelphia  meters  con- 
tain their  own  cure  against  the  effect  of  vapor  condensation. 
Therefore,  the  advisable  course  for  Philadelphia  is  to  lay  services 
as  deep  as  permitted  by  main  depths. 

SERVICE  DRIPS 

Only  rarely  is  it  impossible  to  grade  the  service  back  to  the 
main.  In  these  few  cases  there  must  be  a  service  drip,  and  the 
choice  lies  between  a  location  outside  or  inside  the  house.  A 
location  inside  the  house  involves  three  conditions  each  time  the 
drip  is  inspected,  each  one  of  which  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible.  The  first  is  shutting  off  the  gas  supply;  the  second, 
opening  a  pipe  in  the  cellar;  and  the  third,  handling  condensa- 
tion within  a  house.  For  the  above  reasons,  unless  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  condensation  in  the  service  may  be  ignored,  it  is 
preferable  to  install  the  drip  outside  the  house,  using  either  of 
the  two  styles  shown  in  Figure  6.  An  inside  drip  would  consist 
of  a  piece  of  pipe  about  2  feet  long,  extending  downward  from  the 
lower  outlet  of  a  cross  put  on  the  end  of  the  service,  as  shown  at 
the  right  hand  of  Figure  6. 

The  drip  box  used  for  the  outside  drips  would  be  the  same  as 
that  employed  for  main  drips,  and  described  on  page  83. 

VALUE  OF  STOP  COCKS 

Except  where  required  by  law,  and  these  instances  probably 
are  few,  it  is  believed  that  the  general  practice  is  not  to  install 


DESIGN  OF  SERVICE  SYSTEM 


99 


curb  cocks  on  services  less  than  2  inches,  or  perhaps  1£  inches 
in  diameter.     With  a  curb  cock,  there  is,  first,  a  little  more  leeway 


for   carelessness  in   meter  work   without   entailing   accidents; 
second,  an  occasional  opportunity  of  shutting  off  gas  from  a 


100  DESIGN  OF  OUTSIDE  SYSTEM 

burning  building  when  the  meter  could  not  be  reached,  or  the 
house  end  of  the  service  is  broken;  and  third,  an  opportunity  of 
shutting  off  the  supply  to  a  delinquent  consumer  without  gaining 
entrance  to  the  building. 

Taking  up  these  points  in  turn,  the  first  is  answered  by  the 
statement  that  many  companies  have  adjusted  satisfactorily 
their  meter  fitting  practice  on  the  basis  of  no  curb  cock.  As  to 
the  advantage  in  case  of  fire,  it  generally  happens  that  if  the 
meter  is  inaccessible,  so  also  is  the  curb  cock,  and  if  conditions  do 
not  permit  an  immediate  uncovering  and  cutting  of  the  service  at 
the  main,  the  only  result  is  the  loss  of  a  little  gas,  with  no  effect 
on  the  spread  of  the  fire.  In  many  cases  the  cellar  is  flooded 
with  water,  and  if  there  is  no  curb  cock,  attention  must  be  paid 
to  adjacent  drips  to  prevent  the  main  being  shut  off. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  an  aid  to  summary  collection  of 
bills,  the  curb  cock  certainly  is  not  worth  its  cost.  It  may  be  used 
only,  of  course,  where  there  is  but  one  consumer  in  a  building, 
and,  under  city  conditions,  this  is  becoming  less  and  less  frequent. 
If  entrance  to  a  house  is  denied,  the  meter  always  may  be 
replevined,  or  the  service  may  be  cut  off  at  the  main,  and  in  any 
one  year  the  occasion  for  such  legal  or  opening  expense  will  be 
negligible. 

It  thus  appears  that  a  universal  use  of  curb  cocks,  adding  20 
per  cent  or  more  to  the  cost  of  service  installation,  and  a  small 
per  cent  to  maintenance,  is  not  justified  by  the  resulting 
advantages. 


PART  III 

EQUIPMENT 

Prior  to  showing  how  the  work  of  the  distribution  department 
is  carried  out,  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  describe,  in  detail,  the 
various  tools  used  for  this  work,  so  that  the  thread  of  narration 
later  on  will  not  be  interrupted  continually  by  descriptions.  If 
each  tool  was  used  for  one  class  of  work  only,  there  might  be 
some  advantage  in  describing  it  while  telling  how  the  particular 
work  should  be  done,  but  as  most  of  the  equipment  is  used  for 
both  main  and  service  installation  and  maintenance  work,  there 
would  be  either  a  great  repetition  of  matter,  or  a  reference  back 
to  the  first  job  under  which  the  equipment  was  described. 
Such  being  the  case,  a  grouping  of  all  equipment  is  preferred. 
Tools  common  to  both  street  and  inside  work  will  be  described 
in  company  with  the  equipment  used  for  main  and  service  work. 


SECTION  I 

MAIN  AND  SERVICE  WORK 

CHAPTER  XVI 

TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT 

REMOVING  PAVING 
ASPHALT  CUTTERS 

HAND 

Hand  asphalt  cutters,  D,  Figure  7,  of  the  general  contractor's 
pattern,  weighing  about  12  pounds  each  and  measuring  about 
20  inches  over  all,  give  good  results.  They  are  made  of  medium 
soft  tough  steel,  and  to  the  end  of  each  arm  is  spliced  a  piece  of 
good  tool  steel  about  6  inches  long.  These  steel  ends  are  drawn 
out  with  a  good  thickness  of  metal  to  a  fairly  sharp  cutting  edge 
from  2j  to  3  inches  wide.  A  good  thickness  of  metal,  carried 
close  to  the  cutting  edge,  is  very  important,  as  it  prevents,  to 
a  great  extent,  pieces  of  metal  frorh  breaking  out  of  the  cutting 
edge.  The  tool  steel  ends  are  tempered  carefully,  so  as  to  be 
both  hard  and  tough.  Each  end  of  the  eye  of  the  cutter  should 
fit  the  ordinary  pick  handle. 

With  good  tool  steel  ends,  the  cutters  can  be  drawn  out  and 
sharpened  a  number  of  times  before  it  becomes  necessary  to 
re-steel  them.  Cutters  are  re-steeled  with  pieces  of  tool  steel 
about  6  inches  long,  until  the  over-all  dimension  becomes  less 
than  15  inches,  after  which  it  is  advisable  to  scrap  them,  as  by 
this  time  the  eye  will  be  somewhat  round  and  too  large  for  the 
ordinary  pick  handle.  The  cutter  will  also  be  too  light  in  weight 
to  do  efficient  work.  The  splicing  must  be  done  carefully,  and 
the  ends  tempered  so  as  to  be  both  hard  and  tough. 

(103) 


104 


EQUIPMENT 


With  the  advent  of 
power  tamping  ma- 
chines, it  has  become  pos- 
sible to  use  the  tool 
shown  in  E,  Figure  7. 
It  is  made  of  5  by  f-inch 
high-grade  tool  steel, 
with  a  carefully  dressed 
head,  having  a  good 
striking  surface.  The 
cutting  point  is  3|  inches 
long,  5  inches  wide,  and 
dressed  with  a  rather 
sharp  V-shaped  cutting 
edge,  which  bevels  off 
j-inch  from  center  to 
outer  edge.  Two  £-inch 
steel  studs  are  shrunk  in 
holes  near  the  top  of  the 
blade,  and  two  |-inch 
holes  are  drilled  1  inch 
below  these  studs  for 
bolts  to  hold  the  handle, 
made  of  |-inch  round 
iron  with  a  slot  at  one 
end,  fitting  the  asphalt 
blade,  and  an  oval  hand 
hold  at  the  other  end. 
The  handle  is  bent  so 
that  the  hand  hold  is 
about  32  inches  higher 
than  the  slot. 

ASPHALT  SCREEN 

Canvas  screens,  Fig- 
ure 8,  are  used  to  protect 
people  and  property 
from  flying  pieces  of  as- 
phalt when  paving  is 
being  cut,  and  consist 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    105 

of  sheets  of  canvas  5  by  8  feet,  with  a  row  of  f -inch  brass  eyelets 
spaced  1  foot  between  centers  along  the  8-ft.  edges. 

ASPHALT  SCREEN  ROD 

Asphalt  screen  rods,  A,  Figure  7,  are  used  to  support  asphalt 
screens,  and  are  made  of  £-inch  round  steel,  or  iron,  6  feet  4  inches 
long,  with  a  hook  near  the  top,  which  fits  the  f -inch  eyelets  in  the 
screen.  The  bottom  of  the  rod  has  a  sharp  point,  so  that  the  rod 
may  be  driven  easily. 


Figure  8.  —  Asphalt  Screen,  page  104. 
BARS 

In  removing  paving,  a  bar  of  1^-inch  round  steel  5  feet  long, 
should  be  used.  For  general  work,  a  diamond  point,  C,  Figure  7, 
is  most  useful.  For  asphalt,  a  blunt  chisel  point,  B,  Figure  7, 
about  1|  inches  wide,  often  is  substituted.  The  proper  temper- 
ing of  these  bars,  as  well  as  of  any  other  tempered  tools  for 
distribution  work,  is  important  and  care  given  to  this  matter 
will  be  repaid  amply. 

WEDGES 

FROST  AND  BELGIAN  BLOCK 

This  wedge,  B,  Figure  9,  is  used  for  removing  frozen  ground 
and  belgian  block  after  the  frost  has  set  them.  It  is  made  of 


106 


EQUIPMENT 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT     107 


square  steel,  2\\  inches  long,  with  a  carefully  dressed 
head,  having  a  good  striking  surface.  The  wedge  point  is  8f 
inches  long  and  If  inches  wide,  and  is  dressed  with  a  rather 
flat  V-shaped  cutting  edge,  and  rounded  to  conform  with  a  4-inch 
radius.  The  cutting  edge  is  made  rather  blunt  to  prevent  parts 
breaking  out,  as  this  wedge  is  subjected  to  very  rough  use. 
The  point  must  be  tempered  so  as  to  be  hard  and  very  tough. 

ROCK  AND  CONCRETE 

This  wedge,  D,  Figure  9,  is  used  in  wedging  out  rock  and 
concrete  foundations  under  paving.  It  is  made  of  If  -inch 
square  steel,  lOf  inches  long,  with  a  carefully  dressed  head, 
having  a  good  striking  surface.  The  wedge  point  is  6  inches 
long  and  If  inches  wide,  and  it  is  dressed  and  tempered  similar 
to  the  frost  wedge,  with  the  exception  that  the  cutting  wedge  is 
not  slightly  rounded. 


This  wedge,  A,  Figure  9,  is  used  in  taking  up  asphalt  after  it 
has  been  cut.  It  is  made  of  2-inch  square  steel,  12|  inches  long, 
with  a  carefully  dressed  head,  having  a  good  striking  surface. 
The  wedge  point  is  7f  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide  at  the 
cutting  edge,  and  is  dressed  and  tempered  similar  to  the  frost 
wedge,  with  the  exception  that  the  cutting  edge  is  rounded  to 
conform  with  a  5-inch  radius.  The  width  of  the  wedge  is 
increased  to  3  inches  at  the  cutting  point,  so  that  it  will  not  chip 
the  asphalt,  but  will  tend  to  lift  large  sections. 

SLEDGES 

The  cast-steel  blacksmith's  type  of  sledge,  E,  Figure  9,  is  very 
satisfactory,  and  the  12-,  14-  and  16-pound  sizes  are  best  suited 
for  general  use.  For  very  heavy  work,  the  24-pound  size 
frequently  is  very  useful.  The  handle  should  be  made  of  tough 
hickory,  3  feet  long. 

TRENCH  MARKING  AND  BOTTOMING 
DITCH  LINE 

Ditch  line  is  used  in  marking  the  line  of  ditch  to  be  opened,  and, 
in  general,  the  ordinary  quality  of  |-inch  jute  rope  is  satisfactory. 
For  asphalt,  heavy  cord,  chalked  and  snapped  to  mark  the  line, 
is  quite  useful. 


108  EQUIPMENT 

DITCH  LINE  PINS 

Ditch  line  pins,  C,  Figure  9,  are  used  to  hold  the  ditch  line 
when  it  is  stretched  out.  They  are  made  of  £-inch  round  iron, 
15  inches  long,  pointed  at  one  end,  and  having  an  l|-inch  eyelet 
at  the  other  to  aid  in  driving  and  pulling  the  pins. 

DITCH  TARGETS 

Ditch  targets  are  used  in  digging  trenches  and  setting  main 
blocks,  and  practically  are  indispensable  where  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  uneven. 

NON-ADJUSTABLE  ROD 

This  type,  Figure  10,  consists  of  two  tees  with  stands  for  them, 
and  one  levelling  rod.  The  tees  are  made  of  1  by  3-inch  planed 
white  pine,  4  feet  long,  with  a  cross  piece  at  one  end  made  of  the 
same  material,  and  9  inches  long.  A  number  of  j^-inch  holes  on 
1 -inch  centres  are  bored  in  the  other  end  of  the  tee,  which  allows 
the  tee  to  be  raised  or  lowered  on  the  stand.  The  stand  consists 
of  two  pieces  of  3  by  4-inch  hemlock,  4  feet  long,  separated  by  four 
1-inch  distance  pieces,  one  at  each  end,  and  two  in  the  centre  of 
the  stand  placed  so  as  to  form  a  slot  1  by  3  inches.  The  end  of  the 
tee  passes  through  this  slot,  and  is  supported  by  small  wire  pins 
passing  through  the  ^-inch  holes,  the  ends  of  the  pins  resting  on 
the  stand.  The  levelling  rod  is  made  of  1  by  3-inch  planed  white 
pine,  and  for  laying  small  mains  at  2  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet  cover, 
should  be  8  feet  long.  For  large  main  laying,  a  greater  length 
will  be  needed.  The  cross  pieces  at  the  end  of  the  tees  are 
painted  red,  and  one  end  of  the  levelling  rod  white,  so  as  to  give 
greater  contrast  when  sighting  between  the  tees. 

Figure  11  illustrates  the  method  of  using  this  type.  The 
depth  of  trench  desired  at  "A,"  and  also  at  "B,"  having  been 
determined,  a  stand  is  placed  at  the  side  of  the  trench  at  each 
place,  and  the  height  of  the  tees  so  regulated  that  the  distance 
from  the  top  of  the  tee  to  the  desired  bottom  of  the  trench  is 
equal  to  the  total  length  of  the  rod  used.  Any  point  of  the 
trench  between  "A"  and  "B"  will  then  be  at  the  right  depth 
when  the  rod  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  trench  at  that  point, 
has  its  top  edge  in  line  with  the  top  of  the  two  tees.  In  other 
words,  the  required  bottom  of  trench  between  "A"  and  "  B  "  is  a 
straight  line  parallel  to  the  line  of  sight  over  "A"  and  "B,"  and, 
therefore,  a  tee  must  be  placed  at  every  point  of  required  devia- 
tion of  trench  bottom  from  a  straight  line. 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    TD9 


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Figure  10,  page  108. 


110 


EQUIPMENT 


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TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    111 

ADJUSTABLE  ROD 

This  type,  Figure  12,  consists  of  a  sighting  level  and  stand,  a 
target  and  stand,  and  a  levelling  rod.  The  sighting  level  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  sights  mounted  one  foot  apart  on  a  hard  wood 
cross  piece,  with  a  small  spirit  level  placed  midway  between  the 
sights.  The  cross  piece  is  made  of  hard  wood,  1  inch  thick  by 
1  foot  long,  and  is  tapered  from  a  width  of  If  inches  at  centre 
to  1|  inches  at  the  ends.  This  cross  piece  is  clamped  to  another 
piece  of  hard  wood,  1  by  1\  by  2|  inches,  by  a  bolt  having  a 
thumb  nut,  so  that  it  can  be  tightened  easily  by  hand.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  1  by  2\  by  2^-inch  piece,  is  attached,  by  means 
of  screws,  a  piece  of  wrought  iron  having  a  f-inch  male  thread. 
To  this  is  attached,  by  using  a  f-inch  coupling,  a  2|-ft.  length  of 
f -inch  steel  pipe.  This  f-inch  pipe  slides  in  a  piece  of  f-inch  steel 
pipe,  3  feet  long,  and  by  means  of  a  thumb-headed  set  screw  in 
the  f-inch  pipe,  the  sights  can  be  lowered  or  raised  as  desired. 
The  end  of  the  f-inch  pipe  screws  into  a  f-inch  tee  on  the  cross 
arm  of  the  stand.  The  stand  is  4  feet  wide,  and  is  made  of 
f-inch  nipples  and  fittings,  and  has  four  supporting  legs.  The 
target  consists  of  a  circular  piece  of  heavy  sheet  iron,  3|  inches 
in  diameter,  attached  to  a  ^-foot  length  of  f-inch  steel  pipe  by 
pipe  straps.  The  f-inch  pipe  slides  in  a  3-foot  length  of  f-inch 
steel  pipe,  and  by  means  of  a  thumb-headed  set  screw  in  the 
f-inch  pipe,  the  target  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  desired.  The 
stand  is  the  same  as  used  with  the  sighting  level.  The  construct- 
ion of  the  levelling  rod  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  target,  with  the 
exception  that  a  4-foot  length  of  f-inch  pipe  is  used  with  a  f-inch 
cap  on  the  end.  The  circular  pieces  of  sheet  iron  on  the  levelling 
rod  and  target  have  two  quarters  painted  red  and  two  white,  so  as 
to  give  greater  contrast  when  sighting.  One  sight  has  a  thin  wire 
supported  between  two  points,  and  the  other  a  small  hole  in  a 
brass  disc.  The  sights  are  held  in  position  by  set  screws,  and 
can  be  removed  easily  when  not  in  use,  as  they  are  the  only 
parts  which  will  not  stand  very  rough  handling. 

This  type  of  target  may  be  used  just  as  is  the  preceding  type, 
except  that  both  sighting  level  and  target  are  placed  over  the 
trench,  and  the  levelling  rod  is  in  a  direct  line  between  the  two. 
The  adjustable  feature  of  both  target  and  rod,  and  the  ability 
to  move  the  sighting  level  in  a  vertical  or  horizontal  plane, 
enables  this  type  to  be  used  where  the  line  of  trench  is  not  parallel 
to  the  line  of  sight,  enables  blocks  to  be  set  to  any  grade  desired, 


112 


EQUIPMENT 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT     113 

obviating  any  use  of  the  hand  level  on  the  pipe  itself,  and  affords 
a  means  of  obtaining  relative  heights  of  any  underground  struc- 
tures. This  type,  in  short,  offers  the  advantages  of  a  surveyor's 
level  at  greatly  reduced  expense,  and  is  accurate  enough 
for  ordinary  main  work. 

DANGER  SIGN 

An  enameled  flag  with  the  word  "  Danger,"  and  the  company's 
name  or  initials,  or  else  some  advertising  cry,  such  as  "Cook 
with  Gas,"  generally  is  used  to  mark  the  trench  by  day,  and  the 
rod  supporting  this  flag  may  be  made  to  hold  the  danger  lantern 
at  night.  E,  Figure  13,  shows  the  danger  sign  used  in 
Philadelphia. 

RED  LANTERN 

The  ordinary  form  of  tubular  lantern  is  used,  F,  Figure  13,  and 
when  many  are  bought,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  company's 
name  stamped  in  raised  letters  on  the  metal  work.  This  may 
tend  to  decrease  the  loss  of  these  lanterns  through  theft. 

LANTERN  RODS 

These  rods,  D,  Figure  13,  serve  to  carry  the  danger  flags  as 
well  as  the  red  lanterns.  The  coil  of  the  loop  in  which  the 
lantern  is  hung,  is  designed  to  make  the  stealing  of  the  lantern 
by  a  passing  wagon  more  difficult  than  would  be  the  case  if  the 
loop  were  more  open.  The  rod  is  of  ^-inch  round  iron,  and 
about  5  feet  long  over  all. 

TRENCH   MAKING 
SHOVELS 

The  following  shovels  may  be  used  to  advantage: 

Sharp  nose,  hollow  back  shovel  with  a  D-handle  1^  inches  in 
diameter  and  2  feet  6  inches  long,  for  general  trenching  work. 

Flat  nose,  hollow  back  shovel  with  a  D-handle  1£  inches  in 
diameter  and  2  feet  6  inches  long,  useful  in  street  cleaning, 
loading  dirt  or  handling  material  on  a  flat  surface. 

Sharp  nose,  hollow  back  shovel  with  a  straight  handle  l^inches 
in  diameter  and  4  feet  3  inches  long,  useful  in  deep  trenching. 
With  some  labor,  this  shovel  can  be  used,  in  loose  soil,  to  great 
advantage  in  ordinary  trenching  work. 

Flat  nose,  plain  back  shovel,  about  7  inches  wide,  with  a 
straight  handle  1^  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  3  inches  long, 
useful  in  tunnelling  and  cutting  and  removing  sod.  This  shovel 
frequently  is  called  a  tunnelling  spade. 


114 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  13.— A,  Wall  Bar,  page  116. 
C,  Solid  Tunnelling  Bar,  pa< 
E,  Danger  Sign,  page  lit 
Driving  Point,  page  116. 


B,  Pipe  Tunnelling  Bar,  page  115. 
>e  115.  D,  Lantern  Rod,  page  113. 
.  F,  Red  Lantern,  page  113.  G, 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    115 

PICKS 

Picks  of  the  general  railroad  or  clay  pattern,  weighing  from  8 
to  9  pounds  each,  and  measuring  from  24  to  28  inches  over  all, 
give  good  results.  They  are  made  of  soft  tough  steel,  and  to  the 
end  of  each  arm  is  spliced  a  piece  of  good  tool  steel  from  4  to  6 
inches  long.  The  end  of  one  arm  is  drawn  out  to  a  chisel  point 
!£•  inches  wide,  and  the  other  end  to  a  fairly  sharp  point.  The 
tool  steel  ends  of  the  arms  are  tempered  so  as  to  be  both  hard 
and  tough.  Pick  handles  are  made  of  tough  hickory,  3  feet  long. 

With  good  tool-steel  ends,  the  picks  can  be  drawn  out  and 
sharpened  a  number  of  times  before  it  becomes  necessary  to 
re-steel  them.  Picks  ate  re-steeled  with  pieces  of  tool  steel  about 
6  inches  long,  until  the  over-all  dimension  becomes  less  than 
18  inches,  after  which  it  is  advisable  to  scrap  the  pick,  as  by  this 
time  the  eye  will  be  somewhat  round  and  too  large  for  the 
ordinary  pickhandle.  The  splicing  must  be  done  carefully,  and 
the  points  tempered  so  as  to  be  both  hard  and  tough. 

GRUB  HOE  OR  MATTOCK 

This  tool  has  a  hoe  as  one  arm  and  a  cutter  as  the  other,  and 
is  used  mostly  to  cut  roots.  It  is  made  of  steel,  weighs  about 
6  pounds,  and  has  an  eye  which  fits  the  ordinary  pick  handle. 
The  cutting  arm  is  at  right  angles  with  the  hoe  arm.  The 
cutting  arm  is  6  inches  long  and  3£  inches  wide  at  the  cutting 
edge,  and  the  hoe  arm  is  8^  inches  long  and  4^  inches  wide  at 
the  cutting  edge. 

TUNNELLING  BARS 

SOLID  TUNNELLING 

This  bar, C,  Figure  13, is  made  of  1^-inch  round  steel,  5  feet  long, 
with  a  blade  drawn  out  at  one  end  3  inches  long,  and  1\  inches 
wide  at  point.  The  blade  is  tempered  so  as  to  be  tough  and 
hard.  This  is  a  heavy  bar,  and  is  useful  especially  in  hard  or 
frozen  ground. 

PIPE  TUNNELLING 

This  bar,  B,  Figure  13,  consists  of  a  blade  and  a  pipe  handle. 
The  blade  is  made  of  steel,  5  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide,  with  a 
f-inch  shank,  4  inches  long  at  one  end,  having  a  male  thread. 
The  1-inch  steel  handle  is  attached  to  the  blade  by  an 
ordinary  1  by  f-inch  reducing  coupling.  The  end  of  the  blade  is 
tempered.  This  is  a  light  bar,  especially  useful  in  soft  soil,  and 


116 


EQUIPMENT 


by  varying  the  lengths  of  the  handle,  can  be  adapted  to  conditions 
where  space  is  limited. 

WALL 

These  bars,  A,  Figure  13,  are  used  in  breaking  holes  through 
cellar  walls  in  service  work,  and  are  made  of  1^-inch  octagonal 
steel,  in  lengths  2  feet  6  inches,  3  feet  6  inches  and  4  feet  6  inches. 
The  heads  are  dressed  to  good  striking  surfaces,  and  the  chisel 
points  are  3  inches  long  by  1|  inches  wide,  and  are  tempered  so 
as  to  be  both  hard  and  tough. 

DRIVING  POINT 

A  driving  point  for  service  work,  G,  Figure  13,  has  a  long 
sharp  point,  and  is  made  of  round  steel  bar  or  of  heavy  steel  pipe. 
The  blunt  end  has  a  male  thread,  and  the  over-all  length  is  about 
15  inches.  The  diameter  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  service  pipe 
to  be  driven. 


Figure  14. — Shoring  Jacks,  page  117. 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    117 


DITCH  SHORING  JACKS 

These  jacks,  Figure 
14,  are  used  in  shor- 
ing up  ditches  and  in 
supporting  under- 
ground structures. 
The  jacks  are  made 
of  a  piece  of  1^-inch 
steel  pipe,  of  different 
lengths  to  suit  vary- 
ing conditions,  a  jack 
part  and  a  head,  both 
of  which  fit  loosely 
into  the  ends  of  the 
pipe.  The  jack  part 
is  made  of  1^-inch 
round  wrought  iron 
bar,  with  square 
screw  threads,  about 
9  inches  long,  having 
a  heavy  wrought  iron 
nut  with  two  arms 
about  5  inches  long, 
and  a  loosely  attach- 
ed foot,  having  a  bear- 
ing surface  of  about 
6  by  2\  inches.  The 
head  consists  of  \\ 
-inch  wrought  iron 
bar,  about  5  inches 
long,  loosely  attached 
to  a  foot  similar  to 
that  used  with  the 
jack  part.  The  ex- 
pansion of  the  com- 
plete jack  is  obtained 
by  turning  the  nut  of 
the  jack  part  against 
the  end  of  the  steel 
pipe.  If  conditions 


118 


EQUIPMENT 


demand  it,  a  jack  part  may  be  used  in  both  ends  of  the  steel 
pipe,  thus  getting  expansion  at  two  points. 

AXE 

This  Yankee  three-quarter,  or  miner's  handle,  axe,  D,  Figure 
15,  has  a  cutting  edge  4|  inches  wide,  a  handle  28  inches  long,  and 
weighs  3  pounds,  including  handle.  The  handle  is  made  of 
tough  hickory. 

HATCHET 

The  derrick  type  hatchet,  A,  Figure  15,  has  a  cutting  edge 
3?  inches  wide,  a  handle  13  inches  long,  and  weighs  2  pounds, 
including  handle.  The  handle  is  made  of  tough  hickory. 


Figure  16— A,  Cellar  Pump,  page  119.     B,  Block  Pump,  page  119. 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    119 


SAWS 

HAND  RIP 


This  saw,  C,  Figure  15,  is  the  ordinary  carpenter's  rip  saw, 
and  has  a  blade  26  inches  long. 


ONE-MAN  CROSSCUT 


This  saw,  B,  Figure  15,  is  provided  with  substantial  handles. 
The  3j-foot  length  is  best  suited  for  general  use. 


TWO-MAN  CROSSCUT 


This  saw,  E,  Figure  15,  has  two  substantial  handles,  and  the 
6-foot  length  is  best  suited  for  general  use. 


DITCH  PUMPS 

CELLAR  PUMP 


The  ordinary  galvanized  sheet  iron  cellar  pump,  A,  Figure  16, 
about  1 2  feet  long  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  is  very  useful  in 
pumping  water  out  of  ordinary  ditches  where  there  is  very 
little  sediment. 


.  This  pump,  B,  Figure  16,  is  for  deep  trenches,  and  especially 
where  there  is  a  great  amount  of  sediment,  as  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  choke  it.  The  water  is  lifted  by  a  rubber  diaphragm, 
which  eliminates  any  friction,  and  the  valves  are  solid  castings 
and  can  be  removed  easily  and  replaced  by  hand.  Diaphragms 
are  made  of  para  rubber.  The  suction  to  the  pump  is  3  inches 
diameter,  and  different  lengths  of  wired  hose  should  be  kept  on 
hand  for  use  as  conditions  require.  The  pump,  when  in  use,  is 
bolted  to  heavy  planks.  The  handle  should  be  long  enough  for 
two-man  operation. 

POWER  PUMPS 

Power  pumps  in  various  forms  are  available,  and  will  prove 
economical  where  large  quantities  of  water  must  be  handled. 
The  most  common  types  are  the  block  pump  and  the  centrifugal 
pump,  both  driven  by  a  gasoline  engine. 


120 


EQUIPMENT 


ROCK  EXCAVATION 

DRILLS 

STRIKING 

These  drills,  C,  Figure  17,  are 
made  of  lj-inch  octagonal  steel, 
with  ordinary  wing  drill  point, 
and  range  in  length  from  a  start- 
ing drill,  2  feet  6  inches  long,  to 
a  following  drill,  7  feet  long.  The 
heads  are  dressed  to  a  good  strik- 
ing surface.  The  wing  point  of 
the  starting  drill  is  about  2\  in- 
ches wide,  and  the  wing  point  of 
a  following  drill  always  is  slightly 
narrower  than  the  point  it  follows, 
to  prevent  drills  from  sticking. 


These  drills,  F,  Figure  17,  are 
for  soft  rock,  no  striking  hammer 
being  necessary.  They  are  made 
of  1-inch  round  steel,  7  feet  long, 
with  an  ordinary  wing  point  at 
each  end,  2  inches  wide.  All 
drill  points  are  tempered  very 
hard  and  tough. 

Small  compressor  outfits  are 
available  for  driving  one  non- 
rotating  drill.  Every  company 
having  much  rock  work  should 
own  one  or  more  of  these  outfits. 

SPOON  OR  CLE\NER 

This  tool,  B,  Figure  17,  is 
used  in  cleaning  out  holes  during 
drilling  and  before  placing  ex- 
plosive charges.  It  is  made  of 
f-inch  round  steel,  5  feet  long, 
with  a  spoon  form  at  each  end. 
Another  form  of  cleaner  consists 
of  5  feet  of  ^-inch  steel  pipe. 


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TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    121 


BARS 
PINCH 

This  bar,  A,  Figure  17,  is  used  in  prying  out  heavy  rock,  and 
is  made  of  lj-inch  square  steel  for  16  inches  from  the  point,  its 
cross  section  then  changing  to  1^-inch  octagonal  steel  for  12 
inches,  and  from  this  point  to  the  end  of  the  bar  (a  distance  of 
2  feet  8  inches)  the  cross  section  is  round,  and  tapers  from  a 
diameter  of  1  j  inches  to  1  inch.  The  end  of  the  bar  is  cut  off  at 
an  angle  of  30°,  and  then  turned  up  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
making  a  heavy  blunt  point  1^  inches  wide  and  somewhat  like 
the  ordinary  wedge  point.  The  bar  measures  5  feet  over  all, 
and  has  a  tempered  point. 

CHISEL 

This  bar,  D,  Figure  17,  is  used  in  wedging  out  heavy  rock,  and 
it  differs  from  the  pinch  bar  only  in  its  point,  which  is  a  wedge 
3^  inches  long  and  lj  inches  wide. 

SHORT  CHISEL 

This  bar,  E,  Figure  17,  is  used  with  striking  hammers,  and  is 


PLUG. 

Figure  18,  page  122 


122  EQUIPMENT 

made  of  IJ-inch  octagonal  steel  about  2  feet  3  inches  long,  with  a 
chisel  point  l\  inches  long  and  \\  inches  wide.  The  head  has  a 
good  striking  surface,  and  the  point  is  tempered. 


STONE  PLUGS  AND  FEATHERS 


These  tools,  Figure  18,  are  used  in  splitting  rock  and  for 
breaking  out  bottom  portions  of  curb  stones.  The  feathers  are 
made  of  f-inch  half-round  steel,  about  3£  inches  long,  and  the 
plug  is  wedge-shaped,  ^-inch  square  at  base,  and  3j  inches  long. 
In  drilling  the  holes  for  the  plugs  and  feathers,  a  f-inch  octag- 
onal steel  drill,  12  inches  long,  is  used. 

STRIKING  HAMMER 

This  hammer,  D,  Figure  19,  is  used  in  rock  drilling,  cutting 
large  pipe,  etc.  It  should  be  good  cast  steel,  double-faced,  and 
weighing  8  pounds.  The  handle  should  be  of  tough  hickory, 
3  feet  long. 

STONE  SLEDGES 

The  ordinary  commercial  stone  sledges,  C,  Figure  19,  having  a 
flat  face  at  one  end  and  a  rather  long  V-shaped  point  at  the 
other  end,  are  best  adapted  for  stone  work.  They  are  made  in 
different  sizes,  but  the  16-,  18-  and  24-pound  sizes  will  answer 
for  all  purposes.  The  handles  should  be  of  tough  hickory, 
3  feet  long. 

BLASTING  MACHINE 

Blasting  machines,  E,  Figure  19,  should  be  of  substantial 
construction,  and  enclosed  in  a  strong  wooden  box,  to  be  carried 
about  easily.  There  are  a  number  of  blasting  machines  on  the 
market  which  give  good  results,  and  the  size  of  machine  depends 
on  the  number  of  holes  required  at  one  time.  For  general  use 
in  main  and  service  work,  a  machine  which  will  fire  from  one  to 
thirty  holes  at  one  time,  will  be  found  large  enough. 

The  old  style  safety  fuse  should  never  be  used.  Rock  blasting 
by  electricity  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  effectual,  and  for 
economy,  safety  and  certainty  of  action,  supersedes  any  other 
system.  By  exploding  a  number  of  holes  simultaneously,  the 
united  strength  of  the  explosion  is  utilized  at  the  same  instant, 
thus  obtaining  at  least  10  per  cent  more  execution  from  the 
explosive  than  if  the  holes  were  fired  independently  with  the 
old  style  safety  fuse. 


TRENCHING  AND  REFILLING  EQUIPMENT    123 


124  EQUIPMENT 

BLASTING  MAT 

A  blasting  mat  is  preferable  to  logs  chained  together,  if  the 
occasion  for  its  use  would  be  frequent. 

REFILLING  AND  REPAYING 
TAMPING  BAR 

This  bar,  A,  Figure  19,  is  used  in  tamping  back  earth 
under  mains,  and  is  of  the  general  railroad  type.  The  end  of 
the  bar  consists  of  a  piece  of  wrought  iron,  4  by  4  by  f-inch,  with 
a  f-inch  shank  about  12  inches  long,  bent  at  a  small  angle.  To 
this  is  welded  a  length  of  f-inch  steel  pipe,  making  the 
over-all  length  about  5  feet  6  inches. 

RAMMER 

This  tool,  B,  Figure  19,  consists  of  an  iron  casting  with 
a  lj-inch  circular  hole  in  the  top  for  the  handle.  The  handles 
are  made  of  1-inch  steel  pipe,  or  lj-inch  hickory,  and  are 
about  4  feet  long.  The  rammer  is  manufactured  in  different 
sizes,  but  the  one  having  a  face  6  inches  square  and  weighing 
about  20  pounds,  is  best  adapted  for  general  use. 

SUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 

The  other  equipment  required  in  refilling  and  paving  consists 
of  such  standard  articles  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  describing 
them.  In  considering  repaving  work,  a  list  of  the  necessary 
equipment  will  be  given  in  Chapter  XXVI. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

LAYING  EQUIPMENT 
CLEANING,  LAYING  AND  TESTING 


BRUSHES 
PIPE 


Pipe  brushes  are  used  in  cleaning  out  the  lengths  of  pipe 
before  laying.     This  is  necessary,  especially  where  the  pipe  has 


Figure  20.— A,  Carding  Cloth  Brush,  page  127.  B,  Foundry 
Brush,  page  127.  C,  Small  Circular  Brush, 
page  126.  D,  Pipe  Cleaner,  page  127. 


126 


EQUIPMENT 


been  strung  for  some  time.  The  brushes  for  3-,  4-  and  6-inch 
pipe  consist,  C,  Figure  20,  of  a  1-inch  heavy  wrought  iron  tube 
about  6  inches  long,  cut  in  two  longitudinally,  and  having  a 
number  of  small  holes  which  hold  the  flat  steel  wire  bristles  of 
the  brush.  The  two  sections  of  the  tube  are  held  together  by 
clamps  and  a  long  screw  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  tube. 
A  f-inch  socket  is  provided  at  one  end  for  attaching  a  handle. 
For  large  sizes  of  pipe,  up  to  16-inch  inclusive,  the  brushes, 
A,  Figure  21,  consist  of  a  large  circular  piece  of  wood  about 
10  inches  long,  with  rattan  or  stiff  fibre  bristles  about  2  inches 
long.  A  1-inch  hole  is  bored  through  the  wood  centre  of  the 
brush  for  attaching  the  handle.  Pipe  over  16  inches  in  diameter 
is  cleaned  by  men  crawling  into  the  pipe,  and  using  brooms 
and  wire  brushes. 


Figure  21.— A,  Large  Circular  Brush,  page  126. 
B,  Metal  Plug,  page  134. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  127 

WIRE 

These  brushes  are  used  in  removing  rust  and  scale  from  bell 
and  spigot  ends  of  pipe,  and  one  type,  B,  Figure  20,  consists  of 
the  ordinary  foundry  brush,  having  a  tough  wood  back,  1\  by 
1\  inches,  and  flat  steel  wire  bristles  or  prongs  4  inches  long. 
Worn-out  carding  cloth,  which  may  be  obtained  from  cotton 
or  woolen  mills,  nailed  to  a  soft  wood  backing  about  7  inches 
long,  A,  Figure  20,  makes  very  good  brushes  for  removing  rust 
and  scale  from  large  bells  for  cement  joint  making.  The 
brushes  may  be  made  concave,  or  convex,  to  fit  the  pipe. 

CLEANER 

Pipe  is  cleaned  also  by  a  disc,  D,  Figure  20,  made  out  of 
heavy  sheet  iron,  slightly  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  pipe  to  be 
cleaned.  A  f-inch  socket  attaches  the  handle  to  the  centre  of 
the  disc. 

PORTERS 

Pipe  porters  are  used  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  pipe  on  the 
street  and  in  the  ditch,  and  are  made  of  oak  or  hickory  in  two 
sizes.  The  small  porter,  used  in  handling  small  sizes  of  pipe, 
is  5  feet  long.  One  end  of  the  porter,  for  a  distance  of  2  feet 
6  inches,  has  a  rectangular  cross  section  3  by  2\  inches,  with  the 
corners  rounded  off,  and  from  this  point  to  the  end  of  the  handle 
the  cross  section  is  circular  and  tapers  to  a  diameter  of  1  \  inches 
at  the  end .  The  large  porter,  used  in  handling  large  sizes  of  pipe, 
is  9  feet  6  inches  long,  and  is  similar  to  the  small  porter.  The 
rectangular  cross  section  is  4i  by  3£  inches  and  3  feet  6  inches 
long,  and  the  handle  tapers  to  a  diameter  of  2  inches  at  the  end. 

PIPE  ROPE 

The  1-inch  ordinary  commercial  manila  rope,  of  good  quality, 
will  be  found  adequate  for  handling  all  sizes  of  pipe  where  it  is 
not  necessary  to  use  a  derrick. 

SKIDS 

Pipe  skids  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned,  straight-grained 
oak,  with  one  end  cut  at  an  angle  so  that  the  pipe  can  be  more 
easily  rolled  on.  For  cross  section  and  length,  the  table  below 
should  be  followed : 


128 

EQUIPMENT 

Size  of  Pipe                                         Section 

Length 

16' 
20' 
24' 
30' 

36' 

48* 

2'x  12' 
6*x    6" 
6*x    6" 
6"x    6" 
8"x    8" 
8'x    8"                 ! 

5'  2' 

5'  6" 
6'0" 
6'  6" 
8'0' 
8'0ff 

PIPE  SLINGS 


Pipe  slings  should  be  made  of  a  good  quality  of  hemp  rope, 
very  carefully  spliced.  For  size  and  length  of  rope,  the  table 
below  should  be  followed : 


Size  of  Pipe 

Size  of  Rope 

Lei 

ig.h  of  Rope 

Before  Splicing 

After  Splicing 

16' 
20' 
24' 
30' 
36' 
48' 

H" 
H* 
if 
if 

2' 
2' 

13'  0" 

15'  0" 

'     17'  6" 
20'  6" 
25'  6" 
33'  0" 

11'  0* 

13'  0" 
15'  6' 
18'  6' 
23'  0" 
i              30'  0' 

DERRICKS 

The  ordinary  ditch  derrick,  with  four  legs  and  of  good  substan- 
tial construction,  is  very  well  adapted  for  large  main  laying. 
The  legs  are  made  of  strong  tough  lumber,  4  by  4  inches  and  12 
feet  long,  with  wrought  iron  bands  on  the  ends  to  prevent 
splitting.  The  legs  are  held  together  at  the  top  by  a  heavy 
wrought  iron  pin,  and  the  bottom  of  the  legs  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  spikes  or  wheels  can  be  used.  The  legs  are 
chained  together  to  prevent  spreading. 

The  winch  is  attached  rigidly  to  the  legs,  and  has  a  drum  about 
6  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  provided  with  a  band  brake,  ratchet 
and  stop,  to  insure  safety  in  operation.  Strong  single  and 
double  tackle  blocks  are  used,  and  for  laying  mains  30  inches 
in  diameter,  80  feet  of  1  J-inch  good  quality  hemp  rope  is  needed. 
Figure  22  shows  the  wooden  derrick  used  in  Philadelphia.  As 
these  derricks  wear  out,  they  are  being  replaced  in  steel. 

For  36-inch  and  48-inch  mains,  the  steel  derrick  shown  in 
Figure  23  has  proven  very  satisfactory.  It  is  patterned  after  the 
wooden  derrick  in  use  for  smaller  pipe,  and  is  constructed  entirely 
of  steel.  The  legs  are  4-inch  I-beams,  weighing  9£  pounds  per 
foot,  so  arranged  in  pairs  that  one  pair  is  rigid  on  one  side  of  the 
ditch  and  one  pair  on  the  other.  Each  pair  is  braced  securely 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


129 


Figure  22.— Wooden  Derrick,  pafce  128. 


130 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  23.— Steel  Derrick,  page  128. 


LA  YING  EQ  UIPMENT  \  3 1 

with  angle  and  channel  iron,  and  the  legs  are  held  together  at 
the  top  with  a  If-inch  hinge  pin.  The  bottoms  of  the  legs  are 
furnished  with  wheels,  and  the  legs  are  chained  together  across 
the  ditch  to  prevent  undue  spreading.  The  winch  is  attached  to 
the  legs,  and  has  a  drum  10  inches  in  diameter,  provided  with  a 
band  brake,  ratchet  and  stop  to  insure  safety  in  operation. 
Single  and  double  steel  tackle  blocks  are  used,  strung  with 
about  120  feet  of  half-inch  wire  cable. 

Steel  derricks  should  be  well  protected  with  a  good  coating  of 
paint;  all  bearings  should  be  well  oiled,  and  when  a  steel  cable 
is  used,  it  should  be  covered  with  a  good  quality  graphite  grease. 
In  storing  these  derricks,  they  should  be  under  cover. 

PIPE  LEVELS 

SMALL  POCKET 

This  is  a  small  level,  mounted  in  a  cast-iron  frame,  about 
3  inches  long,  and  is  convenient  for  the  use  of  service  men, 
foremen  and  inspectors. 

SMALL  HAND 

The  ordinary  machinist's  level,  with  square  ends,  top  and  end 
plates  and  low  cut  side  view,  is  satisfactory.  This  level  is 
manufactured  in  different  lengths,  but  the  18-  and  24-inch 
lengths  are  best  suited  for  main  and  service  work. 

LARGE  HAND 

This  is  a  long  level  similar  to  the  machinist's  level,  with  two 
lugs  on  the  bottom  near  the  ends  to  enable  the  bottom  of  the 
level  to  clear  the  pipe  cell.  This  level  is  manufactured  in  differ- 
ent lengths,  but  the  6-foot  length  is  best  suited  for  main  laying. 

BAG 

Each  size  main  requires  its  own  size  bag.  These  bags,  E, 
Figure  24,  are  made  of  good  quality  of  elastic  rubber  with  tubes 
for  inflation,  and  the  large  bags  are  provided  with  stop  cocks  at 
the  ends  of  the  tubes.  Large  bags,  made  of  rubber  and  covered 
with  canvas,  frequently  are  useful.  As  rubber  deteriorates 
quickly  with  age,  bags  should  be  ordered  in  small  quantities 
only.  Bags  in  stock  should  be  kept  in  a  comparatively  cool 
location,  out  of  sunlight,  with  free  ventilation,  and  not  exposed 
to  radiation  from  steam  pipes  or  acid  fumes.  It  is  preferable 
to  move  them  about,  rather  than  keep  them  packed  up  for 
several  months  in  one  box  or  package. 


132 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  24. — A,  Stopper,   page  133.     B,  Service  Plug,  page 

134.  G,  Expansion  Plug,  page  134.     D,   Bag  Pump,    page 

135.  E,  Rubber  Bag,   page  131.      F,   Bag  Fork,  page  133. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


133 


BAG  FORK 

A  bag  fork,  F,  Figure  24,  is  used  to  insert  the  bag  and  hold  it 
in  position  while  inflating.  It  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  two- 
prong  fork  of  one  length  of  ^-inch  wire,  so  the  only  joint  is  at 
the  top  of  the  handle.  The  size  shown  is  large  enough  for 
8-inch  bags. 

STOPPER 

A  stopper  consists  of  a  flexible  frame,  covered  with  leather, 
which  can  be  expanded  to  a  circular  shape.  To  this  covering  is 
attached  carefully  a  circular  piece  of  oiled  canvas.  The  leather 
covering  makes  a  tight  joint  between  the  frame  and  the  pipe, 
and  the  oiled  canvas  bags  off  the  main. 

The  stopper  is  much  safer  than  a  bag  for  stopping  the  flow  of 
gas,  as  the  danger  of  sudden  collapse  is  absent.  It  lasts  longer, 
and,  therefore,  economy  demands  that  stoppers  be  used  wherever 
possible,  and  bags  be  restricted  to  cases  where,  because  of  condi- 
tions peculiar  to  any  pipe,  such  as  faulty  casting,  or  presence  of 
sediment,  the  section  is  not  truly  circular,  and  the  stopper  will 
not  fit  closely  enough  to  prevent  all  gas  flow.  The  type  shown 
in  A,  Figure  24,  has  given  good  satisfaction. 

TEMPORARY  PLUGS 

Plugs  of  a  more  or  less  temporary  nature  are  needed  on  many 
occasions  during  main  and  large  service  work.  Several  types 
may  be  used  to  advantage. 

WOODEN 

These  are  turned,  cone-shaped,  and  with  dimensions  about  as 
follows : 


Size  of  Pipe 

Diameter 

Ungth 

Small  End 

Large  End 

3' 
4' 
6" 

8' 

I 

6J   ' 

9     ' 

9i' 
12J' 

10' 

9     ' 

HJ  ' 

14  ' 

12" 

JQl     * 

13J   ' 

14  ' 

16" 

13J  ' 

18     ' 

22  ' 

20' 

18     ' 

22     ' 

24  ' 

If  used  for  pipe  larger  than  12-inch,  they  should  be  built  up  of 
several  pieces;  otherwise,  they  are  apt  to  check  so  badly  as  to 
become  worthless. 

A  wooden  plug  is  very  useful,  either  as  a  loose  stopper  to 


134 


EQUIPMENT 


prevent  dirt,  water  or  any  other  material  from  entering  a  line 
being  laid,  or,  by  the  help  of  soap  or  clay  and  with  previous 
soaking  in  water,  as  a  gas-tight  stopper,  good  for  days  or  weeks 
of  service. 

METAL 

For  sizes  larger  than  12-inch,  a  wooden  plug  is  quite  expensive, 
and  each  year  the  difficulty  of  getting  seasoned  wood  increases; 
so  in  Philadelphia  it  is  now  the  practice  to  use  a  plug,  B,  Figure  21, 
(seepage  126)  made  of  galvanized  sheet  iron.  It  serves  as  a  loose 
stopper  only;  for  the  fit  obtained  in  the  pipe  is  not  close  enough 
for  work  against  gas  pressure,  even  though  the  plug  were  braced. 
Dimensions  are  as  follows: 


Size  of  Pipe 

Diameter 

Length 

Small  End 

At  Flange 

12" 

iii' 

12| 

ir 

16* 

15} 

16J 

11" 

20* 

19} 

20; 

ir 

24' 

23} 

24; 

ii" 

30' 

29} 

30} 

ir 

36" 

35} 

36; 

ii" 

48' 

47} 

48i 

ir 

This  plug,  C,  Figure  24,  is  made  in  sizes  from  6  to  30  inches, 
although,  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  larger  sizes  are  not 
economical  because  of  the  ease  with  which  a  temporary  cement 
joint  may  be  made  with  an  iron  plug.  It  consists  of  a  cast  iron 
base,  with  a  rubber  gasket  around  the  outer  edge,  which  engages 
with  the  inside  surface  of  the  pipe.  It  is  so  constructed  that  the 
large  wing  nut  on  its  outer  end,  when  tightened,  forces  the 
rubber  gasket  against,  the  pipe,  forming  a  gas-tight  joint.  The 
wing  nut  revolves  upon  a  piece  of  steel  pipe  through  the  centre 
of  the  plug.  This  pipe  is  bent  at  right  angles  at  its  outer  end, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  cap,  which  can  be  removed  when  purging 
small  mains. 

SERVICE 

This  plug,  B,  Figure  24,  consists  of  a  cone-shaped  piece  of  solid 
rubber,  whose  upper  diameter  is  slightly  less  than  the  opening  in 
the  top  of  a  service  tee,  and  whose  lower  diameter  is  slightly  less 
than  the  inside  diameter  of  the  tee.  A  substantial  wire  handle, 
about  6  inches  long,  is  fastened  securely  through  the  center  of 
the  rubber  plug. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  135 

PUMPS 
BAG 

This  pump,  D,  Figure  24,  used  for  the  inflation  of  large  bags, 
is  similar  to  the  ordinary  hand  air  pump,  but  much  heavier. 
The  cylinder  is  10  j  inches  long,  3j  inches  in  diameter,  and  has  a 
heavy  base  provided  with  lugs,  by. which  the  pump  is  bolted 
rigidly  to  a  l£-inch  board,  9  by  14  inches.  The  suction  and 
discharge  passages  at  the  bottom  of  the  pump  are  both  ^-inch, 


Figure  25.  — Main  Pump,  page  136. 


136 


EQUIPMENT 


and  are  combined  in  one  fitting.  The  discharge  passage  is 
provided  with  a  check  valve,  so  that  no  air  can  get  back  from 
the  bag  on  the  suction  stroke.  A  6-foot  length  of  f-inch  rubber 
hose  is  attached  to  the  outlet  by  a  union  connection.  All  metal 
parts  are  made  of  brass  with  the  exception  of  the  steel  piston  rod. 


This  is  used  to  pump  air  into  mains  to  test  joints  and  pipe  for 
leakage.  It  should  be  fairly  heavy  and  of  substantial  con- 
struction, so  as  to  stand  rough  usage  and  exposure.  Gould's 
direct-acting  pump,  Figure  25,  having  an  8-inch  cylinder,  12-inch 
stroke  and  l^-inch  inlet  and  outlet  connections,  with  check 
valves,  has  given  good  results.  It  has  a  capacity  of  .34  cubic  feet 
of  free  air  per  stroke,  is  bolted  rigidly  to  a  heavy  plank  platform, 


Figure  26.  —  A,  Hand  Diamond  Point,  page  137.  B,  Handle 
Diamond  Point,  page  137.  G,  Power  Diamond 
Point,  page  137.  D,  Dog  Chisel,  page  137.  E, 
Cold  Chisel,  page  137.  F,  Pipe  Bursting  Wedge, 
page  138.  G,  Pipe  Bursting  Wedge,  page  138. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  137 

and  may  have  two  strong  wooden  handles,  often  made  of  porters 
about  5   feet  long,  enabling  four   men    to  work  at  one  time. 
When  a  very  high  pressure  test  is  wanted,  or  the  line  capacity 
is  great,  a  power  pump  may  be  needed. 

CUTTING,  THREADING  AND  OTHER  TOOLS 
DIAMOND  POINTS 

HAND 

This  tool,  A,  Figure  26,  is  used  for  gouging  cast  iron  pipe  and 
specials,  is  made  of  f-inch  octagonal  tool  steel  about  8  inches 
long,  and  one  end  is  dressed  with  a  "diamond  face,"  at  an  angle  of 
almost  75°  with  the  axis  of  the  tool.  The  head  is  dressed 
carefully,  and  the  diamond-face  point  is  tempered  hard  and  tough. 


This  tool,  B,  Figure  26,  differs  from  the  hand  tool  iu  being 
slightly  heavier,  having  a  good  striking  head  and  a  substantial 
shank  provided  with  an  eye  to  fit  the  ordinary  small  hammer 
handle. 

POWER 

The  power  tool,  C,  Figure  26,  is  a  hand  diamond  point,  with  an 
over-all  length  of  12  inches,  and  a  shank  to  fit  the  pneumatic 
hammer  used. 

CHISELS 

DOG 

This  tool,  D,  Figure  26,  is  used  in  cutting  cast  iron  pipe,  and  is 
made  of  1^-inch  square  steel,  about  6  inches  long,  with  a  cutting 
edge  about  1£  inches  wide.  It  is  similar  to  a  small  wedge,  and 
has  a  rather  blunt  wedge  point  3  inches  long,  and  an  eye  which 
fits  the  ordinary  hammer  handle.  The  cutting  edge  is  parallel 
with  the  length  of  the  handle.  The  head  is  dressed  carefully, 
and  the  wedge  point  is  tempered  hard  and  tough. 


This  tool,  K,  Figure  26,  is  made  of  1-inch  octagonal  tool  steel, 
6  to  8  inches  long,  with  a  carefully  dressed  head  and  rather 
sharp  V-shaped  cutting  edge,  1  inch  wide  and  3  inches  long. 
The  cutting  edge  should  be  tempered  so  as  to  be  both  hard  and 
tough. 


138  EQUIPMENT 

PIPE  BURSTING  WEDGES 

These  tools,  F  and  G,  Figure  26,  are  used  in  cracking  pipe  after 
it  has  been  gouged,  and  are  made  of  good  tool  steel  in  two  sizes: 
a  2-inch  wedge  for  large  pipe  and  a  If-inch  wedge  for  small  pipe. 
The  heads  are  dressed  carefully.,  and  the  wedge  is  not  tempered. 

PIPE  CUTTERS 

Pipe  cutters  should  be  of  substantial  construction,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  as  light  as  possible,  and  with  few  and  easily  renewable 
parts.  The  following  cutters  are  useful  for  different  lines  of  work : 

ROLLER 

One  cutting  wheel  and  two  rollers  in  two  sizes,  —  No.  1  for 
pipe  up  to  lj-inch  inclusive,  and  No.  2  up  to  2-inch  inclusive. 

WHEEL 

Three  cutting  wheels  in  three  sizes, — No.  1  for  pipe  up  to  1-inch 
inclusive,  No.  2  up  to  2-inch  inclusive,  and  No.  3  for  2?-  and  3-inch. 

LARGE 

There  are  a  number  of  large  pipe  cutters  on  the  market  which 
can  be  used  to  cut  either  cast  or  steel  pipe.  The  Anderson  type, 
B,  Figure  27,  has  given  very  satisfactory  service.  It  consists  of 
a  series  of  links  connected  by  means  of  claw  holds,  and  carrying 
cutter  wheels,  which  form  a  chain,  the  length  of  which  can  be 
varied  to  suit  the  circumference  of  the  various  sizes  of  pipe. 
This  adjustment  to  any  length  within  the  range  of  the  cutter  is 
easily  made  by  hand.  A  frame,  containing  a  screw-operated 
yoke,  provides  the  means  of  tightening  the  links  and  wheels. 
The  cutting  operation  is  similar  to  that  of  a  three-wheel  pipe 
cutter.  The  cutter  comes  in  two  sizes:  the  No.  1  cuts  pipe  from 
2-  to  6-inch,  the  No.  2  from  4-  to  12-inch,  and  the  No.  3  from  10- 
to  24-inch.  Where  a  stretch  of  cast-iron  main  is  to  be  removed 
and  it  is  not  convenient  to  burn  or  cut  out  the  joints,  the  use 
of  a  cutter  of  this  type  is  generally  preferable  to  gouging  or 
breaking  the  pipe  in  front  of  each  bell. 

PIPE  STOCKS 
SOLID 

This  stock,  A,  Figure  27,  should  be  of  substantial  construction, 
but  not  too  heavy  or  clumsy,  and  should  be  made  of  malleable 
iron.  The  handles  should  be  of  round  hollow  steel,  with  a  male 
thread  at  one  end  for  attachment  to  the  stock,  and  the  latter 
should  be  so  made  that  dies  and  guides  can  be  changed  easily. 
Two  sizes  will  be  found  useful,  —  one  threading  pipe  up  to  1-inch 
in  diameter,  and  another  for  \\-  and  2-inch  pipe. 


LA  YING  EQUIPMENT 


139 


Figure  27.— A,  Solid  Pipe  Stock,  page  138.     B,  Large  Pipe 
Cutter,  page  138.     G,  Climax  Ratchet,  page  140. 


140 


EQUIPMENT 


There  are  a  number  of  good  adjustable  stocks  on  the  market 
and  which  give  very  satisfactory  results.  They  should  be  made 
of  high  grade  malleable  iron,  thus  allowing  them  to  be  both  light 
and  strong.  The  dies  should  be  of  the  best  special  tool  steel, 
and  quick  opening,  being  instantly  released  from  the  work 
without  running  back  over  the  finished  threads.  The  stocks  are 
made  in  various  sizes,  but  the  size  which  threads  pipe  from 
1-to  2-inch  inclusive,  will  answer  most  requirements. 


Figure  28.  —  Four-arm  Spider,  page  141. 

CLIMAX  RATCHET 

This  stock,  C,  Figure  27,  combines  the  properties  of  pipe  vise 
and  pipe  stock,  and  threads  can  be  cut  with  pipe  in  any  position. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  141 

This  is  useful  especially  in  trench  work.  The  stocks  should  be 
made  of  malleable  iron  and  steel,  reasonably  light  in  weight,  but 
built  to  stand  hard  usage  and  rough  treatment.  They  should  be 
of  such  size  as  to  fit  any  standard  make  of  solid  square  dies. 
The  two  sizes  most  useful  are  one  for  |-  to  1-inch  pipe,  and  the 
other  for  f-  to  2-inch  pipe. 

FOUR-ARM  SPIDER 

This  stock,  Figure  28,  should  be  made  of  malleable  iron  and 
steel,  and  built  to  stand  very  hard  usage.  It  is  used  for  cutting 
threads  on  pipe  from  2|  to  4  inches  in  size,  is  not  automatic,  and 
has  four  heavy  chasers  bolted  on  one  side  for  cutting  the  threads. 
It  is  very  heavy  and  clumsy,  and  is  suitable  only  where  very 
few  threads  are  to  be  cut.  For  a  larger  number,  a  portable 
hand-power  threading  machine  should  be  used. 

HAND-POWER  PIPE  MACHINE  FOR  LARGE  PIPE 

There  are  a  great  many  hand  pipe-machines  on  the  market 
but  very  few  give  entire  satisfaction,  and  before  any  are  pur- 
chased, it  pays  to  examine  them  thoroughly,  and,  if  possible, 
make  a  working  test.  Machines  of  this  type  should  have 
adjustable  expanding  chasers.  The  die  head  should  be  quick 
opening  and  closing,  and  adjustable  instantly  to  all  variations. 
Also,  the  chaser  slots  should  be  so  made  that  they  can  be  cleaned 
out  without  taking  the  die  head  apart.  The  machine  should  be 
so  designed  as  to  enable  a  man  at  the  crank  to  do  continuous 
work  with  ease.  There  should  be  double  gears,  one  being  a 
"slip  gear,"  so  that  when  cutting  small  sizes,  or  the  first  easy 
threads  of  larger  pipe,  one  gear  is  disengaged  and  the  machine 
drives  fast;  when  the  work  becomes  heavy,  both  gears  are 
engaged  and  the  crank  turns  easily. 

PIPE  DIES 

It  is  very  important  that  dies  be  made  of  the  best  materials 
and  workmanship,  as  an  inferior  quality  will  give  very  short 
service  and  bad  results.  The  cutting  parts  should  be  sharp, 
have  proper  clearance,  and  be  carefully  tempered.  The  question 
of  clearance  is  important,  especially  when  steel  pipe  is  being  used. 
The  Nye  die,  which  omits  one-half  of  the  usual  cutting  edge,  has 
done  good  work.  In  this  die,  considering  any  vertical  row  of 
cutting  edges,  each  alternate  thread  is  omitted,  and  considenng 
any  horizontal  row,  each  alternate  cutting  edge. 


142 


EQUIPMENT 


A  very  good  discussion  of  die  design  and  pipe  threading  will 
be  found  on  pages  1082  to  1086  of  the  1914  American  Gas 
Institute  Proceedings. 

COMBINATION  TAP  AND  DRILL 

This  tool,  C,  Figure  29,  is  used  for  drilling  and  tapping  holes  in 
gas  mains  for  service  connections,  bag  holes,  etc.  It  drills,  reams 
and  taps  a  hole  in  one  operation.  The  end  of  the  shank  has  a 
square  head,  and  fits  the  ratchets  used  with  the  drilling  machines. 

TWIST  DRILL  AND  TAP 

For  drilling  and  tapping  holes  in  mains  when  placing  hat 
flanges,  etc.,  commercial  twist  drills  and  taps  are  used. 


Figure  29,— A,  Star  Drill,  page  142.  B,  Drilling  Post,  page 
143.  C,  Combination  Tap  and  Drill,  page 
142.  D,  Ratchet  Drill,  page  143.  E,  Engineer's 
Wrench,  page  146.  F,  Pipe  Reamer,  page  143. 

STAR   DRILL 

This  drill,  A,  Figure  29,  is  used  in  drilling  holes  through  brick, 
concrete,  slate,  etc.,  especially  when  neat  holes  are  desired.      T 


It 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  143 

is  made  of  good  tool  steel,  and  the  drill  point  consists  of  four 
cutting  edges,  which  centre  at  the  centre  of  the  drill,  and  are  90° 
apart.  The  cutting  edges  are  drawn  out  rather  blunt,  and  are 
tempered  hard  and  tough. 

Drills  for  holes  up  to  1  inch  inclusive  are  made  of  octagonal 
steel  from  f -  to  j-inch  less  in  diameter  than  the  hole  to  be  drilled, 
so  that  the  diameter  of  the  drill  point  will  be  somewhat  larger 
than  the  octagonal  steel  used,  and  thus  prevent  the  drill  from 
sticking.  Drills  for  holes  from  1|  to  2  inches  inclusive  are  made 
of  1-inch  octagonal  steel. 

PIPE   REAMER 

Pipe  reamers  are  used  to  remove  the  burrs  from  cut  pipe,  and 
are  made  of  fine  tool  steel.  The  ordinary  commercial  burring 
reamer,  F,  Figure  29,  carefully  ground,  gives  good  results. 

"OtD  MAN"  OR  DRILLING  POST 

This  tool,  B,  Figure  29,  consists  of  an  adjustable  swinging 
arm,  fastened  to  a  If-inch  round  wrought-iron  post,  20  to  26 
inches  long,  provided  with  a  curved  foot,  which  has  a  4-inch 
slot  for  the  insertion  of  the  bolt  used  for  fastening  the  foot  to 
the  cast-iron  main.  This  swinging  arm  has  a  radius  of  about 
18  inches,  and  its  under  side  is  countersunk  at  regular  intervals 
to  receive  the  pointed  head  of  the  boiler  ratchet.  A  set  screw 
rigidly  clamps  the  arm  at  any  position  on  the  post. 

RATCHET  DRILL 

These  ratchets  are  used  in  drilling  holes  in  gas  mains  when 
placing  hat  flanges,  and  also  are  used  occasionally  under  various 
other  conditions.  They  are  made  of  good  tool  steel,  with  a 
ratchet  handle  and  taper  hole  in  socket  for  the  shank  of  drill. 

The  pressure  is  produced  by  a  male  feed  screw  in  the  centre  of 
a  sleeve,  which  screws  into  a  female  thread  opening  in  the  body 
of  the  ratchet.  The  sleeve  has  two  small  holes,  and  by  the  use  of 
a  small  pin,  it  can  be  turned  and  the  pressure  regulated  as 
desired.  The  No.  1  Packer  ratchet  drill,  D,  Figure  29,  having  a 
handle  12  inches  long,  gives  good  results  for  general  use.  For 
very  heavy  work,  a  larger  size  should  be  used. 

DRILLING  AND  TAPPING  MACHINES 

In  tapping  holes  in  gas  mains,  it  is  very  essential  that  as  little 
gas  escapes  as  possible,  mainly  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  men 


144  EQUIPMENT 

operating  the  machine.  A  desirable  tapping  machine  should  be 
of  rigid  substantial  construction,  be  provided  with  a  positive 
safety  attachment  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas,  easy  to  handle 
and  manipulate,  have  few  parts,  and  it  should  be  possible  to 
easily  replace  or  repair  the  wearing  ones.  It  should  be  equipped 
to  drill,  ream  and  tap  a  hole  in  one  operation,  and  should  be 
operated  by  a  ratchet.  As  it  frequently  is  necessary  to  tap  large 


Figure  30.  —  Small  Tapping  Machine,  page  146. 

holes  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  light  machine  for  tapping  holes 
trom  T  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  heavy  machine  for  tapping 
holes  over  2  inches  in  diameter. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


Figure  31.  —  Large  Tapping  Machine,  page  146. 


146  EQUIPMENT 

The  Mueller  combination  machine,  Figure  30,  for  drilling  and 
tapping  holes  from  f  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  is  very  satisfactory 
for  general  service  and  main  work.  The  Light  machine, 
Figure  31,  for  drilling  and  tapping  holes  over  2  inches  in  diameter, 
gives  good  results. 


RUBBER  SADDLE 


These  saddles,  A,  Figure  32,  are  made  of  fairly  tough  flexible 
rubber,  and  in  various  sizes  and  thicknesses  to  fit  the  different 
sized  mains  and  drilling  and  tapping  machines. 

WRENCHES 
MACHINE  SCREW 

The  ordinary  commercial  machinist's  screw  wrench,  of  sub- 
stantial construction,  with  a  knife-handle,  and  manufactured  in 
different  sizes  from  6  to  21  inches  over  all,  will  be  found  sat- 
isfactory. 

PIPE 

A  wrench  for  general  pipe  work  should  be  drop-forged  from 
steel,  and  should  have  as  few  parts  as  possible,  all  of  which  should 
be  interchangeable.  The  wrench  should  not  lock  upon  the  pipe, 
but  grip  it  firmly  without  lost  motion,  and  should  release  its 
hold  readily.  For  general  pipe  work,  wrenches  of  the  Trimo 
pattern,  with  steel  handle,  and  manufactured  in  different  sizes 
up  to  48  inches  length  over  all  when  open,  give  very  good  results. 

CHAIN  PIPE 

This  wrench,  C,  Figure  32,  consists  of  a  handle  with  one  or  two 
jaws  at  one  end  and  a  length  of  chain,  and  is  used  in-  handling 
large  sizes  of  screw  pipe  in  service  and  main  work.  The  wrenches 
are  drop- forged  from  steel,  and  the  length  of  the  chain  depends 
upon  the  maximum  size  of  pipe  the  wrench  is  designed  for. 
They  are  manufactured  in  various  sizes,  and  a  number  of  good 
wrenches  are  on  the  market. 

ENGINEER'S 

This  wrench,  E,  Figure  29,  is  drop-forged  from  good  steel,  with 
a  single  head  and  tapered  handle,  and  the  slot  is  set  at  an  angle 
of  15°.  These  wrenches  are  made  to  fit  any  United  States 
Standard  nuts. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  147 


Figure  32. — A,  Rubber  Saddle,  page  146.    B,  Small  Pipe  Vise, 
page  148.      C,  Chain  Pipe  Wrench,  page  146. 


148  EQUIPMENT 

PIPE  VISE 

Flat  drilled  base,  hinged,  malleable  pipe  vises,  with  removable 
jaws  and  few  working  and  wearing  parts,  give  good  results. 
They  are  manufactured  in  various  sizes,  but  for  general  main  and 
service  work,  the  small  vise,  B,  Figure  32,  which  takes  pipe  up  to 
2  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  large  vise,  which  takes  pipe  up  to 
4  inches  diameter,  will  be  found  ample. 

LEAD  JOINTS 
FURNACES 

COKE 

The  commercial  lead  coke  furnace,  B,  Figure  33,  made  of  sheet 
iron  about  £-inch  thick,  with  a  rigidly  attached  frame  for  sup- 
porting the  lead  pots,  a  heavy  cast  iron  grate,  and  supported  on 
legs,  or  a  pair  of  iron  wheels,  is  satisfactory.  These  furnaces 
are  made  in  18-,  24-  and  30-inch  sizes,  but  the  24-inch  diameter 
furnace  is  best  suited  for  general  work.  Heavy  cast  iron  pots. 
A,  Figure  33,  with  wrought  iron  handles,  should  be  used,  and 
for  the  24-inch  furnace,  the  pot  should  be  about  14  inches  in 
diameter  and  13  inches  deep.  Such  a  pot  would  be  used  for 
pipe  16  inches  and  larger,  and  for  smaller  pipe,  a  pot  12  inches 
in  diameter  and  11  inches  in  depth. 


This  furnace,  Figure  34,  though  similar  to  the  ordinary 
plumber's  gasoline  coil  furnace,  is  considerably  larger  and  of 
more  substantial  construction.  The  cast  iron  gasoline  tank  is 
15  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  deep,  and  holds  about  5 
gallons.  A  heavy  wrought  iron  frame  supports  the  15-inch 
diameter  cast  iron  table,  on  which  rest  the  lead  pot  and  shield. 
The  gasoline  tank  has  a  number  of  lugs,  and  is  bolted  rigidly  to 
the  wrought  iron  frame,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  tank  is  about 
6  inches  from  the  ground.  The  coil  is  j-inch  pipe,  and  there  are 
three  jets.  Heavy  cast  iron  pots,  with  wrought  iron  handles,  are 
used  with  the  furnace. 

Another  type  of  furnace  consists  of  a  carriage  mounted  on 
large,  flat-tired,  iron  wheels,  and  carrying  a  furnace  or  kerosene 
burner  equipment,  consisting  of  fuel  tank,  air  tank,  pump, 
and  gauge.  The  specially  adapted  burner  is  said  to  consume 
fuel  at  a  rate  which  would  bring  the  cost  per  pound  of  lead 
melted  considerably  under  the  cost  obtained  by  the  use  of  coke. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


149 


Figure  33.  —A,  Lead  Pot,  page  148.    B,  Coke  Furnace,  page  148. 


150 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  34.  —  Gasoline  Furnace,  page  148. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


151 


The  portable  feature  is  of  advantage,  but  the  apparatus  requires 
considerable  care  while  in  transportation,  and,  in  general,  is 
more  liable  to  damage  than  is  the  coke  type. 


Furnaces  similar  to  the  coke  furnace,  and  equipped  'vith  a  gas 
burner,  are  on  the  market.  Although  efficient,  portability  is 
completely  sacrificed,  and  it  is  thought  that  this  type  is  of 
little  advantage. 


LEAD  STRAINER 


This  tool,  F,  Figure  35,  consists  of  a  perforated,  saucer-shaped 
scoop,  to  which  is  rivetted  a  handle  3  feet  long,  made  of  j-inch 
iron.  The  end  of  the  handle  has  a  handhold,  and  the  tool  is  used 
for  removing  foreign  matter  from  the  surface  of  the  molten  lead. 


POURING  LADLE 


These  ladles,  A,  Figure  35,  are  used  in  dipping  lead  out  of  the 
pot  and  pouring  it  in  the  joint.  They  are  made  of  cast  iron, 
with  wrought  iron  or  seamless  steel  handles,  and  have  lips  to 
aid  in  pouring  the  metal.  Dimensions  are  as  follows: 


Size  of  Pipe 

Diameter  of  Ladle 

Length  of  Handle 

4  to  12' 
16  to  20" 
24  to  30' 

8' 
9' 
10' 

2'  9' 
3'0" 
3'  4' 

POURING  POT 

Especially  for  large  main  work,  cast  iron  or  pressed  steel  pots, 
C,  Figure  35,  with  handles,  lips,  and  a  lug  with  a  small  hole, 
which  fits  the  pot  hook,  are  used.  Their  dimensions  are  as 
follows: 


Size  of  Pipe 

Diameter  of  Pot 

Depth  of  Pot 

Thickness  of  Cast  Iron 

6* 

SF" 

3*; 

8' 

6  ' 

4  ' 

12' 

7  * 

4  ' 

16  and  20' 

8  "                           6J' 

24  and  30' 

9  '              '             8J' 

POURING  POT  HOOKS 

There  are  three  forms  of  these  hooks.     The  first,  D,  Figure  35, 
is  made  of  f-  or  £-inch  round  iron,  about  6  inches  long,  with  a 


152 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  35.  —  A,  Pouring  Ladle,  page  151.  B,  Pouring  Pot 
Hook,  page  153.  C,  Pouring  Pot,  page  151. 
D,  Pouring  Pot  Hook,  page  151.  E,  Pouring 
Pot  Hook,  page  153.  F,  Lead  Strainer, 
page  151. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


153 


rather  sharp  pointed  crook  at  one  end,  and  a  handhold  at  the 
other.  The  second,  B,  Figure  35,  has  at  the  upper  end  an  eye 
for  attaching  rope,  and  is  used  for  large  pouring  pots  or  in  deep 
trenches.  The  third,  E,  Figure  35,  is  the  one  used  to  dump  the 
pouring  pot. 


Figure  36.— A,  Pouring  Band,  page  154.  B,  Trowel,  page  155. 
C,  Caulking  Hammer,  page  154.  D,  Gloves, 
page  157.  E,  Bellows,  page  157. 


154 


EQUIPMENT 


POURING  BAND 

A  band,  A,  Figure  36,  is  made  of  alternate  strips  of  heavy 
canvas  and  thin  rubber,  cemented  and  rivetted  together,  and 
backed  by  a  thin  flexible  iron  strap,  which,  with  the  canvas, 
prevents  the  band  from  stretching.  It  is  provided  with  a  thumb 
draw-screw  to  hold  it  in  position  on  the  pipe.  The  following 
are  the  dimensions  of  the  various  bands  for  the  different  sizes 
of  pipe: 


Cross  Section  of  Band 

Size  of  Pipe 

Length 

of  Band 

Width       i           Depth 

4* 

1' 

4* 

' 

i 

6* 

1' 

9" 

j 

i 

8" 

2' 

4" 

1 

ij 

10" 

2' 

9" 

12' 

3' 

4* 

ij 

16' 

4' 

5" 

20' 

5' 

6" 

J 

ij 

24' 

6' 

8" 

i 

30' 

8' 

2" 

!        ii 

YARNING  AND  CAULKING  TOOLS 

Figure  37  gives  details  of  a  yarning  iron  and  a  set  of  caulking 
tools  for  general  lead  work.  These  caulking  tools  vary  in 
thickness  by  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  This  is  the  usual  variation, 
although  a  difference  between  each  tool  of  but  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  would  tend  to  produce  better  lead  compression.  Yarning 
irons  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick  sometimes  are  necessary  for 
work  on  small  joints,  caused  by  the  irregular  casting  of  specials. 

The  caulking  tools  are  made  of  |-inch,  and  the  yarning  iron  of 
1-inch  octagonal  tool  steel.  The  heads  are  dressed  carefully,  and 
the  points  are  tempered  medium  hard. 

CAULKING  HAMMER 

This  tool,  C,  Figure  36,  is  hand-forged  from  tool  steel,  weighs 
3  pounds,  and  has  a  substantial  hickory  handle  about  10  inches 
long.  It  is  used  for  both  lead  and  cement  joints. 

CEMENT  JOINTS 

SIEVE 

A,  Figure  38,  shows  a  commercial  sieve,  18  inches  in  diameter 
and  24  meshes  to  the  inch.  It  serves  to  remove  hard  particles 
and  foreign  matter  from  the  cement  used  in  joint  making. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 
TROWEL 


153 


The  bricklayer's  trowel,  B,  Figure  36,  with  an  8-inch  blade  of 
good  steel,  is  used  in  mixing  cement,  removing  dirt  from  bottoms 
of  mains,  etc. 

HOB 

A  hoe,  C,  Figure  38,  with  an  8-inch  blade  and  a  4-foot  handle, 
will  be  found  very  useful  when  mixing  cement  in  large  quantities. 


156 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  38.  —  A,  Sieve,  page  154. 
C,  Hoe,  page  155. 


B,  Mixing  Board,  page  157. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  157 

MIXING  BOARDS 

Mixing  boards,  B,  Figure  38,  are  made  in  two  sizes,  27  by  35 
inches,  and  24  by  24  inches.  One  kind  is  made  of  j-inch  rough 
lumber,  having  a  6-inch  raised  edge  on  three  sides,  and  lined  witli 
No.  18  gauge  galvanized  sheet  iron.  For  another  type,  heavy 
galvanized  iron  is  used,  with  no  wood  backing. 

BELLOWS 

A  12-inch  moulder's  bellows,  E,  Figure  36,  with  a  steel  spout, 
will  be  found  very  useful  to  remove  the  loose  pieces  of  yarn  and 
dirt  from  the  jointing  space. 

RUBBER  GLOVES  AND  MITTS 

Rubber  gloves  or  mitts,  D,  Figure  36,  are  used  in  filling  and 
stuffing  pipe  joints  with  cement,  and  are  made  of  rubber  lined 
with  canvas,  to  prevent  irritation  of  the  skin. 

PUSHER 

A  pusher,  or  stuffing  tool,  Figure  39,  used  to  push  the  cement 
into  large  joints,  is  made  of  flat  iron  If  inches  wide,  j-inch  thick, 
and  14  inches  long.  To  one  end  is  rivetted  a  f-inch  steel  pipe 
handle. 

YARNING  AND  CAULKING  TOOLS 

Figure  39  gives  details  of  a  set  of  yarning  irons  and  caulking 
tools  for  caulking  or  driving  large  cement  joints.  A  caulking 
tool,  slightly  curved  to  approximately  conform  to  the  curvature 
of  the  pipe,  and  about  1|  inches  wide  and  f  -inch  thick,  is  very 
satisfactory  for  general  cement  joint  work.  For  large  joint  work, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  all  caulking  tools  quite  heavy,  and  for  the 
heaviest  work,  1^-inch  octagonal  tool  steel  should  be  used.  The 
heads  are  dressed  carefully,  and  the  points  are  tempered 
medium  hard. 

LEAD  WOOL  JOINTS 

YARNING  AND  CAULKING  TOOLS 

HAND 

Figure  40  gives  details  of  a  set  of  caulking  tools  for  general 
lead  wool  work.  These  tools  are  made  of  1-inch  octagonal  tool 
steel,  and  are  similar  to  the  caulking  tools  used  on  poured  lead 
joints,  with  the  exception  that  the  caulking  toe  is  made  longer, 
and  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  thickness  of  the  end  of  the  toe 
just  about  equal  the  thickness  of  the  lead  wool  joint  to  be  caulked. 


158 


EQUIPMENT 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT 


159' 


\ARMIMO      IRON 


HAND    LCAD   WOOL    CAULKING    TOO\-$ 
Figure  40,  page  157. 


160 


EQUIPMENT 


CAULKING 


YAfeNING      IC.ON 


POWER.    LEAD   WOOL    CAULKING   TOOLS 
Figure  41,  page  161. 


LAYING  EQUIPMENT  161 

PNEUMATIC 

These  tools,  Figure  41,  for  the  various  yarning  and  caulking 
work,  are  made  similar  to  those  for  hand  work,  with  the  exception 
that  the  shank  is  made  slightly  longer,  and  the  end  of  the  shank 
is  machined  off  sr  as  to  fit  the  pneumatic  hammer  used.  Care 
should  be  exercised  in  making,  and  the  temoeiin^  should  be 
carefully  done,  or  there  will  be  a  great  deal  of  breakage  in  use. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT 
DRIP  WORK 

DRIP  WAGON- 
HORSE 

A  drip  wagon  is  needed  to  convey  the  condensation  pumped 
out  of  the  street  drips  to  the  settling  tanks  at  the  works  or  holder 
stations.  Figure  42  shows  a  type  of  horse-drawn  wagon,  consist- 
ing of  a  heavy  wrought  iron  cylindrical  tank  of  200  gallons  capac- 
ity, mounted  on  a  wagon  body,  with  a  small  measuring  tank 
above  the  main  tank,  so  that  the  condensation  taken  from  each 
drip  can  be  measured  accurately.  The  outlet  from  the  tank  is 
2  inches,  to  provide  for  rather  quick  emptying  and  also  to  ren- 
der unlikely  any  stoppage,  although  under  proper  conditions 
of  manufacture,  the  condensation  should  consist  solely  of  water 
and  light  oils.  There  is  a  covered  seat  to  protect  the  driver 
from  the  weather,  and  provision  is  made  for  necessary  tools. 
The  drip  pump  is  shown  fastened  to  the  wagon  with  a  fixed 
.wrought  iron  discharge  pipe  emptying  into  the  measuring  tank. 
This  enables  one  man  to  look  after  all  drip  work  where  the 
condensation  is  not  very  great.  There  undoubtedly  is  more 
trouble  experienced  in  keeping  the  pump  in  good  order  than  is 
the  case  where  the  pump  is  not  attached  to  the  wagon  but 
screwed  on  to  the  drip  stand  pipe.  In  that  case,  however,  all 
the  condensation  has  to  be  lifted  in  buckets  to  the  top  of  the 
measuring  tank,  greatly  increasing  the  labor. 

The  proper  size  for  the  drip  wagon  will  depend  largely  upon 
local  conditions.  Wherever  the  absolute  amount  of  condensation 
is  small,  a  one-horse  wagon  is  advisable,  and  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, this  would  mean  a  tank  of  250  to  300  gallons  capacity, 
depending  upon  the  character  of  paving,  grades  encountered  and 
quality  of  stock.^  Where  the  company  is  large,  with  big  leading 
mains  from  which  a  great  amount  of  condensation  is  taken, 

(162) 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  163 


164 


EQUIPMENT 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  165 

especially  in  winter,  a  two-horse  wrjon  with  a  tank  capacity  of 
400  to  700  gallons  is  advisable.  Usually  there  will  be  need  in 
such  a  company  for  more  than  one  wagon  for  at  least  part  of 
the  year,  and  there  will  be  a  chance  for  good  judgment  in  plan- 
ning the  work  for  the  two  types. 


With  the  increasing  reliability  of  motor  vehicles  comes  a  wider 
field  for  the  motor  drip  wagon.  In  1912,  a  trial  was  made  in 
Philadelphia  of  a  tank  mounted  on  a  4000-pound  electric  chassis. 
This  resulted  in  the  purchase  of  a  7000-pound  chassis  and  600- 
gallon  tank,  which  began  work  August  5,  1912,  and  has  been  in 
continual  operation  since  then.  The  electric  wagon  was  chosen 
because  the  garage  most  conveniently  located  for  the  drip  work 
contained  solely  electric  wagons,  and  also  because  it  was  believed 
that  a  storage  battery  would  prove  more  dependable  than  a 
gasoline  motor.  After  three  years,  it  is  certain  that  an  electric 
drip  wagon  always  may  be  depended  on  for  service  day  in  and 
day  out,  but  there  are  mileage  limitations  to  the  battery  which 
sometimes  prove  annoying.  For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the 
improvements  in  gasoline  trucks,  Philadelphia,  needing  a  second 
motor  wagon,  purchased  a  five-ton  gasoline  chassis  surmounted 
by  a  1300-gallon  tank. 

Figure  43  is  a  rear  view  of  the  electric  wagon.  The  first  pump 
used  was  a  rotary,  but  experience  showed  that  a  direct-acting 
pump  stood  the  wear  better,  so  a  double-acting  force  pump, 
shown  in  the  illustration,  was  purchased  and  connected  to  the 
motor  with  a  jack.  When  this  pump  wears  out  it  will  be  replaced 
with  a  double-acting  piston  pump,  geared  directly  to  the  motor, 
and  thus  requiring  less  space  for  the  layout. 

This  wagon  pumps  over  600,000  gallons  of  condensation  each 
year,  with  an  average  of  over  100  gallons  per  stop,  at  a  cost, 
including  interest  and  depreciation,  of  six-tenths  of  a  cent 
per  gallon. 

DRIP  PUMP 

A  drip  pump,  G,  Figure  44,  is  used  to  draw  condensation  from 
drips  and  to  clear  services.  A  brass  pump,  with  12-inch  stroke 
and  a  cylinder  of  2\  inches  diameter,  and  with  the  suction  fitted 
for  f-inch  steel  pipe,  is  best  suited  for  general  work. 


166 


EQUIPMENT 


f 


Figure  44. — A,  Smelling  Pipe,  page  167.  B,  Searching  Bar, 
page  167.  C,  Spoon  Bar,  page  169.  D,  Leak 
Bar,  page  167.  E,  Drip  Key,  page  167.  F,Leak 
Drill,  page  167.  G,  Drip  Pump,  page,  165. 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  167 

DRIP  KEY 

This  key  E,  Figure  44,  is  used  in  removing  the  plugs  from  the 
top  of  drip  rods.  It  is  20  inches  over  all.  The  stem  and  12-inch 
cross  arm  are  made  of  f-inch  round  iron,  and  the  hole  in  the  end 
is  made  to  fit  the  head  of  the  plug  at  the  top  of  the  drip  rod. 

LEAK  WORK 
BARS 

LEAK 

This  bar,  D,  Figure  44,  is  used  to  make  openings  through 
asphalt  paving,  concrete  paving  foundations,  and  hard  or  frozen 
earth  near  the  surface,  so  that  the  street  leak  drill  and  searching 
bar  can  be  driven  and  drawn  more  easily.  It  is  made  of  If -inch 
octagonal  steel,  2  feet  8^  inches  long,  and  has  a  carefully  dressed 
head  and  point.  The  point  is  tempered  so  as  to  be  hard 
and  tough. 

SEARCHING 

A  searching  bar,  B,  Figure  44,  is  used  in  barring  for  leaks  over 
mains  and  services,  and  is  made  of  1^-inch  round  steel,  with  a 
rather  blunt  point,  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  street  bar.  It 
generally  is  made  5  feet  long,  but  where  mains  are  deep,  or  it  is 
advisable  to  drive  the  bar  at  an  angle  so  as  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  large  mains,  a  longer  bar  must  be  used. 

SMELLING  PIPE 

A  smelling  pipe,  A,  Figure  44,  is  used  to  facilitate  the  escape 
of  gas  from  bar  holes  to  some  distance  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  so  that  slight  leaks  can  be  detected  more  easily.  It  is 
made  of  f-inch  steel  pipe,  5  feet  6  inches  long,  open  at  both  ends, 
and  has  a  number  of  j-inch  drilled  holes  near  one  end. 

LEAK  DRILL 

This  tool,  F,  Figure  44,  is  used  in  drilling  holes  through  the 
earth  over  mains  and  services  when  searching  for  leaks.  It 
consists  of  a  piece  of  half-round  steel,  f-inch  diameter,  made 
with  the  flat  side  out,  into  a  twist  drill  18  inches  long,  and  2 
inches  in  diameter,  and  welded  to  a  stem  of  1-inch  steel  pipe,  the 
over-all  length  being  4  feet  6  inches.  A  1-inch  tee  is  screwed  to 
the  end  of  the  1-inch  pipe,  and  two  pieces  of  1-inch  steel  pipe, 
each  13  inches  long,  are  screwed  into  the  tee,  forming  levers  or 
handles.  Another  type  of  handle  is  made  by  removing  the  pipe 
handles  and  slipping  a  searching  bar  through  the  tee. 


168 


EQUIPMENT 


The  drill  was  designed  in  order  to  avoid,  as  far^as  possible,  the 
use  of  the  leak  bar,  substituting  drilling  for  driving,  and  in  this 
way  rendering    more  unlikely  the  piercing  of  any  tile-covered 
conduit.     1 1  has  been  found 
that   the   drill    cannot   be 
made    to    enter     through 
hard  frost,  but,  except  un- 
der such  conditions,  its  use 
isad  vocated  wherever  there 
are  congested  underground 
conditions,  and  the  danger 
of  driving  the  ordinary  leak 
bar  through  other   struct- 
ures cannot  be  ignored. 

STOP  Box  WORK 

STOP  Box  CLEANER 
This  cleaner,  A,  Figure 
45,  consists  of  a  3-foot 
length  of  ij-inch  steel  pipe, 
through  which  passes  a 
j-inch  rod.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  ^-inch  pipe  are  at- 
tached two  pieces  of  curved 
steel  with  a  sharp  nose, 
similar  to  a  shovel  point. 
The  ^-inch  rod  is  attached 
to  the  steel  "wings"  in  such 
a  way  that  by  pushing 
down  the  rod,  the  "wings" 
are  forced  apart,  a  spring 
at  the  top  of  the  rod  always 
tending  to  hold  the  "wings" 
together.  A  wooden  handle 
is  provided  at  the  top  end 
of  the  rod.  The  over-all 
length  of  the  cleaner  is 
about  4  feet. 

STOP  COCK  KEY 
The  illustration,  B,  Fig- 
ure 45,  shows  the  key  re- 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  169 

cently  adopted  by  the  Philadelphia  Gas  Works.  It  is  4  feet 
6  inches  over  all,  with  stem  and  handle  of  f-inch  round  iron. 
The  latter  has  one  chisel  end  to  cut  the  dirt  above  and  around 
the  stop-box  cover,  which  is  then  lifted  by  inserting  in  the 
centre  hole,  the  blunt  end  of  the  handle.  The  socket  shown 
will  fit  stop  cocks  f  to  2  inches  inclusive.  Another  key,  with 
a  larger  socket,  must  be  used  for  the  service  valves.  In  order 
to  do  away  with  this  need  for  two  keys,  an  experiment  is  being 
tried  with  a  socket  provided  with  a  slotted  bushing,  of  such 
dimensions  that  with  the  bushing  in  place,  the  key  fits  stop 
cocks  £  to  If  inches  inclusive,  and  with  the  bushing  removed, 
2-inch  stop  cocks  and  the  rectangular  heads  of  all  sizes  of 
service  valves. 

SPOON  BAR 

This  bar,  C,  Figure  44,  is  used  in  cleaning  out  stop  boxes,  and 
is  made  of  f-inch  round  steel,  4  feet  10  inches  long,  with  a  f-inch 
chisel  point  at  one  end,  and  a  2  by  1^-inch  rectangular  scoop,  with 
the  two  sides  raised  about  half  an  inch,  at  the  other  end. 

GAUGES 
SYPHON  GAUGE 

Syphon  gauges,  A,  Figure  46,  with  glass  U  tubes,  graduated 
wooden  scales,  and  provided  with  couplings  and  standard  pipe 
thread  connections,  are  frequently  useful,  and  can  be  obtained 
easily  in  any  size. 

RECORDING  GAUGE 

Recording  gauges  are  used  for  the  continuous  recording  of 
pressures  or  temperatures  through  certain  periods,  and  generally 
consist  of  a  clock  mechanism,  which  revolves  a  chart  supported 
by  a  stationary  dial  and  upon  which  is  traced  a  line  by  a  pen 
point.  The  pen  point  is  at  the  end  of  an  arm  attached  to  a 
sensitive  mechanism,  upon  which  the  changes  in  pressure  or 
temperature  act,  and  this  causes  a  movement  of  the  arm  and  pen 
point.  The  pen  points  are  removable,  and  can  be  replaced 
readily  by  new  ones  whenever  they  become  blunt  or  worn  by 
continuous  service. 

The  Bristol  Recording  Gauge,  B,  Figure  46,  manufactured  in 
various  forms,  gives  good  results.  The  illustration  shows  a 
gauge  as  mounted  in  a  wooden  box,  for  temporary  use  on  the 
street  or  in  consumers'  houses.  In  order  that  these  gauges 


170 


EQUIPMENT 


should  be  maintained  in  proper  working  condition,  a  periodical 
inspection  is  advisable,  at  least  once  a  year,  and  preferably  before 
trunk  main  pressures  are  taken  in  the  fall. 


MA  IN  TEN  A  NCR  EQ  U  IP  MEN  T 


171 


Figure  47. — Street  Lamp  Clean- 
ing Ladder,  page  172 


In  making  the  inspec- 
tion, the  gauge  boxes  are 
first  examined  for  condi- 
tion of  box,  ink  receptacle, 
chart  rack,  glass  in  front  of 
recording  gauge,  etc.  If 
any  of  the  equipment  is 
missing,  a  memorandum  of 
it  is  made  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  and  placed  in  the 
gauge  for  the  use  of  the 
man  in  making  repairs. 
Every  gauge  is  then  tested 
separately  by  being  con- 
nected with  a  convenient 
gas  outlet.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the 
rubber  tubing  connections 
at  the  gauge  and  at  the 
outlet  are  perfectly  tight, 
in  order  to  be  sure  that 
any  drop  in  pressure  is  not 
due  to  leaks  outside  of 
the  gauge  box.  The  water 
gauge  is  filled  with  water, 
and  the  cock  on  both  the 
water  gauge  and  the  re- 
cording gauge  is  shut  off, 
and  the  tubing  connection 
made  to  the  gas  outlet. 
The  cock  on  the  water 
gauge  is  opened,  and  then 
closed  after  the  water  has 
risen  to  a  point  indicating 
the  pressure.  If  the  water 
column  shows  no  decided 
drop  for  five  seconds,  the 
water  gauge  and  connec- 
tions may  be  considered 
tight.  In  the  same  way  the 
gas  pressure  is  admitted  to, 
and  then  shut  off  from,  the 


172  EQUIPMENT 

recording  gauge  through  the  cock  on  the  supply  line.  If  the 
stylus  arm  remains  stationary  at  the  pressure  indicated  when  the 
cock  was  open,  or  does  not  move  back  except  very  slowly  after  a 
lapse  of  from  10  to  15  seconds,  the  diaphragm  and  the  piping 
beyond  the  cock  on  the  recording  apparatus  may  be  considered  as 
tight.  The  only  test  remaining  to  be  made  is  that  portion  of  the 
pipe  between  the  two  cocks  and  the  outlet  from  which  the  gas  is 
being  taken.  This  test  is  made  practically  the  same  way  as  the 
other  test,  except  that  both  the  recording  gauge  cock  and  the 
water  gauge  cock  are  left  open  after  the  gas  has  been  admitted 
and  the  cock  at  the  outlet  is  closed.  After  the  gas  is  shut  off,  the 
pressure  should  remain  stationary  for  a  period  of  10  to  15  seconds 
and  not  show  any  decided  drop  in  that  time.  Ordinarily,  all  that 
is  required  if  there  is  any  leakage,  is  to  have  the  cock  re- 
ground,  and  any  leaking  fittings  or  nipples  properly  re-leaded. 
Whatever  work  of  this  kind  is  necessary  should  be  written  on  a 
memorandum  sheet  and  placed  in  the  gauge  box  for  the  use  of 
the  man  who  will  make  the  repair. 

Any  adjustment  of  the  stylus  arm  is  effected  through  its 
hinged  joint.  If  through  improper  handling,  the  pen  has  been 
bent  out  of  position,  it  should  be  restored  to  the  proper  angle 
of  90°  with  the  plane  of  the  chart. 

When  a  gauge  is  sent  out,  it  should  be  packed  so  that  the 
diaphragm  and  stylus  arm  will  remain  stationary  during  ship- 
ment. This  is  done  by  a  pair  of  small  clips  fastened  to  the 
body  of  the  gauge  case,  and,  by  means  of  set  screws,  lowered 
into  position  to  hold  the  diaphragm  firm.  When  the  gauge 
is  put  into  use  and  the  clips  again  raised,  they  must  be  screwed 
tight  to  prevent  their  dropping  upon  the  diaphragm  and  inter- 
fering with  its  action. 

STREET  LAMP  CLEANING  LADDER 

These  ladders,  Figure  47,  are  made  of  good  lumber,  and  are  9 
feet  long,  12|  inches  wide  at  the  bottom  and  9|  inches  at  the  top, 
with  hickory  rungs  1  foot  apart.  The  side  pieces  are  of  2  by  1- 
inch  straight-grain  spruce.  Wrought  iron  spikes  are  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  ladder,  and  at  the  top,  wrought  iron  hooks, 
which  fit  the  iron  ladder  bar  on  the  lamp  post. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT 
TOOL  WAGON 

Where  a  company  has  occasion  to  lay  long  stretches  of  large 
mains,  involving  many  workmen,  and,  therefore,  much  equip- 


Figure  48.  — Tool  Wagon,  page  174. 

(173) 


174  EQUIPMENT 

ment  the  ordinary  tool  box  may  be  too  small,  and  a  tool  wagon 
Figure  48,  preferable.  Its  general  dimensions  are  10  feet  long, 
4  feet  wide,  height  to  eaves,  4  feet,  and  to  ridge  pole,  5  ieet. 
It  is  provided  on  the  outside  with  side  and  bottom  tool  boxes 
and  a  lantern  rack.  The  interior  has  a  tool  rack,  yarn  closet, 
cement  bins,  a  folding  and  a  stationary  shelf. 

TOOL  BOXES 

The  ordinary  tool  box,  Figure  49,  is  about  6  feet  long,  3  feet  6 
inches  deep,  and  3  feet  4  inches  wide.     If  properly  handled,  it  will 


Figure  49.  —  Tool  Box,  page  174. 

last  a  long  time.  It  should  never  be  shifted  along  the  work, 
except  when  practically  empty.  If  at  each  end  two  of  the  side 
planks  are  extended  about  3  feet,  the  box  may  be  easily  handled. 
Where  there  is  frequent  shifting  to  do,  as  is  the  case  with  a 
small  gang  doing  many  isolated  jobs  of  main  work,  a  tool  box, 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT 


175 


Figure  50,  mounted  on  wheels,  has  been  used  with  great  satisfac- 
tion. The  boxes  are  made  of  1-inch  oak,  mounted  on  substantial 
wheels  of  26-inch  radius,  with  a  2-inch  square  steel  axle,  so  bent 
that  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  about  15  inches  from  the  ground. 
The  two  supporting  beams  for  the  box,  which  are  attached  rigidly 
to  the  axle,  are  made  of  3  by  3-inch  oak.  At  the  front  of  the 
cart,  there  is  an  extension  with  a  cross  piece,  used  when  moving 
the  box.  Wrought  iron  braces  and  straps  are  u.sed  generously 
to  make  the  box  strong  and  rigid.  The  lid  is  provided  with 
heavy  hinges. 


Figure  50.  —  Tool  Box  on  Wheels,  page  175. 

SERVICE  CARTS 

WOODEN 

One  cart  consists  of  a  box  6  feet  long,  2  feet  5  inches  wide,  and 
1  foot  3  inches  deep,  made  of  1-inch  oak,  and  mounted  on  two 
substantial  wheels  of  26-inch  radius,  with  a  2-inch  square  steel 
axle.  In  the  front  part  of  the  box  are  arranged  racks  and  bins 
for  dies,  taps  and  small  tools,  while  large  tools,  such  as  picks, 
shovels,  bars,  etc.,  are  placed  in  the  rear  part.  The  lid  has 
heavy  hinges.  The  two  main  supporting  shafts,  which  are  at- 
tached rigidly  to  the  axle,  are  made  of  3  by  2$-inch  oak.  At 
one  end  of  the  box  there  is  an  extension  with  a  cross  piece,  used 
in  moving  the  cart,  and  at  the  other  end  there  is  a  heavy  piece  of 


176 


EQUIPMENT 


oak  4  feet  2  inches  by  9  inches  by  3  inches,  to  which  is  attached  a 
vise  which  will  take  pipe  up  to  2  inches  diameter.  Between  the 
wheels  and  the  sides  of  the  box,  a  space  6  inches  wide  is  left.  A 
box  2  feet  6  inches  by  1  foot  3  inches  by  1  foot  3  inches  is  placed 
in  under  the  rear  part  of  the  cart,  for  the  storage  of  oil,  tar,  etc. 
Oak  braces  and  wrought  iron  straps  and  braces  are  generously 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  cart. 


Figure  51.  —  Small  Wooden  Service  Cart,  page  176. 

Another  cart,  Figure  51,  often  of  more  general  use  than  the  one 
just  described,  is  similar  to  it,  with  the  exception  that  the  box  is 
smaller,  being  5  feet  6  inches  long,  1  foot  10  inches  wide  and 
1  foot  deep,  and  the  box  for  the  storage  of  oil  is  2  feet  by  1  foot 
3  inches  by  1  foot  3  inches.  The  main  supporting  beams  are 
3  by  2  inches,  and  the  axle  is  1^-inch  square  steel.  Its  weight 
is  650  pounds. 

STEEL 

Philadelphia  now  has  many  steel  service  carts,  and  in  future 
will  make  all  replacements  in  steel,  thus  obtaining  increased 
strength,  lower  maintenance  costs,  and  lighter  weight,  the  latter 
being  425  pounds.  The  cart,  Figure  52,  consists  of  a  box  5  feet 
10^  inches  long,  2  feet  wide,  and  1  foot  5|  inches  deep,  made  of 
£  by  1-inch  angle  iron,  the  frame  being  covered  with  No.  18  gauge 
sheet  iron.  The  body  is  mounted  on  two  substantial  wheels, 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT  177 

3  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  steel  tires  f  by  If  inches,  and  a 
If-inch  square  steel  axle.  The  arrangement  of  the  racks  and 
bins  inside  the  box  is  identical  with  the  wooden  cart.  The  two 
main  supporting  shafts,  which  are  attached  rigidly  to  the  axle  and 


Figure  52.  —  Steel  Service  Cart,  page  176. 

body,  are  made  of  1  by  2-inch  channel  iron.  The  bottom  of  the 
box  is  made  of  galvanized  iron,  and  covered  on  the  inside  with 
maple  wood  flooring  f -inch  thick.  The  flooring  acts  as  a  cushion 
for  the  tools,  eliminating  the  noise  that  otherwise  would  be 
caused  when  the  cart  was  in  transit.  It  also  acts  as  a  protection 
to  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Under  the  rear  part  of  the  cart,  a  box, 
made  of  sheet  iron,  measuring  1  foot  2  inches  by  1  foot  4  inches  by 
1  foot  10|  inches,  is  placed  for  the  storage  of  oil,  tar,  etc. 

For  working  convenience,  and  at  other  times  to  avoid  injury 
to  children,  it  is  important  that  any  rocking  of  the  cart  -while  at 
rest  should  be  impossible.  Both  of  these  objects  may  he  attained 
by  fastening  to  each  end  of  the  cart,  a  rod  extending  to  the 
ground. 

PUSH  CART 

This  cart,  Figure  53,  is  used  for  miscellaneous  work,  such  as 
stop  box  work,  leak  work,  and  small  paving  jobs.  It  is  of  sub- 
stantial construction,  but  not  too  heavy,  with  the  body  sup- 
ported on  springs.  Its  dimensions  are:  Length  of  body  at 
bottom,  30  inches;  width,  20  inches;  34-inch  wheels. 


178 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  53.  —  Push  Cart,  page  177. 

WHEELBARROWS 

Wheelbarrows,  Figure  54,  for  general  use,  should  be  made 
entirely  of  iron,  with  wheel  guards,  and  the  handles  and  legs 
should  be  braced  rigidly.  They  should  be  stored  out  of  the 
weather,  and  painted  whenever  they  show  signs  of  rusting. 

ELECTRIC  SAFETY  LAMPS 

Box 

For  night  leak  work,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  have  a  fairly 
strong  light  of  some  kind  to  lower  into  the  ditch.  There  are  a 
great  many  electric  lamps  in  the  market  that  answer  the  pur- 
pose. In  Philadelphia,  several  equipments  are  used  satisfac- 
torily. One  consists  of  a  box,  9  by  10  by  11  inches,  made 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT 


179 


180 


EQUIPMENT 


up  of  six  cells  with  a  total  of  8  volts  and  20  amperes,  giving  a 
light  of  about  6  candlepower.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  addition 
to  the  light  fixed  to  the  box  side,  there  is  a  light  attached  to  9  teet 
of  wire  The  latter  is  of  great  use  for  out-of-the-way  places. 


l- 


This  equipment,  D,  Figure  55,  will  last  14  hours  of  continuous 
running.  In  order  that  these  batteries  do  not  fail  when  needed, 
a  record  of  the  hours  of  use  is  kept  on  the  inside  of  the  lid  so  that 
the  next  man  using  it  can  tell  readily  how  long  it  may  be  expected 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT  181 

to  last,   or  the  foreman  at  inspection  can  determine  when  a 
renewal  of  cells  is  necessary. 

POCKET 

Another  very  handy  equipment,  A,  Figure  55,  is  in  the  form 
of  a  dry  cell  enclosed  in  a  leather  box,  measuring  1- 


Figure  56.— A,  Oxygen  Tank,  page  182.  B,  Breathing  Bag, 
page  182.  C,  Respiration  Pipe,  page  182.  D, 
Potash  Regenerator  Cartridge,  page  182.  E, 
Nose  Clamp,  page  182.  F,  Mouthpiece,  page 
182.  G,  Smoke  Goggles. 

7  inches.  Attached  to  the  terminals  on  the  end  of  the  box  are 
long  insulated  wires  leading  to  the  lamp.  The  lamp  itself  can 
be  fastened  to  the  clothing  or  used  in  the  hands.  The  small  size 


182  EQUIPMENT 

of  the  box  permits  its  sliding  into  the  side  pockets  of  a  coat  very 
easily.  This  battery  will  last  for  14  continuous  hours,  or  28 
hours  when  used  intermittingly.  The  entire  equipment  can  be 
made  for  $3.25. 

DANGER  SIGNAL 

For  use  in  gaseous  atmospheres,  where  ordinary  oil  danger 
signal  lamps  or  any  open-flame  lamp  would  be  dangerous,  an 
electrically  equipped  lamp  with  red  globe  is  used.  This  lamp, 
B,  Figure  55,  can  be  bought  already  made  up,  or  the  ordinary 
oil  lamp  can  be  converted  into  electric  at  small  cost.  In  this 
case  the  light  socket  is  soldered  to  the  oil  compartment,  which 
is  connected  to  a  battery  box. 

HAND  TORCH 

This  torch,  C,  Figure  55,  will  slide  into  the  pocket  very  easily, 
and  is  of  great  assistance  in  examining  dark  cellars,  manholes, 
etc.,  for  leaks.  It  is  8|  inches  long  and  If  inches  in  diameter. 
The  dry  battery  will  last  for  10  hours  continuous  running,  or  20 
hours  of  intermittent  using. 

RESPIRATORS 

There  are  many  cases  where  a  man  is  compelled  to  work  in  a 
gaseous  atmosphere  for  some  time,  both  in  main  and  in  service 
work.  A  respirator,  or  device  that  furnishes  fresh  air  to  a  man 
so  occupied,  is  illustrated  in  Figure  56.  It  consists  of  an  oxygen 
tank,  A;  a  rubber,  cloth-covered  breathing  bag,  B  ;  a  respiration 
pipe,  C;  a  potash  regenerator  cartridge,  D;  a  nose  clamp,  E; 
and  a  mouthpiece,  F.  This  apparatus  rests  on  the  wearer's 
abdomen  and  is  held  tight  to  the  body  by  a  neck  strap  and 
belt.  After  putting  it  on,  the  oxygen  valve  should  be  opened 
and  the  empty  bag  filled,  but  not  very  tight.  Then  the  goggles 
and  nose  clamp  should  be  fitted,  and  the  mouthpiece,  with  hold- 
ing straps,  adjusted.  Now  the  man  may  work  around  live  gas 
with  impunity,  so  far  as  danger  from  asphyxiation  is  concerned. 
He  breathes  out  of  and  into  the  breathing  bag  through  the 
potash,  and  refills  the  bag  with  oxygen  when  he  notices,  by 
feeling,  that  the  supply  is  becoming  low.  The  cartridges  of 
potash  will  last  for  about  a  half  hour,  and  the  oxygen  tanks  for 
a  couple  of  hours.  A  wooden  box,  shaped  like  a  suit  case  and 
containing  the  extra  cartridges,  tanks,  goggles  and  so  forth,  is 
convenient  for  storage  and  for  transportation. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT 


183 


184  EQUIPMENT 

This  apparatus  has  been  used  successfully  in  temporary  repairs 
to  broken  mains,  involving  soaping  and  wrapping  against  gas 
pressure,  cracks  of  considerable  width.  A  case  in  point  was  a 
16-inch  main  pushed  out  of  line  until  there  was  an  opening  on 
one  side  about  6  inches  wide.  Equipped  with  the  respirator,  a 
workman  quickly  inserted  two  stoppers  and  shut  off  the  gas  flow 
without  being  in  the  slightest  degree  affected. 

FIRST  AID  KITS 

First  Aid  kits  contain  supplies  to  aid  persons  who  are  affected 
or  overcome  by  gas.  In  Philadelphia,  two  kinds  of  kits  are  in 
general  use,  one  in  the  form  of  a  tin  box,  C,  Figure  57,  and  the 
other  in  a  leather  case,  B,  Figure  57.  The  tin  box  is  constructed 
substantially,  measuring  8^-  by  9  by  4  inches,  writh  a  tight- 
fitting  hinged  lid  and  catch,  and  wire  handle.  It  is  enameled 
inside  and  out  to  prevent  rusting.  This  box  is  carried  on  the 
wagons  and  carts  and,  in  general,  where  its  contents  need  protec- 
tion against  severe  blows  of  any  nature.  The  leather  case  does 
not  contain  as  many  articles  as  the  tin  box,  due  to  its  size, 
measuring  8|  by  4|  by  If  inches.  It  was  made  up  for  the  use 
of  complaint  men  on  leak  work,  etc.,  and  can  be  carried 
in  a  coat  pocket.  In  addition  to  the  two  kits  above  mentioned, 
a  very  convenient  arrangement  has  been  made  in  the  form  of  a 
belt,  A,  Figure  57,  that  buckles  around  a  man's  waist.  It  con- 
tains pockets  in  which  are  carried  the  various  articles  needed. 

The  following  shows  the  contents  of  the  three  kinds  of  kits: 

TIN  Box 
*1  bottle  Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia, 

2  boxes  Vaporole  Ammonia  Capsules, 

1  bottle  Phenol  Sodique, 
*6  bottles  Effervescing  Sodium  Phosphate, 

1  roll  2-in.  Cotton  Bandage, 

1  roll  2-in.  Gauze  Bandage, 

1  1-oz.  package  Absorbent  Cotton, 

1  roll  1-in.  Adhesive  Tape, 

1  Jaw  Block, 

1  Folding  Tin  Cup, 

1  pair  Tongue  Pliers, 

1  pair  Scissors, 

1  Teaspoon, 


MISCELLANEOUS  EQUIPMENT  185 

1  Tourniquet, 

2  Towels, 

2  Books  of  Instructions:  First  Aid  to  Persons  Overcome  by 
Gas  and  Treatment  for  Cuts  and 
Abrasions. 

LEATHER  CASE 

*1  bottle  Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia, 

2  boxes  Vaporole  Ammonia  Capsules, 
*4  bottles  Effervescing  Sodium  Phosphate, 

1  Jaw  Block, 

1  Folding  Tin  Cup, 

1  pair  Tongue  Pliers, 

1  Teaspoon, 

1  Book  of  Instructions:       First   Aid    to    Persons    Overcome 

by  Gas. 

LEATHER  BELT 

*2  4-oz.  bottles  of  Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia, 

2  boxes  Vaporole  Ammonia  Capsules, 

*3  bottles  Effervescing  Sodium  Phosphate, 
1  Jaw  Block, 
1  pair  Tongue  Pliers, 
1  half -size  Teaspoon. 

*Only  these  may  be  taken  internally. 


SECTION  II 

INSIDE   WORK 


CHAPTER  XX 

INSTALLATION  EQUIPMENT 

METER  WORK 
METER  SETTING  GAUGES 

Meter  setting  gauges  are  devices  used  in  setting  meters,  with 
the  idea  of  straining  meters  and  meter  screws  as  little  as 
possible.  They  consist  of  brass  screws,  similar  to  the  ordinary 


Figure  58.  —  Meter  Setting  Gauges,  page  188. 

meter  screws,  mounted  on  seamless  steel  tubing.  One  screw  is 
adjustable,  and,  by  means  of  a  set  screw,  the  distance  between  the 
screws  can  be  adjusted  and  the  screw  held  rigidly  in  the  desired 

(186) 


INSTALLATION  EQUIPMENT 


187 


188  EQUIPMENT 

position.  The  gauges  for  the  3-,  5-  and  10-light,  and  150-  and 
200-light,  are  combination  gauges.  Figure  58  shows  the  former 
combination.  These  gauges  are  useful  only  with  the  types  of 
meter  connections  shown  in  Figures  132  and  133. 

METER  TEST  CAPS 

TURN-ON 

Turn-on  test  caps,  Figure  59,  are  safety  devices  used  when 
turning  on  gas  to  determine  if  meters  will  register  at  small 
rates  of  gas  flow.  The  caps  for  meters  up  to  100-light  in- 
clusive are  made  of  cast  aluminum,  and  for  meters  from  150-  to 
1000-light  inclusive,  of  brass.  The  different  caps  have  female 
threads,  which  fit  the  different  sizes  of  meter  screws,  and  the 
large  brass  cap  has,  in  addition,  arms  so  that  it  can  be  bolted  to 
the  flange  connections  of  large  meters.  In  the  disc  of  each  cap 
is  a  hole  of  proper  size  to  pass  2  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  under 
2  inches  pressure.  The  brass  cap  has  an  additional  hole  of  6 
cubic  feet  hourly  capacity.  Tight-fitting,  fabric-covered,  rubber 
washers  are  used  in  the  joint  between  the  cap  and  metal  screw. 

GRADUAL-CEASE-HOUSE-TEST 

In  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  Figure  59  are  shown'two  test 
caps  used  in  gradual-cease-house-tests.  The  smaller  is  for  5-A, 
10-A  and  20-light,  and  the  larger  for  30-  to  100-light  meters.  In 
each  the  projecting  cap  is  bored  with  a  hole  of  3  cubic  feet 
hourly  capacity.  This  cap  fits  over  an  opening  in  the  disc, 
large  enough  to  pass  6  cubic  feet  per  hour,  so  by  its  removal 
each  test  cap  may  be  used  to  test  the  meter  at  this  rate  of  flow. 
For  meters  150-light  and  larger,  the  brass  turn-on  test  cap  is  used. 

APPLIANCE  WORK 
STOVE  FITTER'S  KIT 

This  kit,  Figure  60,  is  used  by  men  who  connect  gas  appliances, 
and  consists  of  a  case  made  of  No.  24  galvanized  iron,  elliptical 
in  shape,  18  inches  long,  major  diameter  8  inches  long,  and  minor 
diameter  4  inches  long.  It  has  a  hinged  lid,  which  can  be 
locked,  and  is  provided  with  a  shoulder  strap.  The  case  con- 
tains the  following  equipment: 

1  Brace,  with  extension  and  search  bits, 

1  Oil  Can, 

1  Meter  Test  Cap,  3-  to  20-light  inclusive, 

2  18-inch  Cold  Chisels, 


INSTALLATION  EQUIPMENT 


189 


1  3-inch  Floor  Chisel, 

1  Cutter,  for  pipe  up  to  1-inch  inclusive, 

1  6-inch  Screw  Driver, 

1  12-inch  Half-round  File, 

1  Ball  Pein  Machinist's  Hammer, 

1  pair  6-inch  Burner  Pliers, 

1  12-inch  Compass  Saw, 

1  Stock,  with  dies  and  guides  for  pipe  up  to  1-inch  inclusive, 

2  14-inch  Trimo  Wrenches. 


Figure  60.  — Stove  Fitters  Kit,  page  188. 
LARGE  APPLIANCE  KIT 

This  kit,  Figure  61,  consists  of  a  wooden  box  with  hinged  lid, 
and  a  hasp  and  keeper  for  locking.  It  is  made  of  f-inch  lumber, 
and  the  inside  dimensions  are:  Length,  3  feet  6  inches;  width, 
1  foot;  and  depth,  10  inches.  The  standard  equipment  in  this 
box  consists  of  the  following: 

1  Meter  Test  Cap, 

1  Cutter,  for  pipe  up  to  2-inch  inclusive, 

1  Socket  Stop  Key, 


190 


EQUIPMENT 


INSTALLATION  EQUIPMENT  191 

1  Climax  Ratchet  Stock,  with  dies  and  guides  for  1^,   1£  and 
2-inch  pipe, 

2  24-inch  Wrenches. 

It  is  used  when  installing  large  appliances,  and  is  large  enough 
to  hold  any  additional  equipment  that  may  be  needed. 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORK 
BITS     < 

EXPANSION 

The  ordinary  type  provided  with  two  cutters,  and  boring  holes 
from  |  to  3  inches,  gives  very  satisfactory  results. 

SEARCH 

These  bits  are  similar  to  the  ordinary  bell  hanger's  bit,  and 
are  made  of  £-inch  steel,  15.  inches  long. 

BRACES 

The  ordinary  carpenter's  brace  of  good  manufacture,  with  a 
reversible  ratchet  handle,  gives  good  results. 

CHISELS 
FLOOR 

This  chisel,  A,  Figure  62,  is  used  Li  taking  up  floor  boards,  and 
is  made  of  f-inch  octagonal  steel,  15  inches  long.  One  end  is 
drawn  out  to  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  2  inches  wide,  and  the  head 
is  dressed  carefully. 

WALL 

This  chisel,  B,  Figure  62,  is  used  in  cutting  holes  through 
walls,  and  is  made  of  f-inch  octagonal  steel,  18  inches  long. 
One  end  is  drawn  out  to  a  fairly  sharp  chisel  point,  f-inch  wide, 
and  the  head  is  dressed  carefully.  The  chisel  point  is  tempered 
to  be  hard  and  tough. 

HAMMER 

A  ball  pein  machinist's  hammer,  weighing  about  2  pounds,  and 
having  a  handle  from  9  to  12  inches  long,  is  recommended. 

OILKRS 

Oilers  made  of  No.  20  gauge  brass,  or  cold-rolled  steel  with 
tempered  steel  bottoms  and  polished,  give  good  results.  A  size 
about  3  inches  in  diameter,  holding  one-third  of  a  pint,  and 
having  spouts  4  inches  long,  is  best  suited  for  general  work. 


192 


EQUIPMENT 


Figure  62.— A,  Floor  Chisel,  page  191.  B,  Wall  Chisel,  page 
191.  C,  Burner  Pliers,  page  193.  D,  Combina- 
tion Pliers,  page  194.  E,  Gas  Pliers,  page  194. 
F,  Strap  Wrench,  page  194. 


INSTALLATION  EQUIPMENT  193 

PLIERS 
BURNER 

These  pliers,  C,  Figure  62,  should  be  drop-forged  steel,  pol- 


Figure  63.  — Houseplpe  Inspection  Gauge,  page  195. 


194  EQUIPMENT 

ished,  and  tempered  carefully.     The  6-inch  size  is  best  suited 
for  general  burner  work. 

COMBINATION 

These  pliers,  D,  Figure  62,  should  be  drop-forged  steel,  nickel- 
plated,  polished,  tempered  carefully,  and  all  parts  interchange- 
able. The  tool  is  a  combination  of  regular  plier,  wire  cutter,  and 
screw  driver.  By  a  quarter  turn  of  the  handle,  and  by  sliding 
from  one  point  to  another,  an  unusual  capacity  is  obtained. 
They  are  made  in  various  sizes,  but  the  6-inch  size  is  best 
adapted  for  general  use,  and  will  grip  up  to  f-inch  pipe  inclusive. 


These  pliers,  E,  Figure  62,  should  be  made  of  good  steel  forging, 
pojished,  and  have  easy  working  joints.  The  8-inch  size  is  best 
adapted  for  general  use. 

COMPASS  SAW 

This  saw  is  used  in  taking  up  floor  boards,  cutting  holes  in 
floors,  ceilings,  etc.  It  has  a  blade  12  inches  long,  which,  from 
a  width  of  1  inch  at  the  handle,  tapers  to  a  point.  The  handle 
is  made  of  wood,  and  is  interchangeable. 

SCREW  DRIVERS 

Two  sizes  of  screw  drivers  are  useful,  both  with  wooden 
fluted  handle,  the  small  one  being  3  inches  long,  and  the  large  one 
6  inches  long,  with  the  steel  blade  extended  through  the  handle. 

WRENCHES 

ALLIGATOR 

This  wrench  is  made  of  good  steel,  with  a  V-shaped  opening  at 
one  end.  One  side  of  this  opening  is  grooved  like  the  ordinary 
pipe-wrench  jaw,  and  the  other  is  smooth.  The  jaws  are  tem- 
pered to  be  hard  and  tough.  The  9-,  15-  and  21 -inch  sizes  are 
best  for  general  use. 

STRAP 

This  wrench,  F,  Figure  62,  is  drop-forged  from  steel,  with  a 
linen  band  or  strap,  which  grips  firmly  without  marking.  It  is 
used  on  any  polished  pipe,  and  is  made  in  two  sizes,  the  12-inch 
wrench  taking  pipe  from  %  to  2  inches,  and  the  18-inch  size,  from 
1  to  5  inches. 


INSTALLA  TION  EQ UIPMENT  195 

HOUSEPIPING  INSPECTOR'S  PRESSURE  GAUGE 

Figure  63  shows  a  gauge  light  and  compact,  but  substantial 
enough  to  stand  rough  handling.  The  body  is  made  of  alumi- 
num. It  requires  very  little  mercury,  and  loss  of  the  latter 
through  either  the  connection  to  the  fixture  or  the  top  of  the  glass 
gauge,  is  rendered  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  In  the  former 
case,  a  perforated  metal  pin,  and  in  the  latter  case,  a  metal  cap 
is  the  device  employed.  The  cap  is  kept  screwed  hand  tight 
upon  the  top  of  the  glass  gauge  tube,  except  when  the  gauge  is 
in  actual  use. 


Figure  64.  —  Fixture  Key  Gauge,  page  195. 

FIXTURE  KEY  GAUGE 

This  gauge,  Figure  64,  is  made  of  hardened  sheet  steel 
thick,  about  3f  inches  long  by  l£  inches  wide,  and  is  used  to  test 
fixture  cocks  for  compliance  with  specifications.  Slots  and 
projections  are  provided,  by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  to 
determine  quickly  whether  the  barrel  has  correct  dimensions, 
pins  are  standard,  seal  is  sufficient,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MAINTENANCE  AND  MISCELLANEOUS    EQUIPMENT 

COMPLAINT  KITS 

These  kits  are  carried  by  men  who  go  out  on  general  complaints 
and  turn  on  and  off  work. 


Figure  65.  —  Leather  Bag  Kit,  page  196. 

LEATHER  BAG 

^  kit,  Figure  65,  consists  of  a  leather  bag,  12  inches  long, 
6  inches  high,  4  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  2|  inches  wide  at  top. 
The  bag  has  straps  for  attaching  to  a  bicycle  frame,  and  straps 
are  also  provided  on  the  flap  so  that  tools  can  be  put  in  or  taken 
out  without  removing  the  bag  from  the  bicycle.  It  contains  the 
following  equipment: 


(196) 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  197 

1  Meter  Test  Cap,    3-  to  20-lt.  inclusive, 

30-  to  100-lt. 

1  f-inch  Cold  Chisel,  6  inches  long, 
1  3-inch  Screw  Driver, 
1  6-inch  Knife  Blade  File, 
1  Reamer  Chuck  Handle, 
1  pair  6-inch  Combination  Pliers, 
1  Small  Meter  Column  Pump  (strapped  to  outside), 
1  set  (6)  Stove  Reamers, 
1  10-inch  Trimo  Wrench, 
1  18-inch  "        (handle  cut  down), 

1  small  box  Stove  Cement, 
1  Key  Grease, 

1  '    Soap, 

Supply  of  Stove  Bolts,  assorted  sizes, 
"  Caps,  1,  f,  \  and  |-inch, 
"  Plugs,  1,  i  |,  1  and  |-inch. 

TIN  Box 

This  kit,  A,  Figure  66,  consists  of  a  tin  box,  2\  by  6|  by  13 
inches,  which  opens  and  closes  like  an  old-fashioned  valise,  and  is 
provided  with  racks  for  holding  the  equipment.  The  box  has  a 
handle  and  shoulder  straps,  and  contains  about  the  same  equip- 
ment as  the  leather  bag  kit,  with  the  addition  of  a  rack  for  cards. 

STOVE  REPAIR  KIT 

These  kits,  B,  Figure  66,  are  carried  by  men  who  go  out  to 
repair  gas  appliances,  and  the  leather  bag  is  the  same  as  used  by 
the  complaint  men,  and  contains  the  following  equipment: 

1  Meter  Test  Cap,  3-  to  20-lt.  inclusive, 

1  f-inch  Cold  Chisel,  6  inches  long, 

1  6-inch  Screw  Driver, 

1  12-inch  Half-round  File, 
6-inch  Rat  Tail  File, 
Reamer  Chuck  Handle, 

Ball  Pein  Machinist's  Hammer, 
pair  6-inch  Combination  Pliers, 
Stove  Bolt  Punch, 
set  (6)  Stove  Reamers, 

2  14-inch  Trimo  Wrenches, 
1  small  box  Stove  Cement, 


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199 


1  small  box  Key  Grease, 

1  '    Soap, 

Assorted  lot  of  Stove  Bolts  and  Nuts. 

PLUMBER'S  GASOLINE  FURNACE  AND  KIT 

The  furnace,  Figure  67,  consists  of  the  ordinary  hot-blast, 
plumber's  coil  furnace,  with  one  jet,  and  a  gasoline  capacity  of 
one  gallon.  The  kit  contains  the  following  equipment: 


Figure  67.  —  Plumber's  Gasoline  Furnace  Kit,  page  199. 


200 


EQUIPMENT 


1  Tap  Borer, 
1  Dresser, 
1  Shaving  Hook, 
1  Bending  Iron, 


Drift  Plugs 


1  Large  Pouring  Ladle, 

1  Small 

1  Turn  Pin, 

1  Rasp, 


Figure  68.  —  Incandescent  Repair  Kit,  page  200. 

INCANDESCENT  REPAIR  KIT 

This  kit,  Figure  68,  consists  of  a  substantial  composition  fibre 
case,  with  hinged  lid,  handle,  lock  and  catches,  and  has  inside 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  201 

dimensions  as  follows:  Width,  19|  inches;  height,  14£  inches; 
and  depth,  4£  inches.  It  is  divided  into  various  sized  compart- 
ments by  tin  partitions,  so  that  the  material  can  be  packed  more 
easily,  and,  at  the  same  time,  breakages  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
The  stock  of  material  carried  will  varv  according  to  the  type  of 
incandescent  lighting  installed.  For  Philadelphia  conditions, 
the  following  equipment  is  needed : 
1  #  3  Bunsen  Base,  10  Reflex  Mantles, 

1   #  71  Burner,  5     500 

5  #  90  Burner  Tips,  5     199 

1   #4  By-pass,  3     197 

3   #  6  By-passes,  1     196 

1     86  Chimney,  2     403 

1  981  12     758 

2  306  1   #  36-38  Shade  Ring, 

1  310         "  3  Humphrey  Tips  (old  style), 

3  320  Cylinders,  3  "     (new  style), 

2  376  3  #4  Pilot  Tubes, 
1   #15  Cylinder  Ring,  6*6     " 

1   #  1  GT  Gooseneck,  3  #739" 

1    #  1  Mixing  Chamber,  1  6-ft.  piece  Green  Baby  Tubing. 

SERVICE  CLEANING  DEVICE 

This  is  a  device,  Figure  69,  with  the  use  of  which  it  is  safe  for 
one  man  to  clear  out  services.  It  is  made  of  f-inch  fittings, 
nipples  and  cocks. 

FORCE  PUMP 

The  term  "force  pump"  as  here  used,  has  reference  to  the 
ordinary  type  of  hand  air-pump  and  the  storage  tank  to  which 
it  is  connected.  This  device  is  used  in  blowing  out  obstructions 
in  services,  lamp  risers,  and  housepiping,  and  a  convenient  form, 
A,  Figure  70,  for  all  kinds  of  work  consists  of  a  light  cylindrical 
brass  tank,  18  inches  long  and  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  an 
ordinary  hand  air-pump  mounted  at  one  end,  having  a  IJ-inch 
cylinder,  about  12  inches  long.  The  body  of  the  pump  is  in  the 
tank,  and  the  outlet  has  a  check  to  prevent  the  compressed  air 
escaping  back  through  the  pump.  At  the  outlet  of  the  tank 
is  placed  a  f-inch  lever-handled  union  cock,  to  which  is  attached 
about  6  feet  of  f-inch  heavy  rubber  hose.  A  leather  strap  is 


202  EQUIPMENT 

attached  to  the  tank,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  carried  over  the 
shoulder,  and  lugs  are  provided  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  hold 
it  firmly  while  pumping.  , 

TOP*  V.ELW 


Figure  69,  page  201. 
METER  COLUMN*  PUMP 

This  is  a  hand  pump,  B,  Figure  70,  for  clearing  water  or  con- 
densation out  of  meter  columns.  The  pump  cylinder  is  made  of 
f-inch  brass  tubing,  with  handle  and  piston  rod  of  ^-inch  wire. 
The  piston  is  a  thick  leather  washer,  held  by  nuts  screwed  on  the 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  203 


Figure  70.  —  A,  Force  Pump,  page  201.     B,  Meter  Column 
Pump,  page  202. 


204 


EQUIPMENT 


end  of  the  piston  rod.  The  length  of  the  pump  for  general  use 
is  18  inches.  If  it  is  necessary  to  tilt  the  meter,  the  inlet  side 
should  be  kept  lower  than  the  outlet  side. 

TRANSPORTATION   WORK 

GENERAL 

While  describing  equipment,  it  is  thought  advisable  to  say  a 
few  words  about  the  various  types  of  vehicles  used  by  a  distribu- 
tion department,  with  especial  reference  to  the  kind  of  motive 
power. 


Figure  71.  —  Bicycle,  page  205. 

BICYCLE 

The  bicycle  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  conveyance  of  men 
carrying  little  or  no  material,  where  the  territory  to  be  covered 
and  the  distances  between  stops  do  not  make  the  motor  cycle  more 
desirable,  all  things  considered.  In  Philadelphia,  about  four 
hundred  wheels  are  in  use  by  messenger  boys,  fuel  appliance 
fitters,  complaint  men,  inspectors,  street  gang  foremen  and 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT  205 

linewalkers.  A  commercial  wheel  will  suffice  for  the  boys,  but 
experience  has  shown  that  for  the  men  a  more  substantial  con- 
struction is  required,  and  in  Philadelphia  this  need  has  been  met 
by  building  a  special  wheel.  Figure  71  shows  this  bicycle  as 
made  for  a  stove  fitter.  For  inspectors  and  linewalkers,  who 
carry  no  material,  the  front  brace  is  omitted. 

The  total  annual  cost  of  a  bicycle  is  about  $38.00.  (All  of 
these  transportation  costs  include  depreciation  and  interest,  and 
exclude  wages  of  rider  or  driver.) 

MOTOR  CYCLE 

The  motor  cycle  has,  as  compared  with  the  bicycle,  the 
advantages  of  saving  time  and  exertion  for  the  rider,  and  the 
disadvantages  of  greater  expense  and  accident  hazard.  Phila- 
delphia, after  an  experience  of  10  years  and  now  involving  71 
motor  cycles,  believes  there  is  a  legitimate  use  for  the  motor 
cycle;  primarily,  for  foremen  and  inspectors,  whose  duties  if 
using  a  bicycle  would  involve  more  physical  exertion  than  would 
be  compatible  with  an  alert  mind,  and,  in  general,  to  replace  the 
bicycle  for  all  employees  whose  work  is  such  that  the  greater 
speed  of  the  motor  cycle  affords  a  saving  to  balance  its  increased 
expense.  The  total  annual  cost  of  a  motor  cycle  is  about 
$240.00.  Figure  72  shows  the  motor  cycle  used,  —  a  5-h.p., 
chain  drive,  single-speed  machine,  with  kick  starter. 

SIDE  CAR 

Whenever  there  are  many  small  articles  to  be  delivered  to 
consumers,  such  as  mantles,  glassware,  small  lights  or  fuel 
appliance  parts,  economy  demands  their  conveyance  by  some- 
thing lighter  than  a  single-horse  wagon  or  the  smallest  gasoline 
chassis  available.  This  is  true  especially  when  these  small 
articles  are  to  be  installed  by  the  man  who  delivers  them,  thus 
increasing  the  idle  time  of  the  vehicle.  Philadelphia  began  to 
face  this  question  in  the  fall  of  1909,  and  tried  to  solve  it  by  the 
purchase  of  motor  vans,  —  tricycles  with  a  box  in  front  sup- 
ported between  two  wheels,  the  rider  sitting  behind  the  box. 
Unfortunately,  there  was  not  a  sufficient  general  demand  for 
this  type  to  develop  a  proper  design  and  workmanship,  and 
although  at  one  time  25  vans  were  in  use,  the  incessant  break- 
downs and  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  making  repairs,  caused 
the  abandonment  of  the  van  in  May,  1916.  The  annual  unit 
cost  was  about  $400. 


206 


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MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT 


207 


208  EQUIPMENT 

Happily,  just  before  the  impossibility  of  van  operation  became 
evident,  a  substitute  was  found  in  the  side  car,  which  is  a  box 
attached  on  one  side  to  a  motor  cycle,  and  supported  on  the 
other  by  an  outlying  wheel.  It  is  shown  in  Figure  73.  The  box 
is  3  feet  4  inches  long,  1  foot  10  inches  wide,  and  1  foot  10  inches 
high,  with  hinged  top.  The  motor  cycle  is  5  h.  p.,  chain  drive, 
three-speed,  with  a  kick  starter.  Philadelphia  now  has  30  side 
cars,  most  of  them  about  a  year  old.  There  is  a  certain  amount 
of  breakage  in  the  frame  attachment,  but  it  is  hoped  that  this 
will  diminish  as  experience  leads  to  improved  design.  The 
annual  cost  per  unit  does  not  exceed  $300,  and  the  road  troubles 
are  very  much  less  than  with  the  motor  van. 

HORSE  WAGON 

At  present  horses  are  employed  for  all  of  the  four-wheeled 
transportation  in  two  of  the  five  Philadelphia  distribution  dis- 
tricts, and  for  general  trucking,  such  as  steel  and  cast  iron  pipe 
hauling  throughout  the  city.  Figure  74  shows  one  of  the  wagons 
used  on  district  meter  work.  Its  equipment  is  described  in 
Chapter  XLIX.  The  body  is  10  feet  5  inches  long,  4  feet  2 
inches  wide,  and  5  feet  4  inches  high  over  all.  The  annual  cost 
per  horse  and  wagon  is  about  $940.  There  are  about  46  wagons 
in  constant  use. 

GASOLINE  WAGON 

After  using  the  motor  van  for  two  years  to  deliver  light 
material,  Philadelphia  saw  a  use  for  a  small  four-wheeled  wagon 
to  replace  the  van  in  territory  where  paving  conditions  were 
especially  destructive  to  the  van  construction.  So  in  1911,  two 
small  chassis  were  bought,  and  panel  bodies  added.  A  year 
later,  a  Ford  wagon  was  purchased  for  combined  meter  and 
appliance  work.  Now  there  are  22  gasoline  wagons  employed 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  One  district  is  on  a  gasoline  basis  entirely, 
and  in  two  others  gasoline  wagons  are  used  in  connection  with 
electric  wagons.  All  of  the  hauling  to  and  from  the  main  store- 
room is  also  done  by  gasoline  trucks.  In  the  districts  it  has 
been  found  that  the  Ford  chassis  is  too  small  and  light  for  meter 
work,  and  too  light  for  even  appliance  work.  For  meter 
work,  a  f-ton  chassis  is  now  standard,  and  for  appliance  work,  a 
^-ton  chassis.  Figure  75  shows  one  of  the  latter  wagons. 
The  body  is  7  feet  11  inches  long,  3  feet  10  inches  wide,  and  5 
feet  high  over  all. 


MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT 


209 


210 


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MAINTENANCE  EQUIPMENT 


211 


212  EQUIPMENT 

The  annual  cost  of  a  gasoline  wagon,  as  based  principally  upon 
a  Ford  chassis,  is  $1000.  This  cost  will  probably  not  increase 
as  the  slightly  larger  wagons  replace  the  Fords,  because  the 
decreased  cost  of  repairs  will  offset  the  increase  in  the  other 
operating  costs. 

The  universal  substitution  of  motor  for  horse  transportation 
in  distribution  work,  has  been  delayed  not  only  because  of  the 
higher  first  cost  and  uncertain  performance  of  motor  units,  but 
also,  as  these  factors  tended  to  dimmish  in  importance,  by  the 
small  time  in  motion  of  the  wagons  used  on  meter  work,  this 
decreasing  materially  the  economy  accruing  through  the  greater 
speed  of  the  motor  unit.  Now,  however,  as  the  cost  figures 
show,  there  is  little  difference  between  the  horse  and  the  gasoline 
motor,  and  when  they  further  take  into  account  the  question  of 
housing  space,  many  companies  probably  will  change  to  the 
motor,  for  they  will  find,  as  has  Philadelphia,  that  with  the 
great  increase  in  transportation  units  accompanying  new  business 
activities,  it  is  a  choice  between  enlarging  present  horse  stables, 
or,  at  much  less  expenditure,  converting  them  into  garages  of 
ample  size  for  some  time  to  come. 

ELECTRIC  WAGON 

Philadelphia  bought  its  first  electric  wagons  in  1909.  By  the 
use  of  motor  wagons,  a  large  expense  for  a  district  stable  was 
avoided,  and  electricity  was  preferred  to  gasoline,  because  it 
meant  a  great  saving  in  fire  insurance  premiums,  and  because  at 
that  time  gasoline  motor  wagons  were  very  unreliable  and  short- 
lived. An  experience  of  seven  years  with  17  wagons  shows  that 
they  are  very  satisfactory  on  good  paving  and  slight  grades,  but 
that  on  bad  roads  and  hilly  territory,  battery  capacity  fre- 
quently is  lacking.  The  cost  per  wagon  per  year  is  $1500. 

Figure  76  shows  a  4000-pound  wagon  used  for  delivering 
ranges  and  main  and  service  material.  The  body  is  14  feet  long, 
4  feet  10  inches  wide,  and  3  feet  2  inches  high. 


PART  IV 

MAIN  WORK 

Under  this  heading  will  be  described  in  great  detail  the  proper 
organization  for  a  street  main  force,  and  the  right  way  of  per- 
forming the  various  operations  connected  with  the  installation, 
maintenance  and  repair  of  a  system  of  street  mains. 


SECTION  I 

INSTALLATION 

CHAPTER  XXII 

ORGANIZATION 

SMALL  TOWNS 

The  proper  organization  of  a  force  for  the  work  of  main  laying 
will  vary  according  to  local  conditions,  as  the  sphere  of  operation 
is,  first,  in  a  small  town,  or  the  growing  fringe  of  a  large  city;  or 
second,  in  the  congested  portion  of  a  large  city.  It  also  will  vary 
somewhat  in  any  particular  locality,  with  the  length  and  size  of 
the  main  being  laid,  whether  small,  viz.,  12-inch  or  under,  or 
large,  viz.,  16-inch  or  over.  [In  the  future,  the  words  small  and 
large  will  be  used  in  this  sense  when  referring  to  main  work.] 
In  any  event,  the  street  main  work  should  be  under  one  man, 
who,  whether  the  superintendent  himself  (as  would  be  the  case  in 
many  companies)  or  not,  will  be  considered  for  our  purpose  as 
being  called  the  general  main  foreman,  and  will  be  referred  to 
as  the  main  foreman. 

In  the  first  case  spoken  of  above,  viz.,  a  small  town,  or  the 
growing  fringe  of  a  large  city,  the  duties  of  the  main  foreman  will 
be  very  general.  He  will  make  a  prior  inspection  of  all  locations 
where  work  is  to  be  done,  plan  the  work,  decide  perhaps  upon  the 
character  of  the  specials  to  be  used,  and  arrange  for  their  delivery 
as  well  as  all  other  material,  exercise  a  general  oversight  while  the 
work  is  being  done,  and  inspect  the  site  after  completion.  In 
some  instances,  he  will  act  as  timekeeper  and  also  check  any 
reports  made  out  by  the  gang  foreman. 

If  the  work  consists  almost  entirely  of  laying  mains  to  supply 
row  after  row  of  houses,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 

(215) 


216  MAIN  WORK 

"building  operations,"  as  the  majority  of  these  operations  are 
begun  in  the  spring  and  finished  in  the  fall,  and  the  most  econom- 
ical organization  of  the  main  force  is  that  of  a  constant  number 
of  men,  able,  by  working  300  days  in  the  year,  to  lay  the  miles  of 
mains  required  annually,  then,  in  order  that  the  main  and  service 
work  always  shall  be  finished  when  gas  is  needed,  or,  as  is  more 
usual,  when  the  builder  is  ready  to  pave  street  and  footway,  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  lay  a  main  in  some  streets  soon  after 
the  house  foundations  are  begun.  It  should  be  said  here,  how- 
ever, that  the  gas  main  preferably  should  follow  the  laying  of  the 
sewer  and  the  water  main.  This  early  laying  will  mean  some- 
times that  the  proper  line  and  grade  stakes  must  be  obtained 
from  the  city  surveyor,  and  then  the  main  foreman  takes  the 
gang  foreman  to  the  location  and  gives  him,  with  reference  to 
the  stakes,  all  the  information  necessary  in  regard  to  opening 
trench.  The  two  foremen  also  decide  upon  the  best  starting 
point  and  any  other  details  in  regard  to  the  work,  such  as  the 
proper  character  and  location  of  the  necessary  specials,  including 
drips,  for  under  the  conditions  being  described,  there  will  be 
few  underground  structures  encountered  to  cause  unexpected 
changes  in  plan.  As  mentioned  before,  the  delivery  of  this  and 
any  other  material,  and  of  tools  and  equipment,  will  come 
directly  under  the  supervision  of  the  main  foreman,  and  if  the 
team  used  is  employed  also  in  hauling  material  for  service  work, 
the  main  foreman  will  make  all  his  plans  for  this  team  in  con- 
junction with  the  service  foreman,  in  order  to  insure  its  most 
economical  use  each  day. 

Where  the  recording  of  main  work  is  done  by  the  main  depart- 
ment, the  main  foreman  generally  will  make  the  necessary 
sketches,  assisted  by  the  gang  foreman  for  such  portions  of  main 
as  may  be  laid  and  covered  up  in  the  absence  of  the  main  foreman. 

To  sum  up,  in  the  conditions  now  being  described,  the  main 
foreman  plans  the  movements  of,  and  lays  out  in  detail,  the  work 
of  each  main  gang,  and  the  gang  foreman  handles  his  men  to  get 
the  designated  work  done  with  the  greatest  possible  despatch 
and  efficiency. 

The  composition  of  each  individual  gang  will  depend  largely 
upon  local  conditions.  For  the  Philadelphia  work,  in  the  growing 
fringe,  where  most  of  the  laying  is  6-inch  in  dirt  streets,  and  the 
average  job  is  one  block,  or  about  500  feet,  the  following  per- 
sonnel has  been  used  to  great  advantage: 


ORGANIZATION  217 

1  Gang  Foreman, 

2  Caulkers, 

2  Caulkers'  Helpers, 
14  Laborers. 

In  warm  weather,  a  water  boy  will  enable  the  men  to  keep 
steadily  at  work,  and  not  be  continually  leaving  the  trench  to 
walk  to  the  water  pail. 

Experience  has  shown  that  with  a  good  organization  and  a 
competent  foreman,  a  small  gang  of  this  kind  will  turn  out  a 
splendid  amount  of  work  per  man.  Each  laborer  becomes  a 
picked  man  and  is  worth  the  extra  pay  he  gets.  It  is  also  sur- 
prising, if  the  proper  brains  be  directing  the  main  work,  how  well 
a  constant  force  may  take  care  of  what  would  seem  to  be  a  very 
fluctuating  amount  of  building  operations,  as  measured  by  the 
number  begun  each  month.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  where  a 
gang  is  changing  continually  in  size  throughout  the  year,  the 
output  per  laborer  is  lessened  appreciably. 

LARGE  CITIES 

The  second  case  spoken  of  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  viz., 
where  the  sphere  of  work  includes  the  congested  portion  of  a  large 
city,  necessitates  a  change  in  the  mode  of  working  and  more  of  an 
organization.  The  main  foreman's  duties  will  be  largely  execu- 
tive, and  he  can  have  little  detail  work  to  do,  as  he  must  be  free  at 
all  times  to  go  where  needed.  He  often  will  have  to  confer  with 
the  officials  of  other  companies  when  changes  in  locations  of  gas 
mains  or  other  structures  are  in  question,  or  cases  of  interference 
or  damage  have  arisen.  So  much  of  his  time  will  be  taken  up  in 
this  way  that  he  cannot  have  very  intimate  relations  with  the 
gang  foremen,  or  lay  out  their  work  in  detail.  He  must  train 
these  foremen  to  decide  for  themselves  in  ordinary  cases. 
As  he  cannot  follow  any  regular  daily  routine  in  his  work,  he 
should  always  keep  in  touch  with  his  office,  so  that  he  can  be 
reached  quickly  if  necessary. 

The  gang  foreman,  it  will  be  readily  seen,  should  be  of  a  higher 
type  than  is  needed  in  situations  where  the  main  foreman  looks 
after  much  detail.  While  the  main  foreman  will  have  direct 
charge  of  the  material  delivery  teams,  the  gang  foreman  will 
determine  the  material  wanted  and  its  time  of  delivery.  These 
orders  usually  will  be  telephoned  to  the  office  for  approval  by  the 
main  foreman,  who,  because  of  his  knowledge  as  to  the  exact 
conditions  of  all  his  work,  is  able  best  to  decide  upon  the  details 


218  MAIN  WORK 

of  their  execution.  Inasmuch  as  the  careful  routing  of  such 
orders  as  to  distances  traversed  by  heavy  or  light  loads,  does  not 
appeal  to  the  average  driver,  the  main  foreman  often  is  able,  by 
good  routing,  to  decrease  considerably  the  work  of  his  teams. 
Beside  knowing  how  to  handle  his  men  efficiently,  the  gang  fore- 
man must  possess  good  judgment,  not  only  in  ordinary  routine 
work,  as,  for  instance,  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  trench  opened 
ahead  of  pipe  laying,  but  also  in  meeting  any  peculiar  conditions 
that  may  arise  in  the  absence  of  the  main  foreman.  Instant 
action  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  loss  of  life,  or  damage  to 
property,  and  the  gang  foreman  should  be  able  to  act  quickly  and 
have  a  fertile  mind  and  ability  to  reason  carefully.  When  the 
gang  foreman  is  not  stationed  for  the  day  at  any  one  particular 
location,  he  should  keep  the  office  in  touch  with  his  movements, 
preferably  by  telephone. 

Neither  the  main  foreman  nor  the  gang  foreman  should  be 
expected  to  make  any  sketches  of  the  work  done.  To  avoid  all 
possible  chance  of  misunderstanding,  no  job  should  be  done 
except  upon  a  written  order  issued  by  the  office  and  accompanied 
by  a  sketch  giving  in  detail  all  available  information  necessary 
for  the  work. 

The  personnel  of  each  main  gang  should  be  of  a  fairly  high 
type,  especially  in  caulkers  and  helpers,  because  the  obstruc- 
tions encountered  and  the  heavy  street  traffic  make  pipe  laying 
difficult.     This  would  be  the  gang  used: 
1  Gang  Foreman, 
4  Caulkers, 
4  Caulkers'  Helpers, 
16  Laborers. 

In  especial  cases  of  tedious  or  dangerous  work,  the  whole  gang 
should  be  composed  of  experienced  men. 

For  small  jobs  of  changing  mains,  where  backfilling  follows 
immediately  upon  laying,  such  as  laying  around  manholes,  the 
gang  would  be  as  follows: 

1  Gang  Foreman, 
3  Caulkers, 

2  Caulkers'  Helpers, 
1  Laborer. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

PRELIMINARY  WORK  AND  REMOVING  PAVING 
PRELIMINARY  WORK 
PREINSPECTION  OF  SITE 

To  insure  continuity  of  work  for  a  main  gang,  it  always  is  neces- 
sary to  have  planned  out  ahead,  jobs  covering  a  week  or  ten  days. 
A  preinspection  of  each  street  is  essential  to  ascertain  what 
obstructions  may  exist  along  the  proposed  line  of  main.  Where 
a  building  operation  is  in  progress,  there  are  often  piles  of  building 
material,  mortar  bed,  plaster  bed,  etc.  By  giving  the  builder 
some  days'  notice  of  the  time  for  beginning  work,  he  will,  espe- 
cially if  he  is  anxious  to  have  the  main  laid,  arrange  to  have  a 
clear  path  for  the  trench.  It  often  is  necessary,  however,  to  see 
various  subcontractors  and  to  make  several  calls,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, the  gang  should  not  be  shifted  to  any  location  until  all 
obstacles  are  out  of  the  way. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  well  to  speak  about  one  phase  of 
preliminary  work  in  connection  with  large  main  laying,  that  is 
peculiar  to  congested  conditions,  viz.,  the  ascertaining  whether, 
at  the  location  given  for  the  trench,  sufficient  space  will  be  found. 
Generally,  before  a  permit  is  asked  for  from  the  city,  or  perhaps 
before  a  route  is  laid  out  for  the  main,  test  holes  have  been  dug 
to  ascertain  the  exact  location  of  the  existing  underground 
structures.  The  frequency  of  these  holes,  and  their  extent,  will 
vary,  depending  upon  the  conditions  found.  If  it  is  apparent 
that  there  is  plenty  of  available  space,  few  test  holes  will 
be  needed.  If,  however,  conditions  are  very  congested  in  the 
route  and  at  the  location  finally  decided  on,  then,  unless  the  pre- 
liminary test  holes  were  within  100  feet  of  each  other,  it  is 
advisable  at  some  time  before  actually  beginning  the  work  with 
a  large  gang,  to  open  a  series  of  test  holes  covering  two  or  three 
blocks,  and  thus  definitely  determine  the  exact  location  of  the 
trench.  It  happens  sometimes  that  this  will  be  a  zigzag  line. 

(219) 


220  MAIN  WORK 

As  the  work  progresses,  test  holes  may  be  opened  for  the  rest  of 
the  route.  It  always  is  advisable  to  do  this  test  hole  work  well 
in  advance  of  the  necessity  for  trench  opening,  especially  if  a 
change  in  location  requires  an  application  to  the  city.  In  length, 
the  test  hole  should,  of  course,  cover  the  space  to  be  explored, 
and  in  depth,  it  should  equal  the  probable  depth  of  trench 
required.  In  addition,  a  bar  should  be  driven  down  several  feet 
at  various  points  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  to  make  sure  that  no 
structure  lies  beneath.  This  driving,  should  be  done  slowly  and 
with  great  care,  to  avoid  damage  to  any  structure. 

DELIVERY  OF  MATERIAL 

The  delivery  of  material,  such  as  pipe  and  specials,  also  should 
be  arranged  for.  When  the  force  employed  in  main  laying  is 
fairly  constant  in  size  for  several  months,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  estimate  the  weekly  or  monthly  need  for  pipe.  As  to  the 
yearly  need,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  anticipate  it  very 
closely,  and  to  place  such  orders  with  the  foundries  that  car- 
loads of  pipe  will  be  received  as  wanted,  and  more  than  90  per 
cent  of  the  lengths  hauled  directly  from  the  car  to  the  street. 
This  makes  for  great  economy  in  handling. 

In  stringing  the  pipe,  if  12-inch  or  larger,  it  should  be  left  with 
bells  all  pointing  the  same  way,  viz.,  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  main  will  be  laid.  This  direction  should  be  whatever  local 
conditions  make  most  convenient,  except  where  there  is  a  grade 
exceeding  5  per  cent,  in  which  case  the  bells  always  should  point 
uphill,  reversing  direction  at  each  low  point  and  summit.  When 
the  pipe  is  smaller  than  12-inch,  it  does  not  pay  to  add  to  the 
expense  of  loading  and  unloading  by  requiring  one  direction  of 
bells.  Pipe  should  not  be  dropped  off  the  truck  to  a  paved 
roadway,  but  upon  wooden  blocks  or  rope  mats  provided  for  the 
purpose.  The  pipe  should  be  strung  as  closely  as  possible  to  the 
curb,  and  on  the  side  of  the  future  trench,  except  in  the  case  of 
large  pipe,  when  the  trench  is  some  distance  from  the  curb  and  the 
excavated  material  will  occupy  all  the  space  between  curb  and 
trench,  so  that  the  pipe  must  be  rolled  across  the  street  as 
needed.  Under  ordinary  city  conditions,  where  the  street  is 
open  to  travel,  the  pipe  must  be  lamped  properly  each  night. 

In  addition  to  the  pipe,  certain  special  castings  may  be  deliv- 
ered on  the  street  prior  to  beginning  work.  This  is  more  apt  to 
happen  with  large  mains  than  small  ones,  for  in  the  former  case, 
there  often  are  opportunities  to  economize  by  hauling  the 


PRELIMINA R  Y  WORK  A  ND  REMO  VI NG  PA  VI NG    2 2 1 

specials  directly  from  the  car,  while  the  small  specials,  being 
ordered  in  large  quantities,  usually  before  the  beginning  of  active 
main  laying,  are  at  the  various  storeyards.  Also,  a  large  main 
job  implies,  as  a  rule,  a  length  of  a  thousand  feet  or  more,  and  the 
use  of  a  minimum  number  of  certain  specials,  no  matter  what 
may  be  the  underground  conditions.  This  is  not  true  of  the 
average  6-inch  job  under  Philadelphia  conditions,  where,  if  laying 
from  an  intersection  already  in  place  to  the  other  end  of  a  block, 
beyond  which  the  development  is  uncertain,  there  may  be  no 
specials  of  any  kind  required.  Again,  if  an  intersection  is  to  be 
laid,  it  may  be  known  what  tees  and  crosses  are  required,  but  the 
necessity  for  bends  is  uncertain,  depending  entirely  on  under- 
ground conditions  yet  to  be  revealed.  Therefore,  it  may  be 
frequently  more  economical  to  deliver  no  specials  until  the  exact 
needs  of  the  job  are  known. 

Concerning  miscellaneous  equipment,  such  as  blocking, 
cement,  lead,  etc.,  it  is  a  mistake  to  have  on  the  street  any  more 
than  is  necessary  to  furnish  economical  hauling  conditions  from 
the  storeyard.  Beside  the  danger  from  theft,  every  pound  of 
material  left  over  on  a  job,  to  be  transferred  to  the  next  site, 
involves  unnecessary  hauling  expense.  Where  cement  is  used, 
the  more  on  hand,  the  more  chance  of  spoiling  from  storms. 
One  method  of  caring  for  small  lots  on  the  average  job,  where  a 
shelter  shed  is  not  justified,  is  to  pile  the  cement  bags  on  the 
wooden  blocks,  high  enough  to  be  out  of  possible  wet,  and  then 
cover  over  with  a  water-tight  canvas. 

NATURE  OF  EQUIPMENT 

The  normal  equipment  for  a  main-laying  force  depends,  first, 
on  its  size;  second,  on  the  character  of  the  main  work,  including 
the  kind  of  jointing  material  used;  and  third,  on  condition  of 
paving  and  weather  (winter  or  summer).  The  equipment  listed 
below  can  be  carried  in  the  large  service  cart  described  on  page 
176,  and  will  suffice  for  the  force  described  on  page  217  when 
laying  4-,  6-  or  8-inch  pipe.  For  larger  mains,  additional  equip- 
ment will  be  necessary. 

2  4-inch  Bags,  2  4-inch  Wooden  Plugs, 

2  6-inch     "  2  6-inch 

2  8-inch      "  2  8-inch 

1  Leak  Bar,  1  Bag  Pump, 

1  Rock  Pinch  Bar,  5  Rammers, 

1  Search  Bar,  6  Canvas  Screen  Rods, 


222 


MAIN  WORK 


2  Tunnelling  Bars, 

3  Pipe  Brushes,  4,  6  and  8-inch, 
1  Galvanized  Iron  Bucket, 

1  Squirt  Oil  Can, 
6  Cape  Chisels, 
6  Dog 
8  Crowbars, 

1  Drinking  Cup, 
13  Asphalt  Cutters, 

2  Bag  Forks, 

1  Syphon  U  Gauge, 

2  14-tb.  Sledge  Hammers, 
1  Asphyxiation  Kit, 

10  Red  Lanterns, 

1  Small  Pocket  Level, 

1  24-inch  Level, 

1  300-ft.  Ditch  Line, 

1  Mueller  Combination  Tap- 
ping Machine,  with  drills, 

1  Mattock, 
15  Picks  and  handles, 

5  Ditch  Line  Pins, 

1  pair  Combination  Pliers, 
12  Diamond  Points, 

2  Porters, 


FOR   CEMENT   JOINTS 

1  Mixing  Board, 

1  bag  Cement, 

3  prs.  Rubber  Gloves, 

1  Cement  Sieve,  12-inch, 

1  Trowel, 


10  Lantern    Rods  (unless  dan- 
ger signs  are  used). 
1  6-ft.  Rule, 

1  One-man  Crosscut  Saw, 
3  Canvas  Screens, 

2  Flat  Nose  D-Handle  Shovels, 
13  Sharp  " 

1  "       "     Straight   Handle 
Shovel, 

15  Danger  Signs, 

2  4-inch  Stoppers, 
2  6-inch 

2  8-inch 

1  50-ft.  Canvas  Tape, 

2  Ditch  Targets  (either  type), 

3  sets  Caulking  Tools, 

2  Asphalt  Wedges, 
6  Concrete 

6  Frost 

3  Pipe-Bursting  Wedges, 

1  Plug  Wrench, 

2  14-inch  Trimo  WTrenches, 
10  Ibs.  Yarn,- 

Assortment    of      Fittings    and 

Nipples, 

Soft  Soap  and  Brush, 
Tallowcloth. 


FOR    LEAD    JOINTS 

3    Pouring    Bands,    4,    6 

8-inch, 
1  Bellows, 
1  Lead  Furnace, 
1  Pouring  Ladle, 
25  Ibs.  Lead. 


and 


LOCATION  OF  EQUIPMENT 

When  preinspecting  the  site,  the  location  of  such  equipment 
as  tool  boxes  (Figure  49,  page  174),  tool  wagons  (Figure  48,  page 
175) ,  service  carts  (Figure  52,  page  177) ,  etc.,  usually  is  determined. 
When  there  is  much  equipment,  a  vacant  lot  is,  of  course,  prefer- 
able to  a  roadway  location.  A  footway  location  should  be 


PRELIMINAR  Y  WORK  A ND  REMO  VI NG  PA  VI NG    223 

avoided,  unless  the  footway  is  wide  and  little  traveled. 
Ordinarily,  an  available  and  suitable  location  is  in  the  roadway 
of  an  intersecting  street  at  an  end  of  a  one-block  job,  or  near 
the  centre  of  a  larger  job. 

PREPARING  FOR  TRENCH 

The  occasional  necessity  for  line  and  grade  stakes  has  been 
previously  mentioned.  It  always  is  well  to  give  the  surveyor  at 
least  a  week's  notice.  Where  there  are  no  curbs  at  either  side  of 
the  street,  or  at  the  intersections,  stakes  are  needed.  If  either 
side,  or  intersection,  has  curb  set,  by  obtaining  from  the  surveyor 
the  width  of  street,  whether  straight  grade  through  the  block, 
and  if  not  straight  grade,  the  location  and  height  of  the  summit, 
then,  by  means  of  tape  line,  level  board,  tees  and  targets,  the 
height  of  curb,  and,  therefore,  proper  depth  of  trench,  can  be 
determined  accurately  enough  for  most  jobs. 

The  trench  is  marked  out  for  the  width  required  for  the  size 
of  pipe  being  laid,  the  schedule  recommended  being  as  follows: 
•      Size  4"       6"        8"      12"      16"     20"     24"     30" 

Width  18"  18"  18"  22"  26"  30"  36"  42" 
If  the  street  is  paved,  both  sides  of  the  trench  are  marked  with 
colored  crayon,  yellow  or  red  preferably.  One  way  of  doing  this 
is  to  locate  each  side  of  the  trench  from  the  curb  every  hundred 
feet,  and  then  stretch  a  line  between  each  series  of  points,  first 
on  one  side  of  the  trench,  and  then  on  the  other,  marking  along 
the  stretched  line.  If  there  is  no  paving,  a  guide  along  one  side 
of  the  trench  usually  suffices,  being  given  by  a  rut  marked  by 
pick  or  shovel  from  a  stretched  line,  or  else  the  line  may  be  left  in 
place  on  the  side  opposite  to  which  the  excavated  material  is 
placed. 

The  pipe  is  lined  up  also  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  trench  to 
the  proposed  location  of  most  of  the  excavated  material.  This 
ordinarily  means  that  it  will  be  on  the  side  nearest  the  curb.  In 
lining  up,  the  bells  should  be  pointed  in  the  proper  direction,  and 
the  pipe  should  overlap  as  nearly  as  possible  the  exact  depth  of 
joint.  This  will  obviate  any  necessity  for  shifting  pipe  length- 
wise along  the  trench.  Of  course,  the  larger  the  pipe  and  the 
longer  the  stretch  lined  at  any  one  time,  the  more. will  be  t 
possible  saving  by  careful  lining.  Where  the  lining  covers  the 
entire  job,  any  shortage  or  excess  of  pipe  will  become  evident 
at  once.  Where  on  large  mains  the  earth  is  thrown  on  the  curb 


224  MAIN  WORK 

side,  and  the  pipe  strung  across  the  street,  it  may  not  be  advisable 
to  line  the  pipe,  but  simply  to  roll  it  across  as  needed. 

REMOVING  PAVING 
SEPARATING  MATERIALS 

On  a  paved  street  there  usually  are  several  classes  of  materials 
to  be  removed  from  the  trench,  and  each  class  should,  if  possible, 
be  kept  more  or  less  separated.  Asphalt  pieces,  or  paving 
blocks,  are  generally  piled,  often  forming  a  retaining  wall  for  any 
large  quantity  of  earth  excavation.  Bricks  or  rectangular  stone 
blocks  are  often  of  use  in  making  channels  for  conducting  water 
flow  under  excavated  material.  Sand  or  concrete  is  kept  free 
from  any  contact  with  earth. 

In  the  ordinary  case  of  a  small  main,  the  earth  would  be 
thrown  on  one  side,  and  the  paving  material  and  base  on  the 
other,  and  the  latter  might  be  allowed  to  lay  where  it  fell,  if  not 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  interfere  with  laying  operations.  Where, 
as  is  always  the  case  with  large  mains,  there  is  surplus  material 
to  be  hauled  away,  arrangements  should  be  made  for  loading  into 
wagons  as  excavated,  in  order  to  save  rehandling.  This  direct 
loading  is  most  economically  done  when  the  top  excavation  is  so 
disposed  of. 

Occasionally  a  streak  of  gravel  or  sand  is  encountered,  and  if 
it  is  of  value  for  repaving,  or  for  other  use,  care  is  taken  to  keep 
it  separate  from  the  material.  Where  there  is  loose  or  solid 
rock,  the  pieces  generally  are  thrown  clear  of  the  earth  excava- 
tion, so  they  will  not  be  covered  over  and  can  be  easily  hauled 
away. 

ASPHALT 

In  cutting  asphalt,  the  asphalt  screen  (Figure  8,  page  105) 
always  should  be  used  where  there  is  any  danger  of  injury  to 
property  or  persons  from  flying  chips.  As  a  rule,  only  one  side 
need  be  screened,  viz.,  that  toward  the  footway,  but  if  the 
trench  is  near  a  car  track  with  much  traffic,  and  open  cars  are  in 
use,  the  track  side  will  need  a  screen.  Support  for  the  screen  is 
obtained  by  the  rod  (A,  Figure  7,  page  104)  and  sometimes  by 
tying  to  trees  or  poles. 

Each  cut  is  made  by  two  men  working  together,  using  asphalt 
cutters  (D,  Figure  7),  one  cutting  right,  the  other  left,  and  the 
line  marking  the  side  of  the  trench  forming  the  centre  of  the  cut. 


PRELIMINA  R  Y  WORK  A  ND  RE  MO  VI NG  PA  VI NG     225 

Each  pair  of  cutters  is  spaced  8  feet  apart,  the  first  pair  cutting 
the  right-hand  line,  the  second  the  left-hand  line,  etc.  This 
staggering  of  the  cutting  work  enables  the  whole  gang  to  be 
closer  together,  and,  therefore,  under  better  supervision  by  the 
foreman.  With  a  gang  of  not  more  than  twenty  men,  it  is 
advisable  to  place  at  cutting  work,  all  the  men  that  tools  or  space 
will  allow,  and  finish  this  work  quickly.  In  any  case,  after  all 
the  cutting  is  finished,  one  man  is  given  a  regulation  street 
broom  to  sweep  up  all  the  chips,  both  those  inside  the  screen  and 
any  that  may  have  passed  over  the  screen  and  lodged  on  footway 
or  roadway. 

If  the  asphalt  is  on  a  concrete  base,  after  both  sides  are 
cut  to  the  base,  the  asphalt  can  be  lifted  off  with  bars  (B, 
Figure  7),  each  lifting  gang  being  composed  of  four  men,  viz., 
two  men  using  the  bars,  one  breaking  the  asphalt  to  pieces  with 
a  14-pound  sledge  (E,  Figure  9,  page  106),  and  one  man  carrying 
away  the  pieces.  As  many  gangs  may  be  set  to  work  as  the 
width  or  length  of  trench  will  allow. 

If  the  base  is  a  rock  or  bituminous  one,  the  asphalt  is  removed 
as  follows:  Asphalt  wedges  (A,  Figure  9)  are  driven  in  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cut  toward  the  center  of  the  trench,  at  an  angle 
of  45°  with  the  paving.  Four  wedges,  all  on  one  side,  spaced 
about  12  to  15  inches  apart,  are  used  at  one  time,  being  driven 
in  for  at  least  6  inches,  and  then  loosened  by  hitting  down  on 
the  upturned  face  of  the  wedge.  At  the  same  time,  the 
asphalt  is  sledged  on  top  at  about  the  centre  of  the  trench. 
Then  the  wedges  are  withdrawn,  bars  placed  in  the  holes  thus 
left,  and  the  asphalt  raised.  With  the  width  of  trench  as  opened 
for  small  pipe,  ordinarily  all  the  asphalt  can  be  thus  raised  from 
one  side.  If  not,  or  on  wider  trenches,  the  same  procedure  of 
wedging  and  sledging  must  be  followed  on  the  other  side  of  the 
trench.  It  often  is  advisable  to  begin  to  wedge  up  another 
section  of  asphalt  before  raising  all  the  asphalt  that  has  been 
loosened.  By  leaving  in  the  last  wedge,  a  better  purchase  is 
obtained  on  the  next  section.  The  gang  is  composed  of  six  men, 
three  .handling  the  sledges  and  wedges,  one  alternating 
betwee'n  the  bar  and  the  sledge,  and  two  removing  the  asphalt 
pieces.  At  times,  the  three  using  the  sledges  will  aid  on  the  bar 
in  prying  up  the  asphalt. 

On  a  bituminous  base,  where  the  distance  between  cuts  is,  say, 
over  2  feet  6  inches,  the  pinch  bar  (A,  Figure  17,  page  120)  often 


226  MAIN  WORK 

may  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  the  paving  bar  (B, 
Figure  7)  in  lifting  the  asphalt  after  it  has  been  loosened. 

The  asphalt,  once  loose,  is  broken  up  with  sledges  to  a  one- 
man  size  and  piled  preferably  on  the  footway  along  the  curb, 
in  heaps  about  2  by  4  by  3  feet  high,  with  centers  12  feet  apart. 

When  the  trench  is  both  long  and  wide,  as  for  a  long  line  of 
large  main,  a  steam  roller,  equipped  with  knife  and  breaking 
points,  may  prove  more  economical  than  hand  labor  for  cutting 
and  breaking  up  asphalt.  E,  Figure  7,  shows  the  tool  used  to 
cut  asphalt  with  the  aid  of  a  power  tamping  machine. 

OTHER  PAVING 

Where  there  is  vitrified  brick,  belgian  block,  asphalt  block, 
rubble,  cobble,  or  macadam  paving,  instead  of  marking  the  sides 
of  the  trench  by  crayon,  as  before  described,  an  alternative 
method  is  to  drive  in  ditch  line  pins  (C,  Figure  9)  at  points  a 
hundred  feet  apart.  Enough  paving  is  removed  to  make  room 
for  the  pins,  which  are  driven  into  the  paving  at  an  angle  of 
45°,  pointing  out  from  the  centre  of  the  trench,  until  the  head 
of  the  pin  is  almost  flush  with  the  paving.  In  this  way  the 
pins  will  not  become  loose  as  excavating  proceeds.  A  line  is 
stretched  from  pin  to  pin,  forming  the  guide  for  paving  removal 
and  excavating. 

For  ^  vitrified  ^  brick,  belgian  block  and  asphalt  block,  the 
removing  gang  is  composed  of  one  man  barring  out  paving  with 
the  all-iron  tunneling  bar  (C,  Figure  13,  page  114),  one  man 
standing  in  the  trench,  lifting  the  paving  and  throwing  it  toward 
the  curb,  and  one  man  at  the  curb  piling  the  paving  material. 
For  these  classes  of  paving,  and  also  asphalt,  it  always  is  best 
to  remove  paving  by  a  special  gang,  and  keep  this  work  well 
ahead  of  the  trenching,  in  order  to  avoid  using  the  trenching 
force  on  removing  paving. 

For  rubble,  cobble  or  macadam,  the  trench  is  laid  out  in 
12-foot  sections,  and  each  man  removes  his  own  paving  with 
pick  and  shovel,  throwing  it  off  to  one  side  of  the  trench,  any 
additional  moving  and  piling  being  done  by  separate  men. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

TRENCHING 

PRELIMINARY  WORK 

PROTECTION  OF  THE  PUBLIC 

Preliminary  to,  and  also  coincident  with,  the  opening  of  any 
trench,  certain  precautions  are  necessary  for  the  protection  of 
the  public,  of  the  workman  in  the  trench,  and  of  the  latter  itself. 
Local  conditions  will  determine  in  each  instance  just  how  many 
of  these  precautions  are  required. 

Traffic,  both  roadway  and  footway,  across  the  trench,  may 
have  to  be  provided  for.  A  footway  bridge,  in  its  simplest  form, 
consists  of  one  or  two  planks  laid  across  the  trench,  battened 
together,  and  with  a  plank  on  each  side  to  act  as  a  guard.  This 
will  serve  where  the  traffic  is  light  and  the  job  is  of  a  few  days' 
duration.  In  laying  large  pipe,  or  long  lines  of  small  pipe,  where 
important  streets  are  opened,  the  footway  bridges  should  be  at 
least  3  feet  wide  and  have  sides  3  to  4  feet  high.  These  bridges 
are  moved  from  point  to  point  as  the  work  progresses,  and  six 
may  suffice  for  even  the  largest  job.  No  matter  what  form  of 
bridge  is  used,  attention  must  be  paid  to  each  end  becoming  a 
cause  of  stumbling.  Earth  placed  at  the  end  will  remove  this 
danger  and  also  hold  the  bridge  in  place. 

Roadway  bridges  should  be  made  from  3-inch  planking. 
Cross  pieces  are  placed  across  the  trench  about  2  feet  apart, 
projecting  fully  2  feet  into  each  bank.  Planks,  parallel  to  the 
trench,  laid  on  the  crosspieces,  form  the  floor  of  the  bridge,  which 
should  be  not  less  than  8  feet  wide,  as  measured  between  the 
guard  railing  put  up  across  each  end.  The  floor  of  this  bridge 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  level  with  the  top  of  the  street. 
Care  should  be  exercised  in  making  a  good  joint  with  the  street 
surface  at  each  approach  to  the  bridge,  and  earth  may  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  this,  especially  where  the  bridge  is  somewhat 
above  the  paving. 

(227) 


228  MAIN  WORK 

Any  trench  for  large  pipe,  or  a  trench  for  small  pipe  paralleling 
a  car  track,  the  excavated  material  in  each  case  being  on  the  curb 
side,  should  have  a  proper  guard  rail  placed  along  the  exposed 
side.  This  can  be  made  by  laying  three  or  four  pieces  of  6  by 
6-inch,  or  8  by  8-inch,  along  the  trench,  about  12  feet  apart 
centre  to  centre.  To  each  piece  a  1  by  6-inch,  3  feet  long,  is 
nailed  as  a  post,  and  a  1  by  3-inch,  or  1  by  4-inch,  nailed  to  the 
top  of  these  posts,  forms  a  top  rail.  This  rail  is,  of  course,  fairly 
flimsy,  and  will  need  bracing  at  intervals. 

In  excavating  under  car  tracks,  any  paving  between  the 
tracks,  and  for  the  space  of  one  foot  outside  each  rail,  should  be 
first  removed,  and  then  3-inch  planks  laid  in  this  space  across  the 
trench  parallel  to  the  rails,  and  projecting  2  feet  into  the  bank 
on  each  side  of  the  proposed  trench.  These  planks  should  be 
flush  with  the  rail  and,  after  they  are  in  position,  well  secured 
by  driving  earth  in  tight  at  both  ends  of  each  plank. 

In  the  provision  of  bridges,  as  well  as  in  any  other  steps  neces- 
sary to  minimize  the  inconvenience  to  the  public  caused  by 
main  work,  niggardliness  is  apt  to  be  poor  policy,  and  a  proper 
appreciation  and  provision  for  the  rights  of  the  public  is  quite 
compatible  with  efficient  and  economical  operation. 

The  exact  requirements  in  regard  to  affording  free  access  to 
fire  hydrants  probably  will  vary  in  different  places.  Certainly 
excavated  material  should  be  kept  at  least  six  feet  from  a  hydrant, 
and  access  to  it  provided,  both  day  and  night,  even  if  this  means 
a  bridge  across  the  trench. 

During  the  dav  the  trench  and  all  material  should  be  protected 
by  danger  flags  (E,  Figure  13)  and  at  night  by  lantern  (F,  Fig- 
ure 13). 

PROTECTION  OF  THE  WORKMEN 

The  principal  source  of  danger  to  a  trench  worker,  viz.,  a 
cave-in,  generally  is  absent  in  gas  main  work,  because  of  the 
shallow  trenches  usually  sufficing.  The  ground,  however, 
always  should  be  watched  carefully  for  cracks,  and  if,  because 
of  deep  excavations,  or  unstable  material  (as  when  the  trench 
lies  close  alongside  a  former  trench),  it  is  thought  that  the 
slightest  danger  exists,  shoring  should  be  employed.  Usually  a 
2  by  12-inch  stretcher,  16  feet  long,  in  one  or  two  lines,  held 
apart  by  adjustable  braces  (Figure  14,  page  116)  will  suffice. 
Where  sheet  piling  is  required,  1  by  12-inch  boards  may  be 
placed  back  of  two  lines  of  stretchers.  Naturally,  where  shoring 


TRENCHING  229 

is  resorted  to,  undue  weight  should  be  kept  from  the  trench  side, 
and  this  may  mean  in  some  cases  a  second  handling  of  material 
to  keep  it  back  from  the  edge  of  the  opening. 

PROTECTION  OF  THE  TRENCH 

Provision  should  be  made  to  prevent  any  surface  drainage 
flowing  into  the  trench.  Often  such  drainage  must  be  conducted 
under  the  excavated  material.  At  other  times,  damming  will 
suffice  to  divert  surface  flow  away  from  the  trench.  There  is  no 
duty  of  the  gang  foreman  more  important  than  to  have  his 
trench  protected  from  the  results  of  very  violent  rain  storms. 
Where  underground  water  is  flowing  into  the  trench,  a  sump  holt 
should  be  made,  and  a  cellar  pump  (A,  Figure  16,  page  118),  or  a 
block  pump  (B,  Figure  16),  placed  in  position.  In  most  soils,  the 
presence  of  water  will  be  very  disastrous  to  the  trench  sides,  so 
the  water  must  be  kept  down. 

Under  this  head  may  be  considered  the  necessity  for  marking 
at  the  trench  side,  the  probable  location  of  any  water  services 
crossing  the  trench.  In  each  case  the  proper  laborer  should  be 
shown  the  mark,  and  be  cautioned  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  the 
service  when  approaching  the  proper  depth,  in  order  to  avoid  any 
chance  of  injuring  it. 

EARTH   EXCAVATION 

For  small  mains,  the  ditch  line  and  pins  mark  the  side  of  the 
trench  opposite  to  the  excavated  material.  Each  man  measures 
off  with  his  shovel  a  space  of  12  feet,  and  is  assigned  this  space 
for  his  work.  This  sectioning  of  the  work  affords  an  easy  way  of 
comparing  the  relative  efficiency  of  each  laborer.  In  each  gang, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  one  or  two  men  better  paid  than  the  rest 
and  expected  to  serve  as  pacemakers.  If  conditions  are  alike 
along  the  trench,  the  gang  foreman  expects  all  the  sections  to  go 
down  equally  fast,  and  in  practice  this  pitting  of  each  man 
against  his  fellows  conduces  to  high  efficiency. 

For  large  mains,  both  sides  of  the  trench  are  marked  by  a  line. 
For  mains  up  to  16-inch  inclusive,  the  diggers  are  expected  to 
throw  the  material  far  enough  to  render  unnecessary  any  sub- 
sequent trimming.  For  16-inch  mains,  the  diggers  are  placed 
12  feet  apart,  for  20-  and  24-inch,  8  feet  apart,  and  for  30-inch, 
6  feet  apart.  For  20-  and  24-inch  no  trimming  is  done  until  the 
excavation  has  been  completed.  For  30-inch,  at  a  depth  of 
4  feet,  it  is  necessary  to  place  one  man  on  the  bank  to  trim  the 
material  thrown  out  by  every  two  diggers. 


230  MAIN  WORK 

On  every  job,  special  men,  such  as  caulkers,  or  pipe  layers,  are 
assigned  to  open  over  the  mains  to  which  connection  will  be 
made,  and  over  any  places  where  obstructions  are  expected,  the 
places  above  described  being  those  which  may  disclose  conditions 
affecting  the  depth  of  the  trench,  and  which,  therefore,  must  be 
known  before  any  bottoming  can  be  done. 

The  considerations  affecting  the  amount  of  cover  given  to  a 
main  have  been  described  on  page  74.  After  the  depth  of  trench 
has  been  fixed,  the  ditch  targets  (Figure  10,  page  109,  or  Figure 
12,  page  112)  are  placed  in  position. 

When  working  in  frozen  ground,  one  or  more  holes  should  be 
made  through  the  frost,  and  then  by  using  the  frost  wedges  (B, 
Figure  9,)  and  barring  off  from  the  face  thus  made,  the  frozen 
ground  can  be  lifted  off  much  as  would  be  a  concrete  base. 

ROCK  EXCAVATION 

Where  the  rock  may  be  removed  by  bars  (C,  Figure  7),  wedges 
(D,  Figure  9),  and  sledges  (E,  Figure  9),  the  men  work  in  pairs 
in  a  section  so  as  to  give  each  other  assistance.  The  small 
spalls  are  thrown  with  the  dirt  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  trench 
from  the  large  stone. 

Where  blasting  is  required,  three  men  form  a  gang,  and  the 
gangs  work  as  close  together  as  possible.  One  man  holds  the 
drill  (C,  Figure  17),  and  two  men  strike.  The  charging,  covering 
and  firing  of  the  holes  should  be  delegated  to  one  man,  who 
should  be  an  experienced  rock  man.  Upon  this  man's  judgment 
will  depend  the  placing  of  the  holes  and  the  charge  used.  In 
general,  the  attempt  is  to  secure  always  a  face  extending  the  full 
depth  of  the  proposed  trench.  By  staggering  the  holes  in  the 
various  rows,  the  best  progress  is  made.  On  small  mains  where 
the  rock  is  very  hard,  it  is  advisable  to  start  with  a  width  of 
trench  twice  that  required  for  earth.  This  will  allow  for  failure  to 
blow  out  to  complete  width  in  places.  Often,  of  course,  the  trench 
will  widen  still  more  from  blasting. 

All  firing  should  be  done  from  a  battery  (E,  Figure  19,  page  123) . 
Before  firing,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  be  sure  that  all  work- 
men and  the  public  are  at  a  safe  distance. 

There  should  be  a  space  of  at  least  4  inches  between  any  solid 
rock  left  in  the  trench  and  the  nearest  point  of  the  main  as  it 
rests  on  its  blocking.  This  is  necessary  to  minimize  the  chance 
of  future  breaks  or  leaks,  due  to  later  blasting  operations 
when  laying  other  structures. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

LAYING  MAINS 

ORGANIZATION  FOR,  AND  DETAILS  OF,  PIPE  LAYING 
LARGE  MAINS 

The  trench  having  been  excavated  as  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  is  now  ready  for  the  pipe-laying  gang.  Before  telling 
of  its  work,  the  complete  organization  for  laying  20-inch  and 
larger  mains,  will  be  here  given  as  follows: 

1  Trenching    Foreman  and  18  Men, 
1  Laying  12 

1  Back-filling        "  "       8     " 

Better  results  are  obtained  by  having  one  foreman  over  every 
separate  gang,  than  are  possible  by  attempting  to  work  with  only 
one  foreman.  If  the  general  main  foreman  is  not  on  the  work 
frequently,  authority  in  his  absence  should  rest  on  one  of  the 
foremen,  probably  the  laying  foreman.  The  laying  gang,  if 
working  steadily,  would  require  more  diggers  and  backfillers, 
but  in  practice,  obstacles  arise  to  interfere  with  laying,  and, 
therefore,  the  laying  gang  is  used  more  or  less  to  aid  the  other 
gangs. 

The  laying  gang  contains  4  caulkers,  or  joint  makers,  and  8 
pipe  men.  As  far  as  possible,  the  various  routine  duties  that 
arise  should  be  assigned  definitely  to  individual  men,  so  that,  as 
the  work  progresses,  there  is  no  confusion  and  each  man  becomes 
adept  at  his  special  task.  The  foreman  lays  out  the  bell 
holes  and  starts  his  gang  on  them,  borrowing  laborers  from  the 
trenching  gang  if  necessary.  Each  bell  hole  extends  from  .?  fivt 
in  front  of,  to  1  foot  back  of  the  bell,  clear  across  the  bottom  of 
the  trench.  Its  bottom  is  4  inches  below  the  regular  trench 
bottom,  and  its  width,  as  measured  along  its  bottom,  is  20  inches 
greater  than  the  trench  width,  tapering  off  to,  and  reaching,  the 
trench  width  15  inches  above  the  proposed  location  of  the  pipe 
top.  The  material  thrown  out  from  the  bell  holes  should  l>e 

(231) 


232  MAIN   WORK 

trimmed  back,  and  before  laying  starts,  there  should  be  a  2-foot 
passageway  on  the  street  on  each  side  of  the  trench. 

A  dozen  or  more  bell  holes  being  completed,  blocking  is  placed 
in  position  on  the  trench  bottom.  The  "  back  "  block  is  put  with 
its  near  edge  1  foot  back  of  the  face  of  the  bell,  while  the  "  front" 
block  lies  with  its  near  edge  3  feet  in.  front  of  the  face  of  the  bell. 
Back-filling  will  be  reduced  and  the  cavity  under  the  centre  of 
the  pipe  lessened  if  the  trench  has  been  so  dug  that  the 
blocks  may  be  set  in  the  trench  bottom  so  their  tops  will  clear 
it  not  much  more  than  1  inch.  This  condition  is  difficult  to 
obtain,  however,  and  where  there  is  insetting,  care  is  necessary  to 
ensure  that  the  block  rests  on  a  flat,  and  not  a  concave  surface. 
The  back  blocks  are  set  by  spanning  from  one  set  to  another 
with  a  level  board  set  for  the  determined  grade  of  the  main;  or 
each  back  block  may  be  set  by  using  a  target.  The  front  block 
always  is  set  a  little  lower  than  the  back  block  so  the  main  will 
just  clear  it. 

The  pipe,  having  been  previously  cleaned  on  the  inside  by  the 
circular  brush  (A,  Figure  21,  page  126),  and  all  dirt  and  scale 
carefully  removed  from  the  inside  of  the  bell  and  the  outside  of 
the  spigot  end  by  a  wire  brush  (B,  Figure  20,  page  125),  is  rolled 
in  position  on  the  skids  spanning  the  trench.  The  derrick 
(Figure  23,  page  130)  is  so  placed  that  it  will  lower  the  pipe  into 
the  position  desired.  When  moving  the  derrick,  one  man  is  at 
each  of  the  rear  legs  and  two  men  at  each  of  the  front  legs. 
(The  front  side  is  that  side  on  which  the  winch  is  located.) 
When  in  position  and  in  use,  the  four  men  on  the  front  side 
remain  there,  but  the  two  men  at  the  rear  legs  are  available 
for  other  work.  The  sling  (page  128)  is  adjusted  so  that  the 
spigot  end  will  be  slightly  heavier  than  the  bell.  The  pipe  is 
raised  until  the  bell  end  clears  the  front  skid,  which  is  removed  by 
the  proper  man  while  another  man  bears  his  weight  on  the  bell, 
thus  causing  the  spigot  end  to  clear  the  rear  skid.  This  in  turn 
is  removed  and  the  pipe  lowered.  While  the  pipe  is  swinging 
clear  in  the  sling,  the  laying  foreman  should  sound  it  with  a 
hammer  as  a  means  of  detecting  any  flaws  or  cracks  which  may 
not  have  been  detected  by  previous  inspections.  A  fine  crack 
is  overlooked  so  easily  and  the  removal  of  a  cracked  length  from 
a  line  of  large  pipe  is  so  costly,  that  time  spent  in  careful  sound- 
ing is  true  economy,  and  a  good  laying  foreman  will  never  let 
a  crack  or  flaw  escape  him.  All  specials  and  small  pipe  are 
sounded  shortly  before  they  are  laid. 


LAYING  MAINS  233 

If,  because  of  obstructions,  the  pipe  cannot  be  lowered  at  the 
point  where  it  is  to  be  laid,  then  it  must  be  moved  along  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  by  successive  shifting  of  the  derrick;  or  if 
the  use  of  the  derrick  is  not  possible,  the  pipe  is  lowered  upon  a 
timber  truck  and  rolled  into  position  over  a  board  platform  laid 
on  the  trench  bottom. 

While  the  pipe  is  being  lowered,  there  are  two  pipe  men  in  the 
trench,  one  in  front  of  the  bell  end  of  the  length  being  lowered, 
and  one  just  back  of  the  bell  end  of  the  last  length  laid,  into 
which  he  guides  the  spigot  end  of  the  descending  length,  aided 
by  the  other  man,  who  grasps  its  bell  end.  When  the  bell  of  the 
descending  length  is  from  12  to  18  inches  above  the  blocking, 
and  its  spigot  end  has  entered  the  bell  end  of  the  last  length  laid, 
the  man  on  the  derrick  brake  releases  the  latter  and  the  length 
falls  free.  This  causes  it  to  strike  the  blocking  with  sufficient 
force  to  firmly  bed  the  latter.  The  length  is  once  more 
raised  by  the  derrick  to  just  clear  the  blocking,  and  is  then 
pushed  home  with  a  bar  by  the  man  at  its  bell  end.  The  foreman 
in  the  meantime  has  gotten  into  position  to  sight  along  the  line, 
and  if  the  length  is  in  line,  he  gives  the  signal  to  lower;  i*  not, 
he  indicates  the  shifting  required  before  lowering. 

The  length  is  prevented  from  getting  out  of  line  by  the  inser- 
tion of  blocks  and  wedges  between  the  pipe  and  each  side  of  the 
trench,  several  feet  back  of  the  bell.  These  blocks  are  not 
removed  until  earth  has  been  refilled  around  the  pipe  along  four 
or  five  feet  at  the  centre  of  the  length.  In  the  case  of  cement 
joints,  this  refilling  always  is  done  before  the  joint  is  made,  but 
in  the  case  of  lead  joints,  such  partial  refilling  need  not  be  done. 
Where  the  trench  is  at  all  unstable,  this  refilling  is  of  great 
importance. 

While  this  blocking  is  being  done,  the  men  who  removed  the 
skids  place  them  across  the  trench,  in  the  proper  position  for 
the  next  length,  and  roll  this  length  upon  the  skids  in  position  for 
lowering,  and  then  are  ready  to  assist  in  moving  the  derrick 
to  the  new  position.  From  this  point,  the  sequence  of  operations 
already  described  is  repeated. 

As  soon  as  the  length  is  wedged  into  position,  two  caulkers  start 
to  drive  in  wedges  on  the  front  block,  viz.,  the  one  under  the 
spijjot  end  of  the  length  just  laid,  and  raise  this  spigot  end  until 
it  is  central  in  the  bell  end  of  the  length  last  laid.  The  joint  is 
then  yarned.  (An  alternative  yarning  method  is  to  send  in  one 


234  MAIN  WORK 

strand  of  yarn  at  the  time  the  spigot  is  entered  in  the  bell.)  At 
this  time,  wedges  may  be  driven  on  the  back  block,  care  being 
taken  not  to  raise  the  length  off  this  block. 

In  laying  pipe,  it  often  is  necessary  to  remove  shoring.  This 
work  is  done  by  the  pipe  laying  gang,  and  may  require  the 
especial  attention  of  the  foreman  to  prevent  too  many  shores 
being  out  at  any  one  time,  or  too  great  delay  in  replacing  them, 
for  carelessness  in  these  matters  may  involve  damage  to  both 
work  and  workmen. 

SMALL  MAINS 

For  small  mains,  under  the  ordinary  city  conditions,  where 
each  job  is  only  one  or  two  blocks  in  length,  the  entire  main 
gang  will  not  exceed  18  men,  and  will  include  2  caulkers  and  4 
pipe  men. 

After  the  trench  has  been  completed,  or  nearly  so,  and  any 
special  connection  to  existing  mains  finished,  the  caulkers  and 
pipe  men  are  started  on  the  bell  holes.  Each  bell  hole  should 
extend  from  18  inches  in  front  of  the  bell  to  the  back  of  the  bell, 
and  should  have  a  clearance  of  6  inches  under  the  pipe  and  of  15 
inches  on  each  side.  Back  of  the  bell  hole,  a  notch  is  cut  in  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  for  the  block,  but  care  is  taken  to  make  the 
top  of  the  block  slightly  above  the  trench  surface. 

While  the  pipe  is  being  laid,  two  men  are  in  the  trench,  one  a 
caulker  at  the  spigot  end  of  the  length  to  be  laid,  with  a  spirit 
level  and  a  bundle  of  yarn  strips,  cut  to  the  proper  length,  and  the 
other  a  pipe  man  at  the  bell  end,  with  a  porter  (see  page  127). 
Three  pipe  men  are  on  the  bank,  and  one  inserts  a  porter  in  the 
spigot  end  of  the  length  as  it  lies  alongside  the  trench,  and  lifts  it. 
As  it  is  raised,  a  pipe  man  slides  over  the  spigot  end  a  loop  of 
rope  already  made  and  resting  against  the  end.  He  holds  one 
end  of  the  rope  and  passes  the  other  end  to  a  pipe  man  on  the 
other  side  of  the  trench.  The  two  men  take  up  the  slack  on  the 
rope,  and  then  the  man  who  raised  the  spigot  end  with  the  porter, 
goes  to  the  bell  end  and  pushes  the  pipe  into  the  trench.  The 
men  holding  the  rope  attached  to  the  spigot  end,  prevent  that 
end  from  dropping  all  the  way  to  the  bottom.  The  two  ends  of 
the  rope  are  then  taken  by  one  of  the  two  men,  and  he  straddles 
the  trench,  while  the  man  in  the  trench  at  the  bell  end  raises  this 
end  with  his  porter.  The  length  is  thus  suspended  only  a  few 
inches  above  the  trench  bottom.  The  spigot  end  is  caught  by 
the  caulker  in  the  trench,  who  wraps  a  piece  of  yarn  around  it  and 


LAYING  MAINS  235 

enters  it  into  the  bell  end  of  the  length  last  laid.  It  is  then 
pushed  home  by  the  man  at  the  bell  end.  Now  one  end  of  the 
rope  is  dropped,  and  after  entering  the  spigot  end,  the  caulker 
pulls  the  rope  from  around  the  pipe  and  goes  to  the  bell  end. 
Here  he  places  his  level  on  the  pipe  to  see  whether  there  is  the 
proper  fall.  If  not,  the  proper  level  is  obtained  by  varying  the 
blocking,  the  pipe  being  raised  by  the  pipe  man  in  the  trench, 
and  the  caulker  inserting  the  block  which  is  handed  to  him  by 
the  pipe  man  on  the  bank,  who  had  held  the  rope. 

In  the  meantime,  the  other  two  pipe  men  on  the  bank  have 
gotten  another  length  into  position  for  lowering,  with  the  rope 
under  it,  as  described  before.  The  second  caulker  is  following 
along,  driving  in  the  yarn  put  in  by  the  first  caulker.  When  all 
the  pipe  has  been  laid,  or  it  is  desired  to  begin  making  joints, 
the  foreman  straddles  the  trench  at  one  end  of  the  line,  and  lines 
up  the  main  by  the  aid  of  two  pipe  men  who  walk  along  in  the 
trench,  one  on  each  side  of  the  pipe,  each  with  a  long  bar. 

The  procedure  above  described  will  care  for  mains  as  large  as 
8-inch.  For  12 -inch,  there  is  needed  two  more  pipe  men  and 
another  rope  to  be  used  over  a  porter  inserted  in  the  bell  end. 
The  rope  at  the  spigot  end  always  will  require  two  men. 

There  will  be  instances  where  16-inch  pipe  may  be  laid  without 
a  derrick,  and  in  that  case  it  will  be  treated  just  as  12-inch,  with 
the  addition  of  two  more  men  to  the  pipe-laying  gang. 

CONNECTION  WORK 
CLOSING  GAPS 

The  procedure  followed  in  straight  pipe  laying  has  oeen  cover- 
ed pretty  well,  but  some  other  necessary  phases  of  main  laying  are 
still  to  be  described.  Every  new  main  is  connected  at  one  or 
both  ends  to  existing  mains,  and  often  neither  connection  is  made 
until  the  close  of  the  work,  and  involves,  therefore,  the  closing 
of  a  gap.  With  8-inch  and  smaller  pipe,  this  connection  can  be 
made  by  "folding  in"  instead  of  sleeving,  if  the  trench  is  free 
enough  of  obstructions  to  permit  whatever  deflection  from  a 
straight  line  is  required  for  the  "fold."  As  far  as  possible,  it 
should  be  known  before  laying  is  begun,  in  what  way  connection 
will  be  made  to  the  existing  main.  If  by  folding,  then  a  gap,  say, 
2  inches  more  than  the  laying  distance  of  two  lengths,  should 
be  left.  This  will  make  the  folding  a  little  easier,  and  by  dis- 
tributing the  two  inches  over  the  three  joints  making  up  the  fold, 
no  one  joint  will  be  very  far  from  home.  In  folding,  the  far  ends 


236  MAIN  WORK 

of  the  two  lengths  forming  the  fold  are  put  home  in  the  ends  of 
the  lines  to  be  connected,  and  then  the  adjacent  ends  of  the 
folding  lengths  raised  by  ropes  until  spigot  will  enter  bell,  when 
they  are  lowered  into  line,  and  the  joints  equalized,  if  necessary, 
as  indicated  by  each  of  the  bells  concerned  in  the  fold,  being 
equally  far  from  the  line  marked  on  its  engaging  spigot.  This  line 
shows  where  the  bell  should  come  if  the  spigot  is  home,  and  should 
be  marked  on  every  spigot  forming  part  of  a  fold  where  there  is 
over  half  an  inch  slack  to  be  taken  up  per  joint. 

For  pipe  12-inch  and  larger,  the  use  of  a  sleeve  usually  is  pref- 
erable to  folding.  Much  time  has  been  taken  in  attempts  to 
fold  large  pipe,  in  order  to  avoid  the  fancied  disadvantages  of  a 
sleeve,  and  to  save  one  joint,  and  often  all  the  time  spent  was  lost 
and  the  sleeve  resorted  to  after  all,  especially  if  the  foreman  tried 
to  work  without  any  slack.  A  sleeve  will  enable  a  spigot  piece 
to  be  used,  and  in  large  work,  where  a  stock  of  old  spigot  pieces 
may  be  on  hand,  the  gap  left  should  be  of  the  right  length  to  use 
up  one  of  these  pieces  without  further  cutting.  Where  a  pipe 
must  be  cut  for  the  gap,  its  length  should  be  at  least  one  inch  less 
than  the  distance  between  the  face  of  the  bell  and  the  end  of  the 
spigot  to  be  joined.  This  is  especially  important  in  very  large 
pipe  where  the  cut  may  break  out  a  little  jagged,  and  where  an 
attempt  to  make  the  cut  piece,  just  the  distance  between  bell 
and  spigot,  is  apt  to  result  in  a  piece  too  long  at  various  points, 
necessitating  a  tedious  cutting  off  of  these  projections.  Natu- 
rally, in  using  the  cut  piece,  the  more  uneven  end  is  put  into  the 
sleeve.  Before  the  cut  piece  is  lowered  into  the  trench,  the 
sleeve  is  placed  over  the  spigot  end  of  the  gap,  and  on  this  end, 
and  also  in  the  end  of  the  cut  piece  to  go  in  the  sleeve,  a  line  is 
marked  at  7  inches  back  from  the  end.  Then  the  cut  piece  is 
lowered  and  put  home  in  the  bell,  the  sleeve  is  slipped  forward 
over  the  gap  and  placed  so  that  each  face  is  equidistant  from  the 
marked  lines.  Such  a  sleeve  joint  involves  an  air  gap  of  at  least 
an  inch  longer  than  the  bell  depth.  Unless  the  sleeve  used  is 
provided  with  internal  ridges  to  serve  as  a  joint  backing,  this 
gap  should  be  covered  by  sheet  metal,  to  prevent  any  chance  of 
the  yarn  and  lead,  or  cement,  from  either  sleeve  joint  finding  their 
way  into  the  pipe. 

In  all  work  that  involves  an  open  pipe  end  where  gas  is 
being  held  back  by  bags  or  stoppers,  if  the  end  is  to  be  left 
untouched  for  over  five  minutes,  a  plug  of  some  kind  should  be 
inserted  as  an  additional  precaution  against  gas  escape. 


LAYING  MAINS  237 

CUTTING  PIPE  ON  BANK 

The  procedure  in  cutting  pipe  on  the  bank  is  as  follows: 
The  proper  length  is  marked  off  from  either  end  of  the  pipe  at 
four  points  at  least.  If  the  measurement  is  made  from  a  bell 
end,  the  necessary  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  bell  depth. 
The  pipe  then  is  rolled  until  a  line  has  been  drawn  completely 
around  it,  through  the  marked  points.  Before  cutting  begins, 
it  is  placed  on  skids,  one  under  the  end  farthest  from  the  cut,  and 
the  other  under  the  cut,  and  care  taken  to  see  that  it  stays  there. 
No  support  at  all  should  be  placed  under  the  short  end.  The 
skids  should  be  placed  as  solidly,  and  as  nearly  level,  as  possible, 
in  order  that  the  pipe  will  not  jar  out  of  position  during  cutting. 
Each  skid  should  be  long  enough  to  allow  at  least  one  and 
one-half  revolutions  of  the  pipe.  For  pipe  12-inch  and  smaller, 
one  man  holds  a  dog  chisel  (D,  Figure  26,  page  136),  one  strikes 
with  a  14-pound  sledge,  or  a  10-pound  striking  hammer  (D, 
Figure  19),  and  a  third  rolls  the  pipe.  For  larger  pipe,  there 
are  two  men  striking,  and  a  man  at  each  end  of  the  pipe  rolling 
it  and  keeping  it  in  proper  position.  In  every  case,  a  continuous 
cut  is  made  around  the  pipe,  and  is  a  comparatively  light  cut, 
not  more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  deep.  On  its  completion, 
the  cutting  continues  around  the  pipe  as  many  times  as  may  be 
necessary  until  separation  occurs.  With  proper  care,  a  clean 
cut  always  will  be  made.  If  for  any  reason  the  pipe  breaks 
off  irregularly,  and  the  result  is  one  or  more  places  over  2  inches 
shorter  than  desired,  another  cut  probably  will  be  required, 
unless  the  irregular  end  can  form  part  of  a  deep  sleeve  joint. 
Any  projections  beyond  the  desired  line  can  be  cut  off,  but 
comparatively  light  blows  must  be  used  to  prevent  cracking 
back  of  the  line.  The  eyes  of  the  workmen  should  be  protected 
by  goggles. 

CONNECTING  TO  EXISTING  MAIN 

At  times  the  new  main  will  be  connected  at  the  start  to  the 
existing  system,  and  laying  proceed  without  leaving  any  gap, 
gas  being  kept  back  by  bagging.  When  a  gap  is  left,  however, 
the  connection  and  any  necessary  alteration  to  the  existing  mam 
need  not  be  done  at  once,  and  as  such  alteration  usually  is  harder 
than  straight  pipe  laying,  some  foremen  have  a  bad  habit  of 
putting  it  off  till  the  end  of  the  job.  As  a  rule,  expense  will  l>e 
saved  by  doing  all  the  work  necessary  to  close  the  gap,  except 
the  actual  closure,  early  in  the  job.  It  already  has  been  noted, 


238 


MAIN  WORK 


on  page  230,  what  an  influence  the  connection  to  the  existing 
main  has  on  the  bottoming  of  the  trench. 

In  connecting  to  existing  mains,  the  Philadelphia  schedule  is  as 
follows : 

SCHEDULE  OF   MAIN  CONNECTIONS 

Size  of  Existing  Main 


Size  of 
New 
Main 

30-inch 

24-inch 

20-inch 

16-inch 

12-inch 

8-inch 

6-inch 

4-inch 

3-inch 

2  -inch 

Hat 
flange 

Hat 
flange 

Hub 
sleeve 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

4-inch 

" 

" 

8    " 
12    " 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

Insert 
branch 

" 

" 

20    " 
24    - 

30    " 

"' 

" 

As  is  seen,  the  idea  is  to  use  a  hat  flange  wherever  the  disparity 
between  the  connecting  mains  is  very  great,  and  the  largest  so 
large  that  a  hub  sleeve  would  involve  heavy  cost.  As  the  dis- 
parity and  the  size  of  the  largest  main  decrease,  hub  sleeves  are 
used,  and  then  ordinary  branches.  It  is  not  possible  always  to 
follow  the  schedule  strictly.  Occasions  arise  where  local  con- 
ditions force  the  use  of  a  hat  flange,  or  hub  sleeve,  because  of 
no  room  to  insert  a  branch. 

INSERTING   BRANCH 

The  absen  :e  of  the  needed  branch  from  the  existing  main,  may 
be  due  to  the  opening  of  a  street  not  provided  for  when  the  main 
was  laid.  What  branches  to  provide  has  been  considered  under 

Location  of  Branches,"  page  72.  In  mains  under  12-inch,  the 
insertion  of  a  branch  is  not  attended  with  any  special  difficulties, 
but  with  large  mams,  the  work  requires  considerable  care,  chiefly 
m  regard  to  the  cutting  of  the  pipe  and  the  bagging  off  of  gas  flow. 
1  he  insertion  of  a  branch  will  here  be  described  without,  however, 
any  detailed  description  of  bagging,  as  this  will  be  taken  up 
further  on  in  the  chapter. 


LAYING  MAINS  239 

The  location  of  the  branch  being  determined,  a  sufficient  length 
of  the  existing  main  is  uncovered  to  afford  room  for  bag  holes  on 
either  side  of  the  proposed  cut,  and  it  never  pays  to  skimp  in 
trench  width,  either.  Usually  there  is  not  much  leeway  in  the 
branch  location,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  cut  a  pipe  nearer  than 
one  foot  to  any  bell.  By  cutting  a  little  from  the  spigot  of  the 
branch,  and  sometimes  by  reversing  the  branch  fitting  end  for 
end,  a  desired  flexibility  of  dimensions  may  be  obtained.  When 
the  exact  location  of  the  branch  has  been  settled,  then  the  two 
points  of  cutting  are  marked  carefully  on  the  existing  main,  and 
the  pipe  cleaned  thoroughly  at  these  points.  The  length  of  the 
place  to  be  cut  out  should  be  about  an  inch  longer  than  the  over- 
all length  of  the  branch.  In  determining  the  points  for  the  cuts, 
the  effect  of  the  bell  depth  upon  the  location  of  the  branch  should 
not  be  overlooked. 

After  the  line  of  the  cut  has  been  chalked  on  the  pipe,  if  the 
latter  is  smaller  than  12-inch,  then,  by  means  of  a  diamond  point 
chisel  (A,  Figure  26),  a  cut  at  least  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
deep  is  made  across  the  top  semi-circumference.  This  cut  is 
deepened  by  repeated  going  over  with  the  diamond  point  until 
about  half  the  thickness  of  metal  is  left.  The  whole  cut  is  then 
gone  over  with  a  cold  chisel  (E,  Figure  26),  after  which  the  chisel 
is  placed  in  the  cut  at  the  top  and  driven  into  the  pipe.  It  is 
then  removed,  and  a  bursting  wedge  (F,  Figure  26)  inserted  and 
driven  home  until  the  pipe  cracks  completely  around  in  the  line 
of  the  cut.  The  same  performance  is  repeated  at  the  other  cut, 
and  the  cold  chisel  is  not  driven  into  the  pipe  until  both  cuts  are 
ready  for  such  driving.  In  this  way,  after  the  pipe  has  cracked 
at  the  first  cut,  and  is  soaped  up  temporarily,  nothing  remains 
to  be  done  at  the  second  cut  except  the  driving  of  the  cold  chisel 
and  of  the  bursting  wedge.  When  the  section  has  broken  clr.tr. 
it  is  hammered  out  of  line,  or  perhaps  it  may  be  necessary  to 
break  a  few  pieces  out  of  it  to  free  it.  Of  course,  before  the 
cold  chisel  has  been  driven  in,  bags  have  been  inserted  to  stop 
the  gas  flow. 

Where  the  main  to  be  cut  is  12-inch  or  larger,  the  difficulty  of 
making  a  crack  already  started  in  the  cut,  follow  around  the 
uncut  portion  of  the  pipe  increases  very  much  \\ith  the  size  of 
the  pipe,  and  in  no  class  of  main  work  is  it  more  advisable  to  bear 
in  mind  the  adage  of  "more  haste,  less  speed,"  than  in  cutting 
large  pipe  in  the  trench.  It  will  pay,  in  the  long  run.  to  c 
just  as  large  a  proportion  of  the  circumference  (at  least  three- 


240  MAIN  WORK 

quarters)  as  can  be  gotten  at.  The  cut  is  made  in  the  same  way 
as  just  described  for  small  pipe.  The  cold  chisel  .should  be 
driven  into  the  pipe  not  only  at  the  top,  but  in  several  other 
places  around  the  cut.  Two  bursting  wedges  should  be  used, 
and  great  care  taken  to  see  that  they  keep  in  the  plane  passing 
through  the  cut.  Otherwise  the  wedges  will  not  exert  a  pressure 
tending  to  crack  the  pipe  along  the  cut,  but  there  will  be  great 
danger  that  they  will  cause  cracks  to  run  into  the  main  on  either 
side  of  the  cut.  If  the  cutting  has  been  done  properly,  the  main 
will  crack  slowly  all  around  the  circumference  as  the  wedges 
are  driven  in. 

Where  the  pipe  is  24-inch  and  larger,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
make  three  cuts,  the  third  cut  being  about  one  foot  from  one  of 
the  other  cuts.  When  only  two  cuts  are  made,  and  the  length  of 
the  pipe  cut  out  is  considerable,  it  happens  sometimes  that  even 
after  the  section  is  cracked  around  the  circumference  at  both 
cuts,  it  remains  wedged  in  the  line  of  main,  and  requires  much 
work  to  get  out.  The  reason  for  this  is  given  in  the  next  para- 
graph. Under  these  conditions,  where  there  is  a  third  cut,  the 
bursting  wedges  are  driven  into  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 
cracks  each  side  of  the  cut,  and  to  break  off  portions  of  the  pipe. 
After  that,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  remove  the  first  section, 
and  then  the  rest  of  the  cut-out  section. 

In  cutting  a  line  laid  with  lead  joints,  the  pressure  brought  to 
bear  by  the  bursting  wedges  seems  sufficient  to  make  the  pipe 
take  up  at  the  joints  adjacent  to  the  cut,  and  thus  the  desired 
separation  of  the  edges  of  the  cut  is  obtained.  With  cement 
joints  the  strength  of  the  joints  is  too  great,  apparently,  to  be 
overcome,  and^so  if  the  pipe  being  cut  is  under  compression,  or,  in 
other  words,  is  at  a  higher  temperature  than  when  the  joints 
were  made,  the  desired  separation  at  the  cut  will  not  be  obtained 
by  the  wedges,  and  in  that  case  it  is  necessary  to  cut  around  the 
entire  circumference  with  diamond  points  and  cold  chisels,  and 
dispense  with  bursting  wedges  entirely. 

In  every  case,  the  pipe  should  be  supported  rigidly  at  each  cut 
by  blocking.  _  Otherwise,  there  will  be  great  danger  of  cracks 
being  caused  in  the  pipe  on  either  side  of  the  cut-out  section. 
If  one  of  the  cuts,  say  A,  comes  back  of  a  bell  and  nearer  than 
a  foot  to  it,  and  the  other,  say  B,  in  front  of  a  bell,  then  it  is 
advisable  to  force  the  wedges  into  A  and  sledge  away  the 
bell  portion  before  driving  the  wedges  into  B.  This  program 


LAYING  MAINS  241 

tends  to  give  a  cleaner  break  at   B  than  otherwise  would  be 
possible,  but  is  applicable  only  when  A  is  near  a  bell. 

The  process  of  inserting  a  branch  after  the  section  has  been 
cut  out,  amounts  to  closing  a  sleeve  gap,  and  has  already  been 
described.  With  large  pipe,  if  a  cut  pipe  is  used  to  extend  from 
any  bell  of  the  branch,  the  cut  end  should  be  inserted  in  the 
branch  for  ease  of  withdrawal,  as  compared  to  an  end  with  a 
spigot  head,  in  case  unforeseen  developments  should  necessitate 
a  change  in  the  branch.  The  neglect  of  this  precaution  added 
greatly  to  the  task  of  replacing  a  tee  with  a  cross  in  a  36-inch 
main. 

PUTTING  ON  HUB  SPLIT  SLEEVE 

When  the  connection  to  the  existing  main  is  made  by  the  use 
of  a  hub  split  sleeve,  that  portion  of  the  pipe  to  be  covered  by 
the  sleeve  is  cleaned  thoroughly,  generally  with  foundry  brushes. 
Then  the  two  pieces  of  the  sleeve  are  bolted  loosely  around  the 
main,  to  see  first  whether  the  distance  between  outside  of  main 
and  inside  of  sleeve  is  sufficient  for  jointing  room,  and  second,  to 
mark  on  the  main  the  location  of  the  circular  cut.  The  sleeve 
is  then  removed  and  the  pipe  diamond  pointed  along  the  marked 
circle,  beginning  at  the  top.  The  cut  is  then  gone  over  with  a 
cold  chisel,  going  into  the  pipe,  except  for  2  inches  at  the  top, 
where  a  lip  is  left  to  hold  in  place  the  piece  being  cut  out.  A 
soaped  wooden  plug,  of  proper  size  to  fill  the  opening  hi  the  main, 
is  kept  on  hand  for  use  in  case  the  piece  drops  out  unexpectedly. 

A  ring  of  some  soft  material,  yarn,  or  wire-covered  rubber 
hose,  is  laid  around  the  outside  of  the  cut,  and  the  sleeve  placed 
in  position  on  the  main  and  pressing  on  the  ring,  which  forms  a 
more  or  less  gas-tight  joint,  and  also  prevents  any  jointing 
material  from  either  end  of  the  sleeve  getting  into  the  pipe.  The 
flanges  of  each  half  sleeve,  if  planed,  are  coated  with  white  lead, 
but  if  rough,  a  layer  of  millboard  softened  in  warm  water,  also  is 
placed  between  the  two  flanges.  All  of  the  bolts  are  drawn  up 
hand- tight  and  then  tightened  by  wrench,  no  two  bolts  on  the 
same  flange  being  tightened  in  succession,  but  the  progress  being 
from  one  end  of  the  sleeve  to  the  other,  alternating  from  side 
to  side.  The  sleeve  must  be  blocked  in  position  before  starting 
to  make  the  joint. 

In  making  up  the  joints  at  each  end  of  the  sleeve,  if  the  latter 
is  provided  with  internal  ridges,  the  work  is  similar  to  any  ordi- 
nary joint.  If  there  are  no  ridges,  care  must  be  taken,  if  lead 


242  MAIN  WORK 

is  being  used,  to  be  sure  that  the  yarning  is  so  well  done  that 
lead  cannot  get  back  past  the  yarn  into  the  sleeve.  If  it  does,  a 
mispour  may  result.  If  cement  is  being  used,  where  there  are  no 
ridges,  yarn  is  introduced  from  one  end  for  about  4  inches  into 
the  lower  half  of  the  sleeve.  Then  cement  is  put  in  from  the 
other  end  of  the  sleeve  until  the  yarn  is  reached.  As  the  level 
of  the  cement  rises,  more  yarn  goes  in,  until  finally  the  sleeve 
is  filled  from  the  far  end.  The  joint  is  driven  from  that  end, 
and  then  cement  introduced  at  the  other  end  to  fill  the  4-inch 
space.  This  cement  is  driven,  and  both  joints  finished  in  the 
usual  way. 

The  actual  sequence  of  events  is  as  follows:  When  the  sleeve 
is  bolted  tight,  a  short  piece  of  pipe,  or  a  bend  if  necessary,  is 
inserted  in  the  hub  of  the  sleeve.  Then  enough  cement  is  put 
into  the  sleeve  and  the  hub  joint  to  make  them  gas  tight.  If  a 
straight  piece  is  in  the  hub  outlet,  a  wooden  plug  is  placed  in  the 
end  of  this  piece.  This  plug  is  drilled  to  allow  the  passage  of  an 
iron  rod,  and  with  the  latter,  the  disc  piece  is  knocked  into  the 
main.  The  rod  is  then  withdrawn,  the  hole  in  the  plug  soaped 
up,  and  the  sleeve  and  hub  joints  finished.  If  a  bend  is  in  the 
hub  outlet,  the  former  has  been  drilled  previously  by  a  hole  so 
placed  that  a  rod  through  it  will  knock  out  the  disc  piece.  In 
the  bend,  this  hole,  and  in  the  straight  piece,  a  specially  drilled 
hole  serves  for  a  bag  hole  when  more  pipe  is  laid. 

PLACING  HAT  FLANGE 

After  cleaning  the  main  at  the  desired  position,  the  hat  flange  is 
tried  for  fit,  it  being  desirable  that  there  should  be  "iron  to  iron" 
contact  with  the  pipe,  especially  at  the  bolt  holes  and  around  the 
edge  of  the  opening.  By  covering  the  pipe  with  red  lead  and 
slightly  moving  the  hat  flange,  the  high  points  on  the  latter  are 
indicated  and  chiselled  off.  When  the  hat  flange  is  considered  a 
sufficiently  good  fit,  it  is  held  in  position,  the  mark  made  for  the 
circular  cut  in  the  main,  and  the  location  of  the  tap  bolt  holes 
accurately  centred  by  a  punch  provided  with  a  bushing  which 
just  fits  the  bolt  holes.  Then  the  hat  flange  is  removed,  and  the 
circular  cut  in  the  main  made  just  as  described  for  the  hub  sleeve. 
It  is  advisable  to  make  this  cut  before  the  bolt  holes  are  drilled, 
as  otherwise  there  is  danger  of  a  crack  extending  between  the  cut 
and  a  hole,  under  the  influence  of  the  constant  hammering  while 
cutting. 

A  hole  is  drilled  and  tapped,  and  into  it  is  bolted  the  "dead 
man",  or  "old  man"  (B,  Figure  29,  page  142).  From  this 


LAYING  MAINS  243 

position,  adjoining  bolt  holes  are  in  succession  drilled  and  tap- 
ped out  for  the  stud  bolts,  soap  or  clay  being  used  to  plug  the 
holes  as  made,  the  "old  man"  being  moved  into  new  holes  as 
found  necessary  to  complete  the  work. 

The  face  of  the  flange  is  covered  with  white  lead,  over  which 
a  linen  gasket,  previously  soaked  in  linseed  oil,  is  placed,  and  the 
flange  screwed  down  first  hand-tight,  and  then  with  a  wrench, 
tightening  in  diagonal  succession.  Around  each  bolt  is  a  piece 
of  lamp  wick.  The  material  used  between  flange  and  pipe  will  vary 
with  the  individual  using  it.  Millboard,  canvas,  lead,  cement, 
are  all  available.  In  general,  the  more  nearly  iron  to  iron  the 
joint,  the  better. 

The  details  of  inserting  an  outlet  into  the  hub  of  the  hat  flange 
and  of  removing  the  disc  from  the  main  are  exactly  similar  to 
those  already  described  for  the  hub  sleeve. 

In  placing  hat  flanges,  a  number  of  tools  are  needed  which  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  used  for  any  other  kind  of  main  work,  and  for  this 
reason,  and  also  to  ensure  on  hat  flange  work  the  presence  of  the 
necessary  equipment,  it  is  advisable  to  have  this  equipment  con- 
tained in  a  special  box,  which  is  delivered  on  the  work  when 
required.     The  box  is  8|  by  8£  inches  by  2  feet  7  inches  long,  and 
contains  the  following  equipment: 
2  6-inch  Cold  Chisels, 
2  Twist  Drills,  f|  and  fi-inch,  with  taper  shanks, 

1  12-inch  Flat  Bastard  File, 

2  Syphon  Gauges, 

1^-lb.  Ball  Pein  Machinist's  Hammer, 
"Old  Man"  and  attachments, 
Diamond  Points, 
Center  Punch,  ordinary, 

"  with  bushing  for  centering, 

Boiler  Ratchet,  with  11-inch  handle, 

3  Pipe  Reamers,  f ,  £  and  f-inch, 

2  f-inch  Bolt  Taps,  with  square  shanks, 
1  Hexagon  Cap  Screw  Wrench,  single  head. 

JOINTS 

YARNING 

For  pipe  no  larger  than  16-inch,  one  caulker  only  is  needed  to 
yarn  a  joint.  The  yarn  is  cut  from  1*  to  2  inches  longer  than  the 
outside  circumference  of  the  pipe  (and  it  is  not  good  practice  to 


244  MAIN  WORK 

use  at  any  time,  any  length  of  yarn  shorter  than  the  outside 
circumference),  as  determined  by  taking  one  end  of  the  yarn  from 
the  bale  and  passing  it  around  the  pipe.  After  a  number  of 
pieces  have  been  measured  in  this  way  and  cut  from  the  bale,  a 
sufficient  number  of  strands  are  taken  from  these  pieces,  to 
make,  when  twisted  together,  a  rope  large  enough  to  fill  solidly, 
when  compressed  by  the  yarning  iron  (Figure  39,  page  158),  the 
radial  space  between  spigot  and  bell.  The  proper  number  of 
strands  for  the  size  pipe  being  laid,  having  been  determined  and 
twisted  together,  one  end  of  the  rope  so  formed  is  tacked  in  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  joint  by  the  yarning  iron  and  pushed  at 
least  halfway  in.  The  balance  of  the  rope  is  then  stretched 
around  the  pipe,  being  kept  carefully  in  its  twisted  state,  and 
driven  back  halfway.  This  method  of  working  brings  the 
caulker  around  to  the  right-hand  side  where  the  yarn  was 
entered  first,  and  he  continues  around  a  second  time,  driving  the 
yarn  home  this  time.  In  thus  making  two  circuits  of  the  pipe 
in  yarning,  the  yarn  remains  at  all  times  more  nearly  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  pipe,  and  there  is  little  danger  of 
disturbing  the  lap. 

Where  cement  joints  are  used,  only  enough  depth  of  yarn  is 
needed  to  support  the  weight  of  the  spigot  end  and  keep  it  central 
in  the  bell  without  any  chance  of  sagging  while  the  cement  is 
setting.  Any  more  than  this  amount  is  occupying,  uselessly, 
space  needed  for  requisite  depth  of  cement.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  yarn  be  driven  very  solidly.  Also  for  cement  joints,  the 
front  yarn  is  cut  and  prepared  for  the  drivers,  and  laid  across  the 
pipe  against  the  face  of  each  bell  when  back  yarn  is  driven,  or  at 
any  time  after  the  pipe  is  lined  up.  This  method  saves  the 
drivers  from  carrying  yarn  from  joint  -to  joint,  it  renders  uniform 
the  number  of  strands  used,  not  leaving  this  to  the  driver's 
discretion,  and  it  prevents  dirt  getting  into  the  joint. 

Where  lead  joints  are  used,  the  depth  of  yarn  is  determined 
by  the  depth  of  the  bell,  and  of  the  lead  required.  Each  layer 
needed  is  put  in  as  was  the  first,  but  a  new  starting  point  is 
taken,  so  that  the  lap  of  one  layer  does  not  come  above  that  of  a 
preceding  layer.  The  most  satisfactory  way  to  ensure  the 
proper  depth  of  yarn  is  to  measure  back  from  the  driving  point 
on  each  yarning  iron  (Figure  37,  page  155),  the  depth  of  lead 
desired,  and  stop  yarning  when  the  point  is  touching  the  yarn 
and  the  mark  is  just  hidden. 


LAYING  MAINS 


245 


Mains  12-inch  and  larger,  being  blocked  under  the  spigot  end 
as  well  as  the  bell  end,  do  not  depend  on  the  yarn  to  hold  the 
spigot  central  in  the  bell,  and,  therefore,  under  these  conditions, 
for  cement  joints  only  enough  yarn  is  needed  to  prevent  the 
cement  getting  inside  the  pipe. 

For  mains  over  16-inch,  two  men  are  needed  to  yarn  a  joint. 
The  yarn  is  inserted  and  driven  just  as  described  for  the  small 
mains,  except  that  each  man  works  alternately  on  his  half  of  the 
joint  until  the  yarn  is  completely  back.  Then  both  men  drive 
at  the  same  time  until  the  yarn  is  compressed  properly. 

Jute  yarn  of  a  middling  quality  should  be  used,  with  fibres 
long  enough  to  form  strands  that  will  twist  properly.  In  this 
yarn  a  certain  amount  of  oil  will  be  present,  but  careful  buying 
will  eliminate  any  bales  with  an  excessive  amount.  Tarred  yarn 
should  be  avoided,  as  the  tar  squeezes  out  under  driving  and 
deposits  a  film  on  the  iron  surfaces,  which  is  detrimental  to  the 
tightness  of  lead  or  cement.  For  cement  joints,  some  men  use 
yarn  soaked  in  grout,  but  the  general  preference  is  for  dry  yarn, 
both  at  the  back  of  the  bell  and  for  driving,  as  it  is  considered 
advantageous  to  soak  up  some  of  the  water  squeezed  out  of  the 
cement  by  driving. 

The  exact  weight  of  yarn  required  per  joint  will  vary  not  only 
with  the  depth  of  yarn  used,  but  also  with  the  tightness  of  the 
driving.  The  schedules  below  represent  New  York  practice 
with  cast  lead  joints,  and  Philadelphia  practice  with  cement 
joints: 


New  York  City 

Philadelphia 

Size  of 
Main 

Depth  of 
Yarn 
(Inches) 

Weight  of 
Yarn 
(Ounces) 

Depth  of 
Back  Yarn 
(Inches) 

Weight  of 
All  Yarn 
(Ounces) 

4-inch 

1 

6.0 

6 

2 

2.0 

J 

7.5 

8 

2 

2.5 

J 

9.0 

10 

2 

3.0 

12 

2 

3.5 

i 

12.0 

16 

1| 

4.0 

17.0 

20 

r. 

4.5 

f 

30.0  (5"  bells) 

24 
30 

2 

2 

5.0 
6.5 

i 

50.0  (7'  bell*) 

36 

2 

7.0 

48 

2i 

8.0 

246  MAIN  WORK 

LEAD  JOINTS 

A  discussion  of  the  relative  advantages  of  a  lead,  as  compared 
with  a  cement,  joint  will  be  given  when  describing  the  latter  joint. 

Although  depths  of  bells  have  been  more  or  less  standardized, 
there  is  much  variation  in  the  depths  of  lead  used  by  different 
companies  for  the  same  sizes  of  pipe.  Below  is  given  the 
Philadelphia  schedule  for  sizes  to  30-inch  inclusive,  and  the  New 
York  schedule  for  36-  and  48-inch : 

Size  of  Alain    4"      6"        8"      12"        16"       20"        24"       30"       36"         48" 
Depth  of 

Lead  1|*     1!"       2"      2\"        2\"       1\"       2f*        3"        3£"         3|" 

Approximate 

Weight      6lbs.  9  His.  12  Ibs.  22  Ibs.  36  Ibs.  50  Ibs.  62  Ibs.  75  Ibs.  124  Ibs.  165 Ibs. 

In  considering  any  depths  of  lead,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  compression  due  to  the  most  vigorous  caulking  does  not 
extend  deeper  than  about  f-inch  below  the  surface  of  the  joint. 

While  the  pipe  is  being  laid  and  yarned,  one  pipe  man  has  been 
assigned  the  job  of  building  a  fire  under  the  lead  pot  (A,  Figure  33, 
page  149),  and  having  the  lead  hot  when  needed.  He  also  brings 
to  the  proper  consistency,  the  red  clay  used  for  the  pouring  gate. 
The  first  step  taken  to  pour  a  joint  is  when  a  pipe  man  puts  on  the 
rubber  band  (A,  Figure  36,  page  153),  being  careful  to  drive  it 
back  closely  against  the  face  of  the  bell  while  tightening  it.  At 
the  top,  a  pouring  gate  is  made  by  the  use  of  red  clay,  which 
also  is  smeared  around  the  band  where  it  touches  the  bell.  The 
larger  the  pipe,  the  more  important  become  all  steps  taken  to 
ensure  the  tightness  of  the  band  and  prevent  any  leakage  of  lead. 

For  mains  as  large  as  16-inch,  the  man  who  puts  on  the  band 
also  pours  the  joint.  He  receives  the  ladle  (A,  Figure  35,  page 
152)  or,  for  16-inch,  the  pot  (C,  Figure  35),  from  the  man  in 
charge  of  the  lead  pot.  For  20-inch  and  larger,  two  men  are 
required  to  carry  the  pouring  pot  from  the  lead  furnace  (B,  Figure 
33)  to  the  trench.  One  of  these  men  lowers  the  pot  with  a 
rope  and  hook  (B,  Figure  35)  and  holds  the  weight,  while  the 
man  who  put  on  the  band  takes  a  hook  (D,  Figure  35)  and  pours 
the  pot.  The  other  man  goes  back  to  the  lead  pot,  fills  a  hand 
ladle,  and  stands  with  it  resting  on  the  pot,  ready  to  bring  it 
quickly  if  needed. 

On  30-inch  work,  two  men  are  assigned  to  place  the  band,  and 
one  of  these  men  stands  alongside  the  pipe  while  the  joint  is 
being  poured,  with  clay  in  hand,  ready  to  stop  any  leakage  of 
lead.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  use  more  than  one  ladle,  or  pot, 


LAYING  MAINS  247 

for  a  joint,  the  interval  between  pourings  should  be  as  short  as 
possible.  If  for  any  reason  a  joint  should  not  be  fully  run,  and 
the  lack  occurs  in  the  upper  half,  the  surface  of  the  lacking 
portion  may  be  roughened,  a  gate  made  around  it,  and  very 
hot  lead  poured.  If  the  lower  half  of  the  joint  is  lacking,  it 
probably  will  be  better  to  cut  out  the  joint  and  repour. 

When  the  joint  has  been  poured,  a  short  interval  is  allowed  for 
cooling,  and  then  the  band  is  removed  and  placed  on  the  next 
bell.  The  joint  is  now  ready  for  caulking,  and  for  mains  up  to 
and  including  16-inch,  there  is  but  one  caulker  to  a  joint.  A 
caulker  should  drive  five  6-inch  joints  each  hour,  four  8-inch, 
three  10-inch,  two  and  one-half  12-inch,  or  two  16-inch,  the  lineal 
inches  of  lead  as  measured  on  the  circumference  being  about  the 
same  in  each  case.  For  20-inch  and  larger  pipe,  two  men  are  re- 
quired to  a  joint,  and  the  awkward  position  in  which  some  of  their 
work  must  be  done  does  not  allow  the  results  obtained  on  the 
small  pipe,  so  that  for  two  men  two  20-inch  joints,  one  and  one- 
half  24-inch  or  one  30-inch  will  be  about  the  hourly  result. 

In  caulking,  the  tools  shown  in  Figure  37  are  used.  The  joint 
is  first  chiseled  all  around  between  the  lead  and  the  spigot,  no 
scale,  or  fillet  of  lead,  being  left  against  the  iron.  When  this 
chiseling  has  been  done,  except  at  the  gate,  the  latter  should  be 
cut  off,  but  far  enough  from  the  face  of  the  bell  to  allow 
sufficient  lead  for  caulking.  After  chiseling  at  the  gate,  the 
caulker  begins  with  his  smallest  tool  and  encircles  the  joint. 
He  then  repeats  this  performance  with  the  next  largest  tool,  and 
so  on  until  he  has  used  the  largest  tool  possible  for  the  size  of 
pipe  being  laid.  When  this  is  done,  the  joint  is  completely 
faced,  the  lead  will  be  driven  about  flush  with  the  face  of  the  bell, 
and  the  joint  could  in  ordinary  practice  be  considered  finished. 
Some  experiments  made  in  Philadelphia  in  1901  showed,  how- 
ever, so  much  greater  resistance  to  strains  brought  to  bear  on 
joints  by  deflection  and  tension  when  these  joints  had  been 
caulked  twice,  than  when  caulked  only  once  in  the  usual  way,  that 
it  is  the  Philadelphia  practice  to  caulk  all  joints  twice.  In  other 
words,  after  the  joint  has  been  caulked  as  just  described,  each 
caulking  tool  is  again  used.  Of  course,  this  almost  doubles  the 
cost  of  caulking,  which,  however,  due  to  the  almost  exclusive 
use  of  cement  joints,  is  not  a  large  item  in  Philadelphia. 

Each  caulker  should  be  provided  with  a  steel  stamp,  contain- 
ing a  distinctive  number  or  letter,  and  with  this  should  stamp 
each  joint  made  by  him.  Such  identification  of  work  has  a 


248  MAIN  WORK 

moral  effect  very  favorable  to  good  results,  as  it  enables  the 
responsibility  for  a  leaking  joint  to  be  placed  against  the  original 
caulker. 

The  number  of  caulkers  spoken  of  in  this  and  preceding  chap- 
ters as  forming  part  of  main  laying  gangs,  has  been  based  on 
cement  joints,  and  more  will  be  required  where  lead  joints  are 
made,  due  to  the  longer  time  required  for  caulking  lead,  as 
compared  with  stuffing  cement. 

CEMENT  JOINTS 

GENERAL 

The  substitution  of  cement  for  lead  as  a  jointing  material  for 
bell  and  spigot  cast  iron  pipe  is  almost  entirely  a  development  of 
this  century,  but  in  that  time  many  thousands  of  cement 
joints  have  been  made,  with  such  favorable  results  on  the  score 
of  tightness  and  of  economy  in  labor  and  material,  as  compared 
with  lead,  that  the  gas  engineer  using  lead  for  mains  under 
16-inch  has  the  burden  of  proof  against  him.  In  Philadelphia, 
in  the  last  14  years,  460  miles  of  cement  joints  in  these  sizes, 
have  been  laid,  and  the  number  of  leaking  joints  is  about  one  in 
every  two  miles. 

For  some  time  after  the  adoption  of  cement  for  most  of  the 
small  main  work  in  Philadelphia,  lead  was  still  used  for  small 
mains  laid  in  the  congested  districts,  and  for  all  large  mains. 
It  was  thought  that  as  the  tendency  of  8-inch  or  smaller  pipe 
laid  with  cement,  was  to  break  across  the  pipe,  rather  than  at 
the  joint  when  under  a  stress,  especially  one  due  to  contraction, 
it  was  safer  to  use  lead  in  all  locations  where  other  structures, 
especially  conduits,  abounded,  as  it  seemed  preferable  under 
those  conditions  to  have  a  number  of  small  leaks  in  lead  joints, 
than  one  leak  which  might  quickly  fill  conduits  and  manholes 
with  an  explosive  mixture.  Cement  joints  have  caused  so  few 
broken  mains,  however,  that  the  tendency  now  is  to  use  cement 
joints  in  all  small  mains,  except  possibly  where  the  cover  is  very 
great,  or  where  the  renewal  of  a  joint  would  prove  very  trouble- 
some. One  advantage  of  a  lead  joint  is,  of  course,  that  if  it 
leaks,  simple  re-caulking  usually  will  effect  a  cure,  while  the 
cement  joint  must  be  cut  out  entirely,  and  the  conditions  under 
wrhich  the  joint  must  be  re-made  are  not  as  favorable  for  a  tight 
joint  as  if  the  pipe  was  being  laid  for  the  first  time.  Dirt  is  apt 
to  get  into  the  joint,  and  perfect  adhesion  may  not  be  obtained 
with  particles  of  the  old  cement  left  clinging  to  the  pipe.  It  is 


LAYING  MAINS  249 

also  quite  evident  that  if  the  space  surrounding  the  defective 
joint  is  rather  confined,  the  man  cutting  out  the  joint  may  suffer 
from  the  effects  of  gas.  For  all  the  above  reasons,  therefore, 
lead  joints  are  preferable  in  all  special  locations  where  future 
joint  trouble  is  expected.  Among  these  would  be  places  where 
a  good  foundation  may  not  be  secured,  and,  therefore,  more  or 
less  settlement  is  anticipated. 

The  above  is  based  on  the  idea  that  a  leaking  cement  joint  is 
to  be  replaced  by  a  second  cement  joint.  With  the  advent  of 
lead  wool,  however,  it  is  possible  to  cut  out  but  1£  inches  of 
cement  and  make  a  tight  joint  by  filling  this  space  with  lead 
wool.  This  new  practice  very  much  lessens  the  objections  to  the 
use  of  cement  joints  under  the  conditions  just  considered. 

To  return  to  the  history  of  Philadelphia's  experience  with 
cement  joints.  At  first  it  was  not  believed  that  cement  joints 
could  be  made  successfully  for  pipe  20-inch  and  larger.  When 
this  problem  apparently  was  solved,  as  will  be  described  later  on, 
and  the  practice  of  using  cement  joints  on  large  mains  was 
adopted,  it  was  still  thought  necessary  to  put  in  a  lead  joint  at 
intervals  to  provide  for  expansion  and  contraction.  It  was 
believed  that  the  joint  might  prove  stronger  than  the  pipe,  as  is 
generally  true  for  pipe  8-inch  and  smaller,  and  hence,  under 
severe  contraction,  a  broken  main  might  result.  Naturally,  a 
broken  30-inch  main  was  not  to  be  desired.  Therefore,  in  laying 
a  line  of  30-inch  and  of  20-inch  in  1902,  lead  was  used  for  every 
eighth  joint.  A  comparison  of  the  distance  apart  of  two  marked 
points  on  either  side  of  a  lead  joint  in  the  30-inch  line,  as  between 
August  and  January,  showed  that  the  total  movement  could  be 
accounted  for  by  the  contraction  in  only  24  feet  of  pipe.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  the  grip  of  the  frozen  ground  against  the 
pipe  is  much  stronger  than  any  stress  due  to  temperature.  In 
any  event,  as  there  were  no  cases  of  broken  30-inch  or  20-inch 
mains,  but  only  a  few  leaky  cement  joints,  two  facts  were  con- 
sidered proven:  first,  that  an  expansion  joint  was  of  no  use, 
second,  that  in  a  large  main,  the  joint  was  the  weakest  point. 
This  last  conclusion  seemed  to  remove  the  final  objection  to 
using  cement  joints  on  large  pipe,  and  until  1914  cement  joints 
were  used  generally  on  all  main  work  except  some  36-inch  and 
48-inch  lines.  In  that  year,  however,  it  was  decided  that  in 
view  of  the  large  mileage  of  big  pipe  already  under  ground  with 
cement  joints,  together  with  the  tendency  of  these  joints  to 
develop  leaks  after  being  tight  for  a  long  time,  it  would  be  more 


250  MAIN  WORK 

conservative  to  abandon  cement  for  joints  16-inch  and  larger,  at 
least  for  a  few  years,  until  it  was  found  out  whether  the  gradually 
increasing  number  of  large  joint  leaks  would  continue  until  all 
the  cement  joints  had  been  replaced.  At  the  end  of  1915,  the 
record  showed  a  total  of  1587  leaks  in  31  miles  of  16-,  20-, 
and  30-inch  pipe,  and  this  still  left  a  margin  of  saving  as  compared 
with  the  first  use  of  lead  wool  or  even  cast  lead. 

MATERIAL 

Undoubtedly,  Portland  cement  has  been  used  almost  exclu- 
sively for  joint  work,  even  in  the  early  days  when  natural  cement 
was  so  much  cheaper.  The  material  cost  is,  however,  so  small 
that  few  people  felt  justified  in  running  the  expensive  risk  of 
leaking  joints  through  the  use  of  natural  cement,  generally 
comparing  unfavorably  with  Portland  in  fineness  and  uniformity 
of  composition.  In  Philadelphia,  when  starting  cement  joint 
work  in  1899,  the  Dyckerhoff  brand  was  used  and  proved  gen- 
erally satisfactory,  except  that  at  times  there  were  complaints 
of  lack  of  fineness.  However,  in  1903,  American  Portland 
cements  began  to  challenge  attention,  and  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  test  various  brands  to  see  whether  one  acceptable 
for  cement  work  could  not  be  found  and  in  this  way  not  only 
save  money,  but  also  avoid  certain  inconveniences  inevitable 
in  buying  an  imported  article.  As  a  result  of  these  tests, 
American  brands  have  been  used  since  1903. 

Each  brand  was  tested: 

First.  For  solidity  under  driving.  This  test  consisted  in 
noting  whether  the  cement  seemed  to  rock,  i.  e.,  act  more  or  less 
like  quicksand  when  being  driven.  In  driving  a  joint,  it  is  quite 
desirable  that  the  cement  does  not  rock,  but  stays  where  put, 
so  that  in  driving  cement  home  at  one  part  of  the  joint  there  is 
no  lateral  displacement,  resulting  in  the  cement  rising  up  at 
other  parts  of  the  joint. 

Second.  For  activity.  A  very  quick  setting  cement  would 
be  objectionable,  especially  for  large  mains  where  the  joints  take 
some  time  to  make. 

Third.  For  soundness.  The  soundness  was  tested  in  several 
ways.  Freedom  from  checking  or  cracking  was  determined  by  a 
standard  pat  test.  Expansion  was  judged  by  pouring  grout 
into  some  bottles,  and  ramming  stiff  cement  into  other  bottles, 
and  noting  which  bottles  broke  after  setting.  Where  expansion 
is  not  due  to  impurities,  it  is  an  advantage  for  joint  makers. 
Into  some  of  the  bottles,  red  ink  was  poured  on  top  of  the 


LAYING  MAINS  251 

cement.  If  any  contraction  occurred,  the  ink  would  find  its  way 
between  the  cement  and  the  glass. 

Fourth.  For  fineness.  This  is  a  standard  test  and  was  made 
with  a  No.  80  sieve. 

Fifth.  For  adhesion.  In  this  test  a  split  sleeve  was  clamped 
around  a  pipe,  and  by  using  grease  on  half  of  the  pipe,  a  joint 
was  obtained  between  the  pipe  and  one  piece  of  the  sleeve  only. 
Weights  were  suspended  from  this  piece  until  it  broke  away  from 
the  pipe.  The  strength  of  a  cement  joint  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions is  measured  by  the  adhesion  of  the  cement  to  the  iron  under 
a  strain  acting  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  pipe. 

MAKING 

The  pipe  having  been  yarned,  and  well  secured  from  any 
possible  movement  by  blocking  it  beneath  and  by  refilled  earth 
for  three  or  four  feet  along  the  middle  of  each  length,  is  now 
ready  for  the  joint  making  process.  On  small  mains  the  joint 
gang  consists  of  1  mixer,  1  passer,  1  packer  and  2  drivers.  The 
mixer  has  an  iron  wheelbarrow  (Figure  54,  page  1 79) ,  a  large  pan, 
or  a  cement  mixing  board  (B,  Figure  38,  page  156),  measures  for 
cement  and  water,  and  a  small  short-handled  hoe  (C,  Figure  38). 
The  passer  has  a  trowel  (B,  Figure  36)  and  a  pan,  or  a  mixing 
board.  The  passer  and  packer  wear  rubber  gloves,  (D,  Figure 
36).  The  drivers  have  a  caulking  hammer  and  a  cement 
caulking  tool  (Figure  39). 

The  surface  of  the  bell  and  of  the  spigot  included  in  the  joint 
have  been  very  carefully  cleaned  before  the  pipe  is  laid.  For 
this  purpose  a  wire  brush,  and  perhaps  gasoline,  have  been  used 
at  least  a  day  before  joint  making,  in  order  to  give  the  gasoline 
time  to  evaporate. 

The  mixer  measures  out  a  definite  amount  of  cement  and 
water,  and  mixes  it  into  a  thoroughly  homogeneous  mass. 
This  mixing  should  be  done  in  the  shade  if  possible.  There 
always  will  be  more  or  less  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  exact 
quantity  of  water  to  use,  some  men  preferring  wetter  cement 
than  others,  but  in  Philadelphia  the  proportion  recommended  i 
3  of  cement  to  1  of  water  by  volume.  This  will  make  a  mixture 
which  will  appear  crumbly  in  the  pan,  and  will  just  retain  the 
impression  of  the  fingers  when  squeezed  in  the  hand.  No  more 
should  be  mixed  in  any  one  batch  than  can  be  used  in  the  time 
before  setting  begins.  This  time  will  depend  on  the  quickness 
in  setting  of  the  cement  being  used,  as  shown  by  the  activity 


252  MAIN   WORK 

tests.  Ordinarily,  20  minutes  is  the  maximum  time  that  should 
lapse  from  the  mixing  of  water  with  the  cement  to  the  final 
work  on  any  joint  on  which  that  particular  batch  of  cement  was 
used.  The  mixing  pan,  or  board,  should  be  kept  scraped  clean 
of  all  old  cement.  In  practice,  of  course,  it  is  hard  to  ensure 
that  the  mixer  will  always  follow  these  rules  relating  to  small 
and  fresh  batches,  but  the  larger  the  pipe,  the  more  certain  it  is 
that  carelessness  in  these  matters  will  mean  leaky  joints. 

A  batch  being  ready,  the  passer  cuts  from  it,  with  his  trowel,  a 
wedge-shaped  piece  and  hands  this  to  the  packer,  who  is  astride 
the  joint.  The  packer  takes  the  cement  from  the  trowel  in  his 
gloved  hands,  and  starts  to  pack  the  joint  from  the  bottom. 
He  works  up  both  sides  together,  finishing  at  the  top,  using  the 
sides  of  his  hands  and  fingers  to  push  in  the  cement.  He  con- 
siders the  joint  to  be  fully  packed  when,  on  pushing  his  fingers 
on  the  lower  half  of  the  joint,  the  cement  pushes  out  beyond  the 
face  of  the  bell  at  some  point  along  the  upper  half. .  When  this 
is  the  case,  he  starts  from  the  bottom  and  coming  up  simulta- 
neously on  each  side,  wipes  away  with  the  finger  tips  of  each 
hand,  any  cement  on  the  spigot  outside  of  the  bell  and  on  the 
face  of  the  bell  itself.  At  this  point  in  the  process  the  cement 
occupies  the  whole  space  A-D,  Figure  77. 

The  driver  now  begins  by  taking  up  the  yarn  strands,  already 
prepared  for  him,  as  described  on  page  244,  and  lying  across  the 
pipe.  These  he  twists  if  necessary  and  tucks  one  end  in  on  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  joint  near  the  top  and  carries  the  yarn 
around  the  face  of  the  joint,  holding  the  free  end  at  the  top  of 
the  bell  to  keep  it  taut.  He  then  starts  with  a  yarning  iron 
(Figure  37)  to  push  the  yarn  in  past  the  face  of  the  bell, 
working  down  along  the  left-hand  side  and  up  to  the  right- 
hand  side  to  the  starting  point  at  the  top.  The  yarn  has  then 
entered  the  bell  all  the  way  round,  and  the  excess  cement  is 
scraped  off  by  the  caulking  tool  and  drops  to  the  bottom  of 
the  trench.  Beginning  at  the  first  starting  point,  the  driver  now 
goes  around  the  joint  in  the  same  direction  as  before,  caulking 
the  yarn  until  it  feels  solid  under  the  caulking  tool.  The  proper 
amount  of  driving  to  be  done  to  a  joint  may  not  be  described, 
but  can  be  learned  by  experience  only.  It  is  quite  possible 
to  drive  the  yarn  too  hard.  When  the  yarn  begins  to  show 
moisture,  it  is  a  usual  indication  that  enough  driving  has  been 
done.  The  driving  yarn  then  occupies  the  space  B-C,  and  the 
cement  the  space  C-D,  Figure  77. 


LAYING  MAINS 


253 


Figure  77.  —  Cement  Joint,  page  252. 

After  packing  all  the  joints  laid  out  for  him,  the  packer  starts 
at  the  beginning  of  the  line,  and  fills  the  space  A — B,  Figure  77, 
with  cement,  leaving  a  surface  flush  with  the  face  of  the  bell  as 
shown.  This  last  fillet  of  cement  serves  merely  to  protect  the 
driving  yarn  from  the  soil,  not  being  gas  tight  itself.  Rather 
wet  cement  of  doughlike  consistency  is  used,  45  pounds  being 
mixed  at  one  time  on  6-inch  work,  enough  to  make  12  joints. 

A  gang  of  five  experienced  men  following  the  procedure  above 
described,  can  make  thirty  6-inch  joints  in  an  hour,  or  twenty-four 
8-inch  joints,  or  twelve  12-inch  joints.  For  mains  16-inch  and 
larger,  the  gang  is  composed  of  1  mixer,  1  passer,  2  packers  and  4 


254  MAIN   WORK 

drivers.  The  method  of  working  is  the  same  as  for  the  small 
mains.  Ten  16-inch,  eight  20-inch,  six  24-inch  or  five  30-inch 
joints  represent  what  can  be  done  per  hour  by  these  eight  men 
when  experienced. 

TEMPERATURE  PRECAUTIONS 

While  the  use  of  cement  joints  on  small  pipe  dates  back  for 
many  years,  it  is  believed  that  only  since  1902  have  cement  joints 
on  large  pipe  been  successfully  made  on  an  extensive  scale.  At 
that  time,  the  Philadelphia  Gas  Works  determined  to  use  cement 
on  its  large  mains  if  possible,  and  after  a  few  weeks  of  failure, 
involving  the  cutting  and  re-i.iaking  of  several  scores  of  20-inch 
joints,  it  was  discovered  that  if  the  temperature  of  the  main  was 
kept  nearly  constant  from  the  time  the  joint  was  stuffed  until 
it  had  set,  tight  joints  would  be  the  rule  and  not  the  exception, 
even  on  30-inch  pipe.  In  order  to  give  the  finished  joint, 
the  least  possible  strain  due  to  temperature  changes,  it  is  advis- 
able to  have  the  temperature  of  the  pipe  as  close  as  possible  to 
mean  underground  conditions.  This  perhaps  is  attainable  only 
when  main  laying  occurs  during  the  spring  or  fall  months. 
Therefore,  it  is  the  Philadelphia  practice  to  give  preference  to 
these  months  for  large  main  laying,  and  this  usually  is  quite 
feasible  because  the  need  for  such  mains  is  seldom  so  imperative 
that  a  delay  from  winter  till  spring,  or  summer  till  fall,  is  not 
possible.  Small  mains  have  to  be  laid,  of  course,  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  but,  fortunately,  a  given  range  of  temperature  during 
joint  making  and  setting  does  not  seem  to  have  the  same  harmful 
effect  on  a  small  as  on  a  large  pipe.  Indeed  some,  people  do 
not  believe  it  is  necessary  to  take  any  temperature  precautions 
when  laying  pipe  8-inch  and  smaller,  but  such  a  course  will  often 
involve  a  risk  out  of  proportion  to  the  slight  saving  involved. 

What  are  the  temperature  precautions  to  be  taken?  To 
begin  with,  if  the  pipe  has  been  exposed  to  the  rays  of  a  hot  sun 
long  enough  to  become  warm,  joint  making  should  not  start  until 
the^iron  has  had  a  chance  to  cool  to  the  air  temperature.  Ordi- 
narily, pipe  can  be  laid  one  day  and  joints  made  the  next,  in 
which  case  there  is  plenty  of  chance  for  the  necessary  cooling. 
If,  however,  joint  making  must  occur  the  same  day,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  use  water  on  both  bell  and  spigot  ends  just  before 
laying,  to  bring  down  the  temperature  quickly.  Neither  bell  nor 
spigot  should  be  left  wet,  for  such  a  condition  would  add  unde- 
sirable moisture  to  the  cement.  It  also  may  be  necessary,  when 


LAYING  MAINS  255 

the  pipe,  after  being  laid,  is  exposed  to  a  hot  sun  before  joint 
making,  and  there  will  be  no  chance  of  its  cooling  through 
atmospheric  changes,  to  sprinkle  it  with  water  applied  at  frequent 
intervals  by  a  sprinkling  can,  or  to  adopt  any  of  the  precautions 
described  later  on  as  being  taken  after  the  joint  is  made. 

The  most  acceptable  time  for  joint  making  on  a  sunny  day  is 
in  the  late  afternoon  or  early  morning.  The  pipe  being  at  about 
the  existing  air  temperature,  and  joints  having  been  made  at 
either  of  these  times,  the  problem  is  to  prevent  a  range  over  10° 
in  temperature  for  the  time  intervening  between  joint  making 
and  testing.  What  this  time  should  be,  will  be  discussed  later. 
If  the  time  is  12  hours,  making  in  the  afternoon  is  preferable, 
as  the  night  range  of  air  temperature  usually  is  less  than  the 
day  range  in  the  sun. 

The  earth  that  has  been  refilled  midway  around  each  length, 
not  only  helps  to  keep  the  pipe  securely  in  position,  but  protects 
the  covered  portion  from  temperature  changes,  so  that  only  about 
four  feet  each  way  from  the  joint  remains  to  be  protected. 
There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this.  One  method  very  effective, 
but  comparatively  expensive  and  hardly  necessary,  except 
perhaps  for  30-inch  pipe,  is  to  place  a  few  inches  above  the  pipe 
a  platform  of  loose  boards,  itself  covered  by  6  inches  of  earth. 
The  dead  air  space  thus  formed  acts  as  an  efficient  insulator, 
and  in  very  hot  weather  it  may  be  found  advisable  to  build  the 
platform  after  the  pipe  is  laid,  removing  it  for  joint  making  and 
replacing  while  the  joint  is  setting.  Following  this  procedure  on 
a  line  of  30-inch  laid  in  May,  air  temperatures  under  the  platform 
varied  in  48  hours  from  56  to  61  degrees  only,  while  the  corre- 
sponding range  of  the  outside  air  was  from  53  to  74  degrees. 
This  record  is  typical  of  what  is  accomplished  by  temperature 
precautions. 

Another  method  of  maintaining  temperatures  constant,  which 
has  proven  quite  acceptable  under  ordinary  conditions,  especially 
with  pipe  20-inch  and  smaller,  is  to  cover  the  exposed  portion  of 
the  pipe  with  coarse  bagging,  kept  wet  by  sprinkling.  If  the 
days  are  hot  and  the  nights  cold,  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  let  the 
bags  dry  out  toward  dark,  otherwise  evaporation  might  bring 
about  a  pipe  temperature  lower  than  normal.  Still  a  third 
method,  applicable  if  the  trench  is  through  a  smooth  roadway 
surface,  and  for  pipe  not  larger  than  20-inch,  is  to  stretch  cheese- 
cloth across  the  trench^ and  by  keeping  this  cloth  wet,  protect 
the  trench  from  the  sun's  heat. 


256  MAIN  WORK 

On  cloudy  days,  in  spring  or  fall,  often  no  precaution  at  all  is 
necessary,  and  even  sunny  days  at  these  seasons  involve  less  air 
range  between  night  and  sun,  than  is  true  in  summer.  Severe 
winter  conditions  do  not  have  to  be  considered,  because  in 
such  weather  no  main  laying  is  done, — only  repair  work.  In 
Philadelphia,  cement  joints  are  ordinarily  used  on  this  work,  ar.d 
resulting  leaks,  if  any,  have  been  few.  The  joints  would  be 
made  as  soon  as  the  pipe  was  uncovered,  and  refilled  right  after 
making,  so  that  ordinarily  on  winter  work,  the  temperature  of 
ground,  pipe  and  air  would  not  vary  far  from  30°  during  the 
whole  period  from  making  to  setting.  In  laying  new  pipe,  it  does 
not  seem  advisable  to  use  cement  joints  when  the  air  temperature 
falls  much  below  30°  * 

LEAD  WOOL  JOINTS 

Many  slight  modifications  of  the  bell  and  spigot  joints  have 
been  proposed  from  time  to  time,  involving  a  change  in  the  bell 
and  spigot  design,  but  never  have  met  with  any  acceptance.  In 
the  last  seven  years,  however,  "lead  wool,"  a  special  preparation 
of  lead  in  a  fibrous  or  shredded  form,  has  been  used  extensively 
on  mains  30-inch  and  larger.  Especially  notable  is  its  use  in 
New  York  city  on  48-inch  pipe.  The  fibres  are  put  into  the 
joint  in  the  same  way  as  yarn,  each  layer  being  caulked.  As  a 
result,  the  labor  costs  with  hand  caulking  (Figure  40,  page  159) 
are,  on  large  pipe,  from  three  to  four  times  as  great  as  for  cast 
lead.  The  material  costs  about  twice  as  much  per  pound,  but 
as  less  is  used,  the  cost  per  joint  is  one  and  one-half  times  as 
much  as  cast  lead.  On  long  jobs  of  large  mains,  the  use  of 
pneumatic  caulking  tools  (Figure  41,  page  16^  has  improved  the 
work  and  lessened  the  cost,  and  an  experiment  is  being  made 
with  a  caulking  machine  which  will  still  further  reduce  the  labor 
cost.  However,  the  total  joint  cost  still  will  exceed  cast  lead, 
and  be  so  far  above  cement  that,  even  though  lead  wool  has  a 
negligible  leak  record,  yet  for  pipe  12-inch  or  smaller,  the  facts 
favor  cement.  On  pipe  16-  to  30-inch,  cement  shows  more 

*  NOTE.  The  above  was  written  previous  to  ceasing  the  use  of  cement 
joints  on  large  mams.  It  is  still  of  value  as  throwing  light  on  different 
experiences  with  large  cement  joints.  Were  Philadelphia  to  make  more  of 
these  joints,  the  attempt  would  he  to  do  the  work  in  weather  as  cold  as  possible 
without  adding  unduly  to  excavation  expense.  Pipe  so  laid  would  almost 
always  thereafter  be  in  compression,  and  with  each  length  iron  to  iron  this 
would  involve  little,  or  no,  shearing  stress  being  brought  upon  the  contact 
between  cement  and  iron. 


LAYING  MAINS  257 

leaks  than  cast  lead,  and  time  alone  will  prove  whether  the  leaks 
which  finally  may  develop  in  cement  joints  in  these  sizes,  will 
outweigh  the  great  saving  in  first  cost.  Above  30-inch,  the 
choice  lies  between  cast  lead  and  lead  wool.  On  isolated  work, 
such  as  leak  repairs,  where  size  of  pipe  or  temperature  conditions 
preclude  cement,  lead  wool  generally  will  prove  more  convenient 
and,  through  saving  in  time,  more  economical  than  cast  lead. 

A  fuller  treatment  of  lead  wool  joints  is  impossible,  both  for 
lack  of  space  and  of  personal  experience.  The  files  of  the  gas 
journals  for  the  last  seven  years  contain  all  that  has  been 
written  on  the  subject. 

TESTING  JOINTS 

The  ordinary  small  main,  laid  for  low-pressure  distribution, 
needs  no  test  for  tightness  prior  to  refilling,  save  a  test  with  soap 
suds  under  gas  pressure.  The  necessity  for  any  test  has  a  tend- 
ency to  delay  main  work  and  increase  expense,  and  this  is  espe- 
cially true  where  the  test  is  made  by  pumping  air  into  the  main. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  test  with  gas  is  sufficient  under 
the  conditions  described.  The  suds  are  applied  with  an  ordinary 
shaving  or  other  suitable  brush,  over  the  face  of  the  joint  and 
the  adjacent  spigot  and  bell,  and  any  leak  in  the  joint  will  be 
indicated  by  the  presence  of  soap  bubbles.  There  will  be  times 
when  it  is  advisable  to  refill  as  soon  as  the  joint  is  made,  and  to 
omit  any  testing  whatever,  as,  for  instance,  where  the  trench 
cannot  be  kept  open  for  any  length  of  time,  or  when  cement 
joints  are  used  and  temperature  conditions  are  hard  to  maintain. 
In  New  York  city  the  success  with  lead  wool  joints  has  been  so 
great  that  no  test  is  made. 

When  the  main  is  being  laid  by  contract,  or  when  it  is  larger 
than  12-inch,  it  is  good  practice  to  make  a  test  under  air  pressure 
of  3  to  5  pounds.  Observations  of  a  pressure  gauge  in  connection 
with  a  soap-suds  test  of  all  joints,  will  indicate  the  degree  of 
tightness  obtained.  If  possible,  the  test  should  be  made  at  a  time 
when  the  range  of  air  temperature  is  small,  for  in  a  large  main 
there  might  be  a  stationary  or  slightly  rising  pressure,  even  when 
there  are  a  few  large  leaks.  Of  course,  the  possibility  of  tin- 
occurrence  is  increased  greatly  if  the  line  under  pressure  is  quite 
long,  as  is  often  the  case  where  each  successive  section  laid  is 
joined  to  the  preceding  sections  and  air  pressure  applied  to  the 
whole  line.  Where  each  section  is  tested  alone,  and  the  length 
of  line  under  pressure  does  not  exceed  one  thousand  feet,  the 


258  MAIN   WORK 

gauge  is  more  independent  of  temperature,  but  at  the  same  time 
temperatures  must  always  be  borne  in  mind.  It  is  possible  with 
falling  temperatures  to  have  a  falling  gauge  on  a  perfectly 
tight  line. 

When  any  fall  in  pressure  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  tem- 
perature conditions,  and  yet  every  joint  shows  tight,  a  search 
should  be  made  for  a  cracked  pipe.  It  is  a  very  foolish  act  to 
pass  a  line,  especially  of  large  pipe,  on  a. falling  pressure,  until 
every  inch  of  main  has  been  carefully  examined. 

For  any  volume  up  to  2000  feet  of  30-inch  pipe,  the  air  pump, 
(Figure  25,  page  135)  is  sufficiently  large.  For  a  larger  volume,  a 
motor-driven  pump  might  be  used  to  advantage.  Outfits  are 
obtainable  in  which  motor  and  pump  are  mounted  on  a  wagon 
frame,  and  may  be  drawn  easily  from  place  to  place. 

Below  follows  a  method  used  in  Philadelphia  for  an  air  test. 
The  test  is  usually  made  as  near  7 :00  A.  M.  as  possible.  The 
night  before,  all  openings  in  the  main  are  plugged  up,  the  air 
pump  is  attached  to  the  main,  and  the  mercury  gauge  is  examined 
and  made  ready  for  attachment.  In  attaching  the  air  pump,  a 
lj-inch  hole  is  tapped  either  on  the  main,  or  preferably,  in  the 
closing  plug  or  cap.  Sufficient  l|-inch  pipe,  provided  with 
suitable  fittings  to  allow  a  f-inch  connection  with  the  gauge,  is 
used  to  place  the  gauge  in  a  convenient  point  for  observation. 
Armored  hose  connects  the  lj-inch  pipe  to  the  pump. 

Arrangements  are  made  to  commence  pumping  at  such  an  hour 
in  the  morning  that  the  required  pressure  will  be  reached  at 
7:00  A.  M.  With  the  pump  shown  in  Figure  25,  for  a  pressure 
of  3  pounds  in  500  feet  of  30-inch,  four  men  would  be  needed  for 
two  hours.  The  test  is  made  by  two  men  with  pound  brushes 
and  a  bucket  of  Ivory  soap  suds.  A  foreman  supervises  the 
work  and  marks  any  leaks  as  found.  When  the  test  is  completed, 
the  pressure  should  be  relieved  through  the  standpipe,  or  in  any 
other  way,  before  removing  the  plug  or  cap  at  the  end  of  the 
section  under  pressure,  as,  if  not  relieved,  there  is  danger  of 
injury  to  the  workmen. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  SETTLEMENT 

Once  a  pipe  is  laid  and  covered  up  in  a  tight  condition,  the  only 
reasons  to  cause  breaks  or  leaky  joints,  are  some  agencies, 
usually  human,  acting  during  subsequent  exposure  of  the  pipe, 
stresses  due  to  street  traffic  and  to  temperature,  and  settlement 
of  the  pipe  itself.  The  first  danger  must  be  guarded  against  by 


LAYING  MAINS  259 

efficient  linewalking,  and  will  be  described  hereafter.  The  second 
and  third  are  affected  by  the  depth  of  the  pipe  and  have  already 
been  discussed  on  page  74,  but  the  fourth,  to  which  is  due  many 
leaky  joints  in  all  sizes  and  many  breaks  in  small  pipe,  will  be 
considered  now. 

Supposing,  as  generally  is  true,  that  the  trench  is  in  firm 
ground,  the  theory  used  to  be  that  the  pipe  should  be  laid  on 
this  firm  trench  bottom,  proper  excavation  being  made  for  each 
bell.  This  theory  worked  all  right  in  practice  where  obstructions 
were  few,  and,  therefore,  no  occasion  arose  to  decrease  the 
expected  cover  of  the  pipe  after  the  trench  was  bottomed;  and, 
more  important  still,  where  the  gang  was  small  in  number  and 
contained  one  or  more  laborers  skillful  in  making  a  bottom  that 
lay  in  one  plane,  and  was  not  formed  of  a  series  of  small  planes. 
The  above  conditions  never  were  obtainable  in  towns  of  any 
size,  and  usually  the  result  of  laying  directly  on  the  earth  was 
a  line  supported  at  a  series  of  points  along  each  length,  and 
resting  occasionally  on  refilled  earth  where  the  original  trench 
depth  was  too  great.  Trouble  has  resulted  frequently  from  such 
conditions,  and,  of  course,  more  often  with  large  pipe  with  result- 
ing heavy  repair  cost. 

A  little  reflection  will  show  that  without  any  earth  compression, 
the  support  of  a  length  lying  on  the  earth  is  a  line  about  11  feet 
long.  If,  as  usually  would  be  done,  the  pipe  was  allowed  to 
drop  on  its  bed  several  times,  then  assuming  it  always  fell  in  the 
same  place,  there  would  be  a  concave  bed  probably  several  inches 
wide.  Actually,  however,  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  any 
greater  bed  than  one  dropping  would  accomplish,  and  if  such 
dropping  did  not  leave  the  pipe  in  a  straight  line  with  the  pipe 
already  laid,  a  crook  must  be  left  in  the  line,  or  the  bed  disturbed. 

The  use  of  blocking  obviates  the  difficulties  above  mentioned. 
The  trench  need  not  be  bottomed  carefully  except  where  the 
blocking  rests.  In  setting  the  block,  a  paving  rammer 
should  be  used  to  ensure  a  firm  bearing  for  the  block  over  its 
whole  area.  Another  good  way  of  bedding  the  block  is  to  raise 
the  bell  end  of  the  pipe  about  two  feet,  and  then  allow  it  to  fall 
free  on  the  block.  The  pipe  can  now  be  freely  moved  sidewise 
on  the  block,  or  up  and  down  by  inserting  distance  pieces  and 
wedges,  with  the  certainty  that  its  stability  is  not  being  affected. 
The  use  of  wedges  and  of  the  distance  pieces  of  1-inch  board, 
enables  an  exact  alignment  as  to  height,  something  impossible  to 
obtain  when  laying  on  the  trench  bottom. 


260 


MAIN   WORK 


In  deciding  on  the  sizes  of  blocking  to  be  used  for  various  sized 
mains,  there  is  ample  opportunity  for  the  use  of  individual 
judgment.  Below  is  the  schedule  used  in  Philadelphia: 

SCHEDULE  OF  BLOCKING 


Size  of  Blocking 

Size  of  Distance  Pieces 

Size  of  Wedges 

Size  of  Mains 

i1 

1 

^ 

"o   8 

1 

1 

s 

|i 

2 

I 

3  in.  -  8  in. 

3  in. 

12  in. 

12  in. 

lin. 

12  in. 

12  in. 

1^  in. 

4  in. 

6  in. 

10  "  -12  " 

3  " 

12   " 

18  " 

1   " 

12   " 

12   " 

2      " 

5   " 

8  " 

16  "  -20  " 

3  " 

12   " 

24  " 

1   " 

12   " 

24  " 

3      " 

5   " 

12  " 

24  "  -30  " 

4  " 

12   " 

30  " 

1   " 

12   " 

24  " 

3      " 

5  " 

12  " 

The  blocking  must  be  used  always  of  full  width  and  placed  upon  undisturbed 
earth.  For  mains  over  16-inch,  two  blocks  are  laid  side  by  side  at  each  block- 
ing point,  making  the  width  of  four  blocks  for  each  length. 

This  schedule  may  be  considered  by  some  as  being  too  liberal, 
but  it  was  designed  with  the  knowledge  that  a  few  leaking  joints 
under  asphalt  would  pay  for  many  feet  of  lumber.  Two-inch 
blocks  undoubtedly  could  be  used  for  small  pipe,  but  3-inch  will 
last  longer,  and  the  extra  thickness  may  be  needed  some  day  to 
prevent  settlement  where  a  block  has  been  bedded  improperly. 
The  blocks  have  been  made  short  and  wide,  rather  than  long  and 
narrow,  because  the  more  nearly  square  the  block  is,  the  more  apt 
it  is  to  bear  on  its  whole  surface.  A  block  which  is  almost  as 
long  as  the  trench  is  wide,  will  require  great  vigilance  on  the 
foreman's  part  to  prevent  many  such  blocks  being  set,  having 
a  bearing  at  each  end  only. 

The  surface  area  of  the  blocking  as  given  for  each  size  main, 
causes  a  pressure  per  square  inch  of  such  surface,  which  is  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  blocking  in  the  trench,  varying  from  32 
pounds  in  the  case  of  8-inch,  to  10  pounds  for  the  24-inch,  the 
weight  taken  being  that  of  the  pipe  itself  and  a  parallelepipedon 
of  earth,  3  feet  high,  12  feet  long,  and  of  width  equal  to  the  out- 
side diameter  of  the  pipe.  For  pipe  over  8-inch  in  size,  there 
are  two  blocking  places  in  each  length,  and  this  enables  a 
positive  support  to  the  spigot  end,  which  is  of  great  advantage 
in  making  cement  joints,  as  it  enables  less  yarn  and  more 
cement  to  be  used,  and  prevents  any  settling  of  the  spigot  with  a 
consequent  leak.  Where  more  blocking  area  is  needed  than  will 
be  given  by  two  blocks  to  a  length,  four  are  used,— two  at  each 


LAYING  MAINS  261 

blocking  place.  In  this  way,  3  by  12-inch  lumber* can  be  used 
for  all  blocking,  the  only  difference  between  the  various  blocks 
being  in  their  length,  and  these  latter  have  been  so  arranged  that 
some  of  the  larger  blocks  may  be  cut  to  form  two  smaller  blocks. 

Only  one  objection  to  the  use  of  blocking  is  worth  noting, 
and  that  is  the  space  left  between  the  main  and  the  trench 
bottom.  The  question  of  refilling  this  space  will  be  considered 
in  the  next  chapter.  As  already  stated,  a  little  care  in  insetting 
the  blocking  in  the  trench  bottom  will  reduce  the  space  to  rather 
less  than  1  inch  in  height,  and  this  is  important,  especially  with 
large  mains. 

Blocking  will  care  for  the  ordinary  conditions  of  main  laying. 
Where  the  soil  is  of  uncertain  stability,  or  the  weight  exceptional, 
as  with  some  special  castings,  especial  methods  must  be  used. 
Short  piles  may  be  driven  into  the  trench  bottom  at  each  side 
and  the  blocking  rest  on  them.  Concrete  or  brick  piers  may  be 
built.  Such  piers  are  often  advisable  under  specials,  particularly 
bends  used  where  the  main  changes  in  cover,  and  a  big  pile  of 
blocking  would  otherwise  be  required.  In  every  case,  however, 
the  pipe  itself  should  rest  on  wood  and  not  on  the  pier  direct. 

BAGGING 
NECESSITY  FOR  BAGGING 

No  matter  how  small  the  pipe,  no  connection  should  be  made 
to  a  main  either  by  a  cut-out  or  by  removing  a  plug  or  cap, 
without  first  stopping  off  the  flow  of  gas.  There  are  many  work- 
men, and  some  foremen,  who  object  to  this  precaution  in  the  case 
of  2-,  3-  or  even  4-inch  mains,  and  who,  if  left  to  their  own  devices, 
often  would  "jump  in"  a  connection  without  stopping  off  the 
gas  flow.  Such  a  practice,  however,  should  not  be  tolerated,  as 
it  involves  too  much  risk  to  the  workmen,  and  also  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  gas  supply  on  the  main  concerned. 

In  the  old  days  of  small  mains,  animal  bladders  served  fairly 
well,  and  there  was  nothing  better  until  the  advent  of  rubber 
bags  (E,  Figure  24,  page  132),  which,  in  turn,  have  been  sup- 
planted largely  by  stoppers  (A,  Figure  24)  within  the  last  decade. 

Of  course,  the  larger  the  main,  the  more  dangerous  would  be 
the  result  of  unrestricted  flow,  and  hence  the  more  careful  pro- 
visions necessary  for  stopping  off  this  flow.  One  bag,  or  stopper, 
should  be  used  to  prevent  gas  flow  in  mains  8-inch  and  smaller, 
and  two  bags,  or  two  stoppers,  or  one  bag  and  one  stopper,  for 
larger  mains.  The  latter  combination  is  to  be  preferred, 


262  MAIN  WORK 

especially  irnthe  very  large  mains,  where  the  stopper  is  not  apt  to 
fit  close  enough  to  prevent  a  leak  sufficiently  large  to  bother  the 
workmen.  Each  bag  and  stopper  should  be  in  a  separate  hole 
for  pipe  12-inch  and  larger.  When  two  holes  are  required  on 
each  side  of  the  opening,  their  distance  apart  should  be,  for  bag 
and  stopper,  at  least  one  and  one-half  times  the  diameter  of  the 
main,  and  for  two  stoppers,  twice  the  diameter.  Holes  in  pipe 
16-inch  and  larger  should  be  located  preferably  in  separate 
excavations  to  the  one  in  which  the  work  is  being  done.  The 
stopper  is  placed  furthest  from  the  opening;  in  other  words, 
toward  the  gas  flow,  and  takes  up  the  pressure,  so  that  the  bag 
simply  prevents  what  little  gas  may  be  going  past  the  stopper, 
from  getting  into  the  portion  of  main  being  connected.  This  is 
on  the  assumption  that  a  steel  "bleeder"  pipe,  varying  in  size 
from  1  to  2  inches,  is  inserted  into  the  tap  hole  for  the  bag,  and 
that  through  this  pipe  there  escapes  into  the  air,  well  above  the 
top  of  the  trench,  any  gas  leaking  past  the  stopper.  There  often 
may  be  cases  when  a  bleeder  pipe  is  not  necessary.  If  so,  of 
course,  the  bag  stands  the  full  pressure  difference,  but  in  case 
the  bag  should  break,  the  first  stopper  is  the  safeguard  against 
any  great  gas  flow. 

The  above  venting  precautions  will  suffice  for  ordinary  cases 
of  distribution  mains.  When  working  on  pumping  mains, 
however,  more  elaborate  arrangements  are  advisable.  Pumping 
mains  are  those  which  convey  gas  from  a  manufacturing  station 
to  a  distributing  holder  or  a  district  governor.  The  occasion  for 
bagging  work  on  these  mains  often  arises  from  the  necessity, 
usually  due  to  city  work,  of  re-routing  a  certain  section  of  the 
main.  Pipe  having  been  laid  in  the  new  location  to  within 
sleeving  distance  of  each  junction  with  the  existing  main,  the 
next  step  is  to  cut  into  the  existing  main  and  join  it  to  the  new 
portion.  Besides  putting  the  pumping  main  out  of  use  while 
this  work  is  in  progress,  it  usually  is  possible  to  shut  one  or  more 
valves  at  each  end.  If  each  valve  is  tight,  there  will  be  no 
pressure  against  the  stoppers  after  the  valves  have  been  shut  a 
sufficient  time  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  excess  gas  through  the 
bleeder  pipes.  In  practice,  however,  large  main  valves  are 
seldom  absolutely  tight,  and  so  it  usually  will  be  .found  that 
enough  gas  will  leak  past  the  valve  to  maintain  some  pressure 
against  the  stoppers,  notwithstanding  the  escape  through  the 
bleeder  pipes.  In  order  to  minimize  this  leakage,  every  valve 
should  be  shut  whose  closing  will  interpose  another  obstacle  to 


LAYING  MAINS  263 

the  passage  of  the  gas  into  the  main  being  bagged  off,  but  will  not 
affect  other  lines  needed  for  use. 

The  possible  existence  of  valve  leakage,  and,  therefore,  01 
higher  than  distribution  pressures,  makes  advisable  larger  and 
more  numerous  vents  for  the  leaking  gas  than  are  needed  on 
distribution  mains.  These  vents  into  which  the  bleeder  pipes 
are  screwed,  should  be  independent  of  the  bag  holes,  as  they  are 
too  much  obstructed  by  the  bags  to  afford  a  sufficient  vent.  For 
a  20-  or  24-inch  main,  one  3-inch,  and  for  a  30-inch  main,  two 
3-inch  vents  should  be  provided  on  the  gas  side  of  the  stoppers 
for  each  section  of  main  to  be  vented.  In  the  job  that  we  already 
have  described,  there  are  four  sections  of  main  to  be  con- 
sidered. These  are  the  two  "live"  sections  —  one  between 
the  job  and  the  source  of  gas  supply,  and  the  other  between  the 
job  and  the  delivery  end  of  the  pumping  main.  The  other  two 
sections,  which  may  be  considered  as  "dead"  sections,  are  the 
new  section  which  is  to  be  connected  to  the  main,  and  the  old 
section  which  is  to  be  cut  out  from  the  main.  Where  the  old 
section  is  20-inch  or  larger  in  diameter,  and  over  100  feet  long, 
it  is  advisable  to  put  a  bag  or  stopper  at  each  end,  and  insert  a 
bleeder  pipe  through  the  bag  hole.  This  will  prevent  the  gas 
in  the  old  section  from  affecting  the  workmen  while  the  main 
is  being  cut  off.  After  the  cut-out1  has  been  made,  wooden  or 
metal  plugs  (B,  Figure  21)  should  be  used  in  each  end  of  the 
old  section. 

In  the  case  of  the  new  section,  if  the  main  is  30-inch  or  larger 
in  size,. and  the  section  over  300  feet  in  length,  one  or  two  3-inch 
vent  holes  are  recommended,  as  furnishing  additional  safeguards 
from  any  sudden  excess  of  pressure  under  conditions  to  be 
now  described. 

As  pumping  mains  always  begin  and  often  end  at  stations 
equipped  with  machinery  for  sending  out  gas  under  a  pressure 
of  several  pounds  at  least,  there  is  always  a  possibility  that,  in 
spite  of  many  precautions,  some  machinery  might  be  started 
and  some  valve  opened  that  would  bring  sudden  pressure  against 
one  of  the  "live"  sections  of  the  main  being  worked  on.  To 
furnish  instant  warning  of  such  pressure,  it  is  advisable  that  a 
pressure  gauge  be  installed  on  each  "live"  section  on  the  $ 
side  of  stoppers,  and  this  gauge  be  kept  under  constant  opaen  a- 
tion.  Also,  a  gauge  should  be  installed  at  each  end  of  a  live 
section  terminating  at  a  holder  or  manufacturing  station, 
the  observation  of  such  a  gauge  at  a  holder  station,  the  valve 


264 


MAIN   WORK 


man  would  know  at  once  whether  anything  had  happened  to 
cause  an  increase  of  pressure  in  the  "  live  "  section.  By  watching 
the  gauges  on  the  job,  notice  will  be  given  of  any  rise  in  pressure 
sufficient  to  endanger  the  holding  powers  of  bags  or  stoppers. 

A  review  of  the  above  precautions  will  show  that  in  case  there 
should  be  a  rise  in  pressure,  accompanied  by  increased  flow  of 
gas  to  either  of  the  "live"  sections,  this  increased  flow,  besides 
being  shown  by  the  pressure  gauges,  could  be  cared  for  through 
the  vent  pipes  on  the  "live"  sections,  and  also  to  the  extent 
that  there  might  be  leakage  past  bags  or  stoppers,  through 
the  vent  pipes  in  the  new  section.  These  vent  pipes  in  this  new 
section  would  reduce  sensibly  any  amount  of  gas  tending  to  pass 
through  the  new  section.  This  might  be  of  great  advantage,  as 
work  of  this  kind  usually  is  prosecuted  simultaneously  at  both 
ends  of  the  new  section.  A  case  in  point  is  cited  where,  due  to 
the  lack  of  vent  pipes,  a  bag  was  blown  out  of  position  at  one 
junction  of  a  new  section  with  an  existing  main,  and  the  men 
at  work  at  the  other  end  of  the  new  section,  which  had  not  yet 
been  entirely  closed  in,  experienced  much  discomfort  from  this 
escaping  gas. 

SIZE  OF  BAG  HOLES 

The  schedule  in  use  in  Philadelphia  governing  the  sizes  of 
holes  to  be  tapped  for  the  insertion  of  bags  and  stoppers,  is  as 
follows  : 


SCHEDULE  FOR  BAG  AND  STOPPER  HOLES 


Mai 
3" 
4" 


10" 
12" 
16" 
20" 
24" 
30" 
36" 


Bag  Hole 
1 


Stopper  Hole 

il 

2 

f 

4 
5 
5 


Use  4"  for  heavy  canvas  bags. 


INSERTION  AND  WITHDRAWAL 

In  inserting  a  bag,  the  procedure  is  about  as  follows:  After 
the  hole  has  been  drilled,  the  portion  of  the  main  where  the  bag 
will  rest  is  carefully  cleaned  of  any  metal  cuttings  or  any  con- 


LAYING  MAINS  265 

densation,  the  latter  often  having  a  very  rapid  action  in  dis- 
solving rubber.  This  cleaning  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
waste  or  cloth  at  the  end  of  a  stick.  Where  condensation  is 
encountered,  it  is  advisable  to  protect  the  bag  by  soaping  it  as 
well  as  may  be.  Soap  will  also  help  in  making  a  bag  hold  back 
gas  where  the  inside  of  a  main  is  quite  rough. 

The  bag  fork  (F,  Figure  24)  is  sometimes  used  in  inserting 
the  bag,  which  is  placed  in  a  folded  position  on  the  face  of 
the  fork,  and  the  bag  stem  pulled  back  through  between  the 
prongs  near  the  hilt.  The  bag  and  fork  are  then  entered  simul- 
taneously, the  fork  serving  to  force  the  bag  down  into  the  main 
and  away  from  the  hole.  After  inflation  of  the  bag,  the  fork  is 
withdrawn.  Where  there  is  much  more  pressure  on  one  side  of 
a  bag  than  another,  the  fork  is  of  special  use  in  holding  the  bag 
in  place  and  in  proper  position  until  inflated.  In  the  absence 
of  a  bag  fork,  a  stick  is  used  to  force  in  the  bag,  which  is  rolled 
or  folded  snugly. 

A  bag  is  placed  properly  when  the  axis,  passing  through  the 
stem,  coincides  with  the  axis  of  the  main.  In  inflating  large 
bags,  a  bag  pump  (D,  Figure  24)  generally  is  used.  By  means  of 
a  small  bag  inserted  in  the  supply  line,  an  indication  is  given  of 
the  degree  of  inflation  of  the  bag  in  the  main.  This  also  can  be 
told  by  observing  the  bag  itself  through  the  bag  hole. 

Large  bags  have  cocks  attached  to  their  stems  to  control 
the  air  flow.  The  stems  of  small  bags  are  tied  together  in  a 
kinked  position.  A  small  stick  should  be  so  attached  to  the 
stems  of  all  bags  as  to  prevent  the  bag  being  moved  from  the 
bag  hole.  All  bags,  or  stoppers,  while  in  use,  should  be  under 
constant  supervision  to  ensure  that  they  are  maintaining  their 
inflation  and  position.  Whenever  a  stopper  is  within  arm's 
length  of  an  open  end,  clay  or  soap  should  be  applied  at  once 
along  the  contact  line  between  stopper  and  main. 

In  removing  a  bag,  first  the  air  is  allowed  to  escape,  and  then 
the  bag  is  pulled  out  slowly  through  the  opening,  first  by  means 
of  the  neck,  and  then  by  pulling  on  the  bag  itself,  the  pull  always 
being  applied  close  to  the  main,  and  the  bag  kept  rolled  up  like 
an  umbrella.  All  condensation  should  be  removed  immediately 
from  the  bag  by  the  use  of  soap  and  warm  water. 

In  inserting  a  stopper,  it  is  folded  neatly  and  pressed  together, 
and  pushed  in  carefully  and  slowly,  it,  as  well  as  the  bag,  being 
always  a  snug  fit  in  the  hole  allowed  by  the  schedule.  The 
flexible  frame  and  the  handle  are  kept  uppermost  until  the 


266  MAIN  WORK 

stopper  is  completely  within  the  main.  The  top  of  the  flexible 
frame  is  then  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the  main  and  a  short 
distance  back  of  the  hole,  the  bottom  of  the  frame  is  on  the 
bottom  of  the  main,  and  the  axis  of  the  stopper  is  at  an  angle  of 
about  45°  with  the  axis  of  the  main.  The  stopper  is  now  revolved 
through  180°,  and  pushed  into  the  hole  about  as  far  as  it  will  go, 
bringing  the  top  of  the  frame  a  few  inches  from  the  hole.  The 
top  is  kept  in  this  position,  or  perhaps  forced  slightly  away  from 
the  hole  by  means  of  the  short  handle,  while  by  the  long  handle 
the  lower  end  is  drawn  forward  towards  the  hole,  thus  bringing 
the  plane  of  the  frame  into  perpendicularity  with  the  axis 
of  the  main,  and  forcing  the  frame  into  a  circular  shape.  When 
ready  to  draw  the  stopper,  the  lower  end  is  forced  back  along 
the  bottom  of  the  main,  and  the  upper  end  is  drawn 
slightly  forward,  until  the  frame  has  assumed  its  greatest  pos- 
sible length.  The  stopper  is  then  revolved  180°  bringing  the 
frame  on  top  and  withdrawn. 

CARE  IN  REGARD  TO  SUPPLY  OF  GAS 

Bagging  off  the  supply  of  gas  involves  certain  operations 
which,  unless  proper  precautions  are  taken,  may  result  in  a 
diminution,  or  entire  stoppage,  of  supply  to  consumers.  These 
operations  are,  first,  the  tapping  of  the  bag  hole  and  any  subse- 
quent opening  of  it,  allowing  free  gas  flow;  and  second, 
the  insertion  of  the  bag,  with  a  consequent  interruption  of 
gas  flow  in  the  main. 

The  precautions  to  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  tapping 
of  the  bag  hole,  of  course,  apply  equally  to  the  tapping  of  any  hole 
for  any  purpose,  or  to  any  work  which  makes  in  any  pipe  con- 
veying gas,  an  opening  whose  area  is  of  appreciable  size  as 
compared  with  the  area  of  the  pipe.  Experience  has  shown 
that  if  flow  is  established  quickly  through  the  ordinary  hole 
tapped  in  the  average  size  main,  the  diminution  in  pressure 
caused  thereby  may  be  quite  sufficient  to  put  out  lights  turned 
low,  and  that  the  quick  uncovering  of  the  opening  causes  the 
pressure  in  the  main  to  fall  momentarily  to  a  point  lower  than  is 
caused  by  the  steady  flow  of  gas  through  the  opening.  Of 
course,  the  amount  of  effect  produced  in  any  main,  that  is,  the 
distance  on  each  side  of  the  opening  to  which  the  effect  extends, 
and  the  extent  of  pressure  lowering,  depend  entirely  upon  the 
relation  between  size  of  main  and  of  opening,  and  the  conditions 
affecting  the  supply  of  gas  into  the  main.  However,  such 


LAYING  MAINS  267 

serious  results  may  ensue  from  unlighted  gas  issuing  from 
burners,  extinguished  by  a  lowering  of  pressure  because  of  the 
careless  tapping  of  holes  and  their  uncovering  in  putting  in  bags, 
that  it  is  wise,  especially  in  cities  and  large  towns,  to  observe 
the  following  precautions. 

When  any  opening  is  made  between  a  main  and  the  atmosphere, 
so  that  gas  may  escape  from  the  opening,  the  plug,  tap,  or  fitting, 
whose  removal  makes  the  opening,  should  not  be  moved  away 
from  the  main  at  right  angles  to  it,  but  should  be  moved  sidewise 
over  the  opening,  and  kept  in  close  contact  with  the  main,  and 
as  it  is  moved  off  the  opening,  the  fitting,  or  plug,  which  is  to 
take  its  place,  should  be  moved  on.  Neither  motion  should 
be  rapid  or  sudden.  The  result  will  be  that  at  no  time  is  the 
whole  area  of  the  opening  exposed  for  the  escape  of  gas,  and 
also  that  there  is  no  rapid  change  in  the  area  through  which 
gas  is  escaping. 

When  a  hole  has  been  tapped  for  the  insertion  of  a  bag  (or 
stopper)  and  the  bag  is  to  be  inserted  at  once,  in  removing  the 
tap  from  the  main,  it  should  be  slid  sidewise  over  the  hole  and 
followed  immediately  by  the  hand,  placed  in  such  a  position  as 
to  encircle  partially  the  receding  tap,  and  to  block  off  the  escaping 
gas  as  far  as  possible.  In  inserting  the  bag,  the  hand  should  be 
moved  slowly  over  the  hole  to  afford  room  to  insert  the  end  of 
the  bag,  and  the  hand  should  continue  to  cover  the  hole  as  much 
as  possible,  until  the  latter  is  filled  by  the  bag.  As  the  bag  gets 
further  in  and  begins  to  taper  off  towards  the  top,  the  hand 
should  again  be  placed  over  the  hole  and  kept  there  until  th±  bag 
is  inflated.  In  withdrawing  the  bag,  the  same  precautions 
should  be  observed  in  reverse  order,  and,  in  general,  everything 
done  which  will  decrease  the  absolute  rapidity  of  gas  flow,  and 
the  rapidity  of  change  in  amount  of  flow. 

The  practice  described  above  should  be  followed  in  mains  of 
all  sizes.  In  addition,  where  the  main  is  3-inch  or  smaller,  or  is 
supplied  from  one  end  only,  and  any  portion  of  this  sole  supply 
is  3-inch  or  smaller,  a  pressure  gauge,  as  shown  in  Figure  78, 
should  be  connected  with  the  main  so  that  any  pressure  drop 
can  be  noticed,  and  if  at  any  time  as  little  as  1-inch  pressure  is 
shown,  then  an  examination  must  be  made  in  the  neighboring 
houses  to  make  sure  that  no  lights  have  been  put  out.  In 
general,  in  any  work  involving  possible  interference  with  the 
evenness  of  gas  flow,  any  nearby  street  lamp  supplied  from  the 


268 


MAIN  WORK 


main  in  question  should  be  lighted,  as  its  flame  will  be  a  valuable 
telltale  of  what  is  happening  in  the  main. 


,© 


FlG.2. 


v  L  ; 


Figure  78.  —  Arrangement  for  Bagging  Mains,  page  268. 

Discussing  now  the  second  precaution,  viz.,  what  will  be  the 
effect  of  the  insertion  of  the  bag  in  that  portion  of  the  main  which 
must  not  be  deprived  of  gas,  the  whole  question  hinges  upon 
what  is  known  of  the  main  connections  in  the  region  in  which 
the  work  is  being  done.  Where  the  records  are  perfect,  and 
show  that  a  main  is  connected  at  both  ends,  then  in  the  absence 
of  a  stoppage,  such  as  water  in  a  trap  or  a  drip,  or  some  other 
obstruction,  a  bag,  or  bags,  may  be  inserted  with  confidence 
that  the  result  will  be  the  stoppage  of  supply  to  that  section  of 
main  only  whose  isolation  is  desired. 

If,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  bag  off  a  portion  of  a  main  which 
is  not  known  positively  to  be  supplied  from  both  ends,  the  work 
should  be  done  according  to  the  following  directions,  as  illus- 
trated by  Figure  78.  Place  a  bag  (or  stopper)  through  the  hole 


LAYING  MAINS  269 

at  "X"  in  the  position  "A,"  Fig.  1,  judging  the  flow  of  gas 
toward  the  bag  by  noting  the  speed  of  the  gas  escaping  from  the 
bag  hole.  The  escape  of  gas  thus  permitted  should  be  brought 
on  gradually,  for  reasons  already  explained.  If  no  drop  in 
pressure  is  noticed,  deflate  the  bag,  inflate  in  position  "B"  and 
test  for  flow  of  gas  as  before.  If  this  test  indicates  a  satisfactory 
flow,  leave  bag  in  position  "B."  Another  bag  inserted  through 
bag  hole  "Y"  imposition  "C"  completes  the  op^racion  of  iso- 
lating the  position  of  the  main  to  be  repaired  or  removed.  The 
tests  at  "X"  have  demonstrated  that  gas  was  being  supplied  in 
both  directions,  and  that,  therefore,  no  by-pass  is  necessary. 

If  on  making  the  test  with  bag  in  position  "A"  or  "B,"  a 
drop  in  pressure  is  noted,  indicating  some  obstruction  or  a  dead 
end,  the  bag  should  be  left  in  position  inflated  until  theextent  of 
the  section  deprived  of  gas  is  ascertained  and  the  meter  cock  in 
each  house  closed.  (This  same  routine  should  be  followed  in 
any  case  of  bagging  off  a  main  where  it  was  discovered  that  gas 
had  been  shut  off  from  a  section  not  meant  to  be  isolated.) 
Having  done  this,  the  bag  may  be  deflated  and  gas  again  allowed 
to  flow  into  the  section  unintentionally  isolated.  Before  resum- 
ing the  work  necessitating  the  bagging,  a  gauge,  Fig.  2,  should 
be  attached  to  the  section  previously  isolated  and  a  by-pass  laid 
around  the  section  to  be  bagged  off.  Observations  of  the  gauge 
should  be  made  while  inserting  or  removing  by-pass,  bags,  etc. 
If  at  any  time  the  pressure  falls  below  1  inch,  the  gas  should  be 
shut  off  immediately  from  the  section  so  affected,  and  an  examin- 
ation made  of  each  house  as  already  described.  Fig.  2  shows 
the  position  of  the  bags  and  by-pass  when  ready  to  cut  out  or 
repair  under  the  conditions  already  described,  —  in  other  words, 
the  arrangement  necessary  when  the  main  is  fed  from  one 
end  only. 

When  withdrawing  the  bags  in  the  arrangement  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  on  completion  of  the  work,  the  bag  (or  bags),  first 
inflated,  should  be  drawn  first,  and  the  resulting  pressure  noted. 
In  this  way,  if  by  any  chance  the  supply  of  gas  has  been  cut  off 
unknowingly  on  the  side  of  the  section  bagged  off  first,  this  fact 
will  be  shown  at  once  on  withdrawing  the  bag,  by  the 
entire  absence  of  pressure,  and  the  proper  precautions  can  be 
taken.  When,  as  in  Fig.  2,  a  by-pass  is  in  use  and  in  place, 
the  first  bag  inserted  should  be  at  "  L"  in  the  dead  end  supplied 
by  the  by-pass,  being  placed  as  shown  on  the  side  of  the  hole 
away  from  the  section  to  be  repaired  or  removed.  This  bag 


270  MAIN  WORK 

must  be  the  last  one  withdrawn,  for  the  full  supply  of  the  main, 
in  addition  to  the  by-pass,  must  be  available  to  the  dead  end 
section  as  the  last  bag  is  being  deflated,  or  otherwise  the  escape 
through  the  hole  "W,"  even  with  every  care  exerted,  might  be 
so  great  that  the  supply  through  the  by-pass  could  not  keep  up 
the  pressure  in  the  dead  end  section. 

PURGING 

The  operation  of  "purging,"  i.  e.,  rilling  a  main  with  gas,  may 
be  either  very  easy  or  very  difficult,  according  as  there  happens  to 
be  a  small  length  of  main,  or  an  extensive  system  to  be  dealt  with. 
In  every  case,  however,  care  is  needed  to  prevent  any  chance  of 
ignition  of  the  explosive  mixture  of  gas  and  air  issuing  from  the 
main  being  purged. 

In  its  simplest  form,  as  applied  to  a  stretch  of  ordinary  sized 
main  ending  in  a  location  where  a  little  gas  smell  is  not  objec- 
tionable, purging  consists  of  removing  a  screw  plug  from  a  hole 
tapped  in  the  main  at  the  end  farthest  from  the  source  of  supply, 
and  allowing,  first,  the  air,  and  then,  the  mixture  of  gas  and  air  to 
blow  into  the  atmosphere  until  it  is  believed,  or  found,  either  by 
smell,  or  by  sampling  the  issuing  gas,  that  all  the  air  has  been  re- 
moved. The  advisability  of  sampling  increases  with  the  size  of 
the  main,  and  with  the  chance  of  the  mixture  of  gas  and  air  being 
supplied  to  consumers  before  any  other  operations  tend  to  pro- 
duce a  flow  of  gas  through  the  main  in  question,  and,  therefore, 
to  reduce  the  air  to  a  negligible  percentage. 

The  sampling  may  be  accomplished  by  filling,  with  the  issuing 
gas,  a  deflated  rubber  gas  bag,  and  then  removing  the  bag  to  a 
safe  distance,  inserting  a  pipe  with  a  burner  attached,  in  the 
stem  of  the  bag,  squeezing  the  bag  and  lighting  the  stream 
issuing  through  the  burner.  The  color  of  the  flame  will  indicate 
the  degree  of  purity  of  the  gas. 

With  an  increase  in  the  size  (and  to  some  extent,  the  length) 
of  the  main  will  result  an  increased  volume  of  gas  and  air  to  be 
discharged  into  the  atmosphere,  before  purging  is  complete. 
This  often  will  mean  the  advisability  of  a  standpipe  screwed  into 
the  outlet  hole,  and  discharging  above  the  heads  of  pedestrians. 
Also,  as  the  period  in  which  an  explosive  mixture  exists  is  longer 
than  with  a  small  main,  the  use  of  wire  gauze  in  the  standpipe  is 
a  wise  precaution.  This  gauze  prevents  any  flame  which  might 
ignite  at  the  standpipe  end,  from  flashing  back  into  the  main. 


LAYING  MAINS 


271 


In  every  case  of  purging,  the  precautions  already  spoken  of 
under  "Care  in  Regard  to  Supply  of  Gas,"  page  266,  should  be 


carefully  observed.     After  the  main  is  properly  purged,  the  plugs 
of  all  drip  standpipes  should  be  removed,  to  allow  the  escap 
of  any  air  that  might  be  pocketed  in  the  lowi-r  portion; 
drip  pots. 


272  MAIN  WORK 

An  arrangement  that  has  been  used  in  Philadelphia  on  mains 
16-inch  and  over,  is  shown  in  Figure  79.  The  convenient 
method  for  sampling  the  gas  will  be  noted. 

Very  rarely  it  may  happen  that  the  main  to  be  purged  is 
situated  where  the  escape  of  gas  would  create  a  considerable 
nuisance,  as  in  a  crowded  business  thoroughfare.  If  so,  and  it 
is  not  advisable  to  purge  until  the  smell  comes,  and  then  stop, 
trusting  to  the  sufficient  admixture  of  the  air  remaining 
with  the  gas,  to  prevent  any  chance  of  lights  going  out,  or  of 
very  poor  illumination,  the  only  remaining  course  is  to  burn  the 
issuing  stream  at  the  top  of  the  standpipe.  With  a  gauze  of 
mesh  as  small  as  that  used  in  safety  lamps,  and  a  standpipe 
equipped  with  four  successive  sheets  of  gauze,  arranged  in  two 
pairs,  2  feet  apart,  each  sheet  of  a  pair  being  separated  by  a 
5-inch  gasket,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  risk  of  any  flashing 
back  in  the  main,  if  care  is  taken  to  observe  that  the  pipe  is  not 
becoming  warm,  for  a  reason  now  to  be  told. 

In  supplying  New  York  city  with  gas  made  on  Long  Island,  it 
happened  that  50  miles  of  mains  were  laid  before  the  tunnel 
under  the  East  River  was  completed.  Therefore,  this  main 
system  had  to  be  purged  more  or  less  as  a  whole,  and  it  actually 
was  purged  in  two  sections.  It  was  decided  to  burn  the 
gas  in  order  to  be  sure  that  all  of  the  air  had  been  expelled. 
Standpipes  with  four  gauzes,  about  as  described  above,  were 
used  successfully  on  this  occasion  and  also  on  each  subsequent 
addition  to  the  main  system,  until  one  day,  when  purging  about 
a  thousand  feet  of  20-inch  main,  an  explosion  occurred,  due 
undoubtedly  to  the  flame  at  the  end  of  the  standpipe  flashing 
back  into  the  main.  The  only  explanation  for  the  passage  of 
the  flame  back  through  the  four  sheets  of  gauze,  would  seem  to 
be  that  the  flame  first  flashed  back  to  the  upper  pair  of  gauzes, 
and  burned  above  them  so  long  as  to  make  them  red  hot.  In 
this  case  the  flame  would  travel  down  to  the  second  pair,  and 
after  they  became  red  hot,  an  explosion  could  occur  if  the  mixture 
was  still  explosive.  An  observation  of  the  temperature  of  the 
standpipe  would  have  disclosed  the  fact  of  the  flame  burning 
on  the  gauzes  and  the  danger  being  incurred. 

A  feature  of  purging,  where  more  than  a  single  line  of  main  is 
in  question,  is  the  necessity  for  bagging  at  certain  points  to 
prevent  large  pockets  of  air.  For  instance,  when  one  or  more  of 
the  mains  is  fed  from  both  ends,  three  holes,  with  a  bag  in 
the  centre  hole,  will  allow  the  air  to  come  both  ways  to  the  bag, 


LAYING  MAINS  273 

and  issue  out  of  the  other  two  holes  without  forming  any  pocket. 
Naturally,  in  work  of  this  kind,  the  tightness  of  the  bags  is  very 
important,  and  each  such  bagging  place  should  be  under  the 
continuous  surveillance  of  a  reliable  workman. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  GAS  SUPPLY  DURING  MAIN  LAYING 
IMPORTANCE  OF  MAINTAINING  SUPPLY 

So  far,  in  discussing  the  question  of  main  laying,  it  has  been 
assumed  that  the  work  involves  an  extension  into  new  territory. 
Many  mains  are  laid,  however,  to  replace  existing  lines,  and  in 
these  days  of  the  extensive  use  of  gas  for  heating  and  other 
domestic  and  industrial  purposes,  it  often  is  imperative,  with  any 
due  regard  for  the  rights  of  the  consumer,  that  any  cessation 
in  gas  supply  be  as  short  as  possible.  This  means,  to  begin  with, 
that  gas  supply  be  kept  up  through  either  the  existing  main  or 
temporary  main,  until  the  new  main  has  been  purged.  If  gas 
is  maintained  in  the  existing  main,  but  this  must  be  disconnected 
from  its  ordinary  source  of  supply  to  allow  the  connection  of  the 
new  main,  then  a  by-pass  must  first  be  installed  across  the  gap. 
It  also  means  that  the  transfer  of  old  service  to  new  main,  or 
from  old  main  and  old  service  to  new  main  and  new  service, 
should  be  done  expeditiously. 

In  considering  this  work,  three  different  conditions  will  be 
taken  up  in  turn:  first,  where  the  existing  main  is  not  in  the  way 
of  the  new  one,  and,  therefore,  can  be  kept  in  use  until  the  main 
has  been  purged;  second,  where  the  existing  main  must  be 
removed  to  make  way  for  the  new  one,  but  prior  to  such  removal 
a  temporary  main  may  be  laid;  and  third,  where  the  existing 
main  must  be  removed,  but  no  temporary  main  is  feasible. 

SUPPLY  BY  EXISTING  MAIN 

Where  the  existing  main,  whether  or  not  exposed  in  the  trench 
made  for  the  new  main,  may  continue  to  supply  gas  until  the 
new  main  has  been  purged,  the  work  of  main  laying  is  not  much 
more  difficult  than  in  the  case  of  a  new  extension,  except  for 
what  support  may  have  to  be  provided  for  any  section  of  the 
existing  main  that  may  be  exposed  in  the  trench.  At  this  point, 
it  should  be  stated  that  the  value  of  the  iron  recovered,  even  at 
scrap  prices,  generally  makes  it  an  economical  proceeding,  other 
considerations  being  equal,  to  lay  the  new  main  in  such  a  location 
that  the  existing  main  may  be  removed  with  no.  or  only  a  slight 
amount  of,  additional  excavation. 


274  MAIN  WORK 

Before  the  new  main  is  purged,  all  necessary  service  holes 
should  be  tapped  and  service  renewals  made  to  within  the 
cellar  wall.  Then,  in  the  case  of  a  consumer  whose  service  is 
renewed,  the  discontinuance  of  gas  supply  will  only  cover  the 
time  necessary  to  transfer  the  piping  on  the  inlet  side^of  the 
meter  from  the  old  service  to  the  new  one,  which  may  involve 
only  the  unscrewing  of  the  existing  inlet  connection,  and  the 
screwing  of  a  new  inlet  connection  attached  to  the  new  service. 
When  the  service  does  not  need  renewing,  there  will  be  necessary, 
in  addition  to  the  work  inside  the  cellar  and  preceding  it,  the 
cutting  of  the  existing  service  and  its  reconnection  to  the  new 
mrin.  The  above  service  details  apply  equally  as  well  to  the 
p?  ragraphs  that  follow. 

SUPPLY  BY  TEMPORARY  MAIN 

Where  a  temporary  main  is  to  be  laid,  its  size  should  be 
determined  from  accurate  knowledge  of  the  maximum  demand 
of  the  consumers  to  be  supplied.  Usually  a  2-  or  3-inch  main 
will  be  amply  large,  and  steel  generally  is  preferable  to  cast  iron 
for  any  size  smaller  than  8-inch.  The  usual  location  is  above 
ground  and  close  to  the  curb,  either  in  roadway  or  on  footway. 
Tees  forming  part  of  the  line  of  pipe  make  the  best  method  of 
service  connection.  Each  tee  is  joined  by  iron  pipe,  or  by  pipe 
and  armored  rubber  hose,  to  one  of  the  existing  services.  This 
involves  a  cessation  of  gas  supply  while  the  service  is  being  cut 
off  from  the  existing  main  and  connected  to  the  temporary  main. 
Generally,  the  connection  to  the  service  will  be  made  outside  of 
the  curb  cock,  but  even  in  that  case,  it  will  be  advisable,  when 
using  hose  connection,  to  put  a  cock  between  the  hose  and  the 
outlet  from  the  temporary  main.  This  second  cock  allows  a 
quick  shut-off  in  case  the  hose  connection  pulls  off  or  in  any  way 
develops  a  leak  not  capable  of  quick  repair. 

The  temporary  main  usually  will  be  supplied  with  gas  through 
one  (or  preferably  two)  connections  tapped  into  the  existing  main 
system.  In  the  case  now  under  consideration,  viz.,  where  a 
temporary  main  is  used  only  during  the  laying  of  a  new  main, 
it  is  seldom  necessary  to  make  any  provision  for  condensation 
in  the  trap  formed  by  the  service  connection  above  described. 
Where,  however,  temporary  mains  are  laid  because  of  the  forced 
removal  of  permanent  mains  during  the  progress  of  street  work, 
and  temporary  supply  will  continue  during  cold  weather, 
ample  drip  provision  should  be  made  at  any  trap. 


LAYING  MAINS  275 

Figures  80  and  81  illustrate  some  features  of  temporary  main 
work. 


Figure  80.  —  Temporary  Main,  page  275. 

SUPPLY  IN  ABSENCE  OF  ANY  MAIN 

The  cases  in  which  the  existing  main  must  be  removtvl  to  allow 
room  for  the  new  main,  no  temporary  main  being  possible,  and 
consumers  were  using  gas  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  would  prove  un- 
doubtedly to  be  very  rare.  Where  the  existing  main  was  k-d 
from  two  directions,  it  could  be  cut  out  at  the  end  from  which 
the  new  main  was  being  laid  without  installing  a  by-pass. 
Then  the  problem  of  main  laying  would  consist  in  removing  the 
existing  main  in  as  small  units  as  seemed  practicable,  and  in 
purging  the  new  main  in  small  sections  as  laid  and  joints  made. 
Holes  for  services  would  be  tapped  in  the  new  main  before  laying, 
and  would  serve  as  successive  purging  and  bag  holes.  In  this 
way,  no  consumer  need  be  out  of  gas  more  than  one  or  two  hours, 
and  by  special  expedients  this  time  could  be  reduced  greatly. 
For  instance,  a  temporary  pipe  might  be  run  from  the  top  of  the 
street  tee  in  the  last  service  on  the  new  main,  to  connect  with  the 


276 


MAIN  WORK 


'     Figure  81.  —  Temporary  Main,  page  275. 

service,  or  services,  being  disconnected  from  the  section  of 
existing  main  just  taken  out  to  make  way  for  the  next  section 
of  new  main. 


LAYING  MAINS  277 

Where  the  existing  main  was  fed  from  one  end  only,  and  this 
was  the  end  from  which  the  new  main  was  laid,  a  by-pass  would, 
of  course,  have  to  be  installed  to  feed  the  existing  main,  and  with 
the  progress  of  the  new  main,  the  position  of  the  by- pass  would 
be  changing  continually. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

REFILLING  AND  REPAYING    TRENCH 
REFILLING 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

In  refilling,  there  always  is  an  opportunity  of  skimping  work, — 
entirely  absent  in  the  case  of  trenching.  The  great  saving  in 
labor  afforded  by  loose  filling  or  puddling,  as  compared  with 
tamping  and  ramming,  often  results  in  the  adoption  of  one  or 
the  other,  where  not  only  the  best  interests  of  the  work,  but  also 
of  the  public,  require  that  ramming  should  be  done.  In  discuss- 
ing the  conditions  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  deciding  on  any 
particular  method,  this  general  rule  should  never  be  forgotten, 
viz.,  that  the  public  has  a  right  to  expect  such  refilling  as  will 
restore,  as  promptly  as  possible,  to  its  original  condition,  the 
surface  of  any  trench  in  any  roadway  where  traffic  is  incommoded 
seriously  until  such  restoration  is  complete. 

Unless  the  expense  is  very  great,  only  good  soil  should  be  in 
close  proximity  to  a  main,  and  should  cover  it  by  a  layer  six 
inches  to  a  foot  thick.  This  is  important  especially  where  the 
main  is  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  and  the  good  soil  is  substituted 
for  ashes,  cinders  or  city  refuse.  Cast  iron  is  not  nearly  so 
likely  to  corrode,  but  still  ^  good  soil  around  it  is  advisable. 
The  objection  to  refilling  with  small  or  large  stones  or  broken 
rock,  depends  entirely  on  the  question  of  future  repairs.  If  the 
trench  is  not  apt  to  be  opened  to  any  great  extent,  as  would  be 
true  of  most  small  main  jobs,  a  large  expense  for  soil  to  replace 
the  excavated  rock  would  not  be  justified.  However,  it  often 
happens  when  solid  rock  is  encountered,  that  the  excavated 
material  can  be  sold  on  the  trench  side  at  a  slight  profit,  thus 
paying  for  the  substituted  earth. 

During  the  winter  time,  before  refilling,  any  frozen  excavated 
earth  should  be  broken  up  as  far  as  feasible,  because  in  this 
way  more  material  may  be  returned  to  the  trench  and  less 

(278) 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH          279 

settlement  is  likely  to  occur  after  the  frost  goes  out.  As  far 
as  possible,  unfrozen  material  from  the  centre  of  the  pile  should 
be  placed  around  the  pipe.  When  other  conditions  are  accept- 
able, and  the  temperature  is  above  freezing,  puddling  may  be 
used  to  advantage  with  frozen  material. 

The  character  of  the  temporary  surface  over  the  trench  in  those 
cases  where  repaving  does  not  follow  immediately  upon  refilling, 
will  vary  with  the  kind  of  paving,  and  is  discussed  under 
"Repaving,"  page  284. 

RAMMING 

Ramming  should  be  the  practice  wherever  there  is  much  travel 
along  and  over  the  trench,  or  where  repaving  must  follow  imme- 
diately. It  is  accomplished  by  tamping  and  ramming  solely,  or 
in  combination  with  puddling. 

If  the  main  has  been  laid  with  cement  joints,  dirt  has  been 
tamped  under  and  alongside,  and  rammed  on  top,  of  the  pipe  for 
a  depth  of  several  inches,  except  at  the  bell  holes.  If  lead  has 
been  used,  the  amount  of  refilling  that  has  been  done  prior  to  the 
completion  of  laying  work,  will  depend  upon  the  necessity  for 
strengthening  the  trench  or  keeping  the  laborers  busy.  In  any 
case,  the  first  refilling  after  the  pipe  has  been  laid,  tested 
and  purged,  should  be  over  any  uncovered  portion  of  pipe, 
and  where  compact  filling  is  necessary,  there  should  be  for  every 
shoveler  on  the  bank,  two  men  in  the  trench,  tamping  (A, 
Figure  19)  the  earth  under  the  pipe,  and  between  it  and  the 
trench  sides.  The  tamper  should  be  exchanged  for  a  rammer 
(B,  Figure  19)  as  soon  as  there  is  sufficient  room  in  which  to  use 
the  latter  tool.  When  first  tamping  around  a  pipe  not  held  in 
position  by  any  earth,  the  tampers  should  be  in  pairs,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  pipe,  working  against  each  other  and  thus 
preserving  the  alignment.  Both  in  tamping  and  ramming,  the 
lowest  points  in  the  trench  should  be  refilled  first,  and  thereafter 
the  refilling  carried  on  in  horizontal  planes. 

For  any  mains  larger  than  12-inch,  an  economic  width  of 
trench  for  all  laying  purposes  will  not  afford  enough  room  on 
each  side  of  the  pipe  to  ensure  that  the  space  between  the 
bottom  of  the  main  and  of  the  trench  is  filled  even  loosely,  and, 
therefore,  unless  there  is  a  willingness  to  incur  extra  excavating 
expense,  it  must  be  understood  that  under  all  large  main*  there 
will  be  a  space  of  varying  dimensions,  which  will  afford  a  gas  leak 
a  fairly  free  passage.  However,  this  is  about  all  the  harm  done, 


280  MAIN  WORK 

with  the  resulting  chance  of  making  the  exact  location  of  a  future 
leak  somewhat  harder.  If  the  main  is  blocked  properly,  it  will 
not  settle,  and  if  the  trench  elsewhere  is  filled  properly,  the 
hollow  under  the  main  will  cause  no  earth  settlement.  Never- 
theless, because  it  is  impossible  to  fill  entirely  the  space  under 
the  main,  this  does  not  mean  that  no  effort  should  be  made  to 
fill  as  much  space  as  tools  and  trench  will  allow.  The  larger 
the  main,  the  more  the  attention  that  should  be  paid  to  this  first 
tamping,  and  the  better  the  laborers  assigned  to  the  work. 

With  a  proper  proportion  of  rammers  to  shovelers,  and  the 
right  kind  of  rammers,  viz.,  men  able,  and  paid,  to  ram  hard, 
there  usually  will  be  no  difficulty  in  replacing  all  material 
removed  for  mains  8-inch  and  smaller.  On  larger  mains,  where 
earth  has  to  be  hauled  away,  an  accurate  account  should  be  kept 
of  such  removed  material,  and  if  it  exceeds  the  volume  of  the 
pipe  laid,  an  explanation  should  be  forthcoming  from  the 
foreman. 

In  recent  years,  power  rammers,  driven  by  gasoline  or  com- 
pressed air,  have  become  available,  and  have  now  passed  the 
experimental  stage.  With  the  increasing  difficulty  of  procuring 
good  labor,  the  value  of  such  machines,  both  as  labor-saving 
devices  and  as  ensuring  proper  ramming,  will  increase.  In  turn, 
the  enlarged  demand  will  bring  about  new  developments  in  the 
machines,  still  further  increasing  their  usefulness.  Figure  82 
illustrates  a  satisfactory  type. 

In  any  refilling,  but  especially  in  ramming,  care  is  necessary  to 
protect  from  injury  all  small  pipes  exposed  in  the  trench,  espe- 
cially any  lead  water-services.  These,  where  over  the  pipe, 
should  be  blocked  from  it,  or,  if  under,  from  the  trench  bottom. 
In  either  case,  the  blocking  tends  to  prevent  any  pressure  of  the 
earth  pulling  the  lead  pipe  out  of  the  main.  Ramming  over 
terra  cotta  pipe  should  be  done  carefully,  to  prevent  a  smashing 
in  and  possible  stoppage. 

If  the  trench  is  to  be  paved  at  once,  refilling  should  stop  at  the 
point  below  the  surface  where  the  paving  base  begins.  Other- 
wise, the  trench  should  be  filled  to  the  street  surface,  or,  at  the 
most,  only  slightly  mounded.  If,  for  any  reason,  material  is 
lacking,  enough  should  be  procured  to  leave  the  trench  surface 
flush  with  the  rest  of  the  roadway. 

Occasionally,  in  trenching,  it  is  advisable  or  necessary  to 
tunnel  under  certain  paving  or  structures.  These  tunnels 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH          281 


•BMMBMB 


Figure  82.— Tamping  Machine,  page  280. 

usually  exist  in  connection  with  trenches  refilled  by  ramming  or 
puddling.     Ordinarily,  it  is  more  economical  to  break  down 
tunnel  roof  than  to  refill  from  the  sides.     Of  course,  where  ; 


282  MAIN   WORK 

ures  such   as  street  railroad   tracks  with  concrete  roadbed  are 
concerned,  breaking  down  is  not  the  right  course. 

PUDDLING 

Puddling  appeals  to  every  foreman  because  of  its  cheapness, 
and  should  be  practiced  wherever  the  conditions  are  favorable, 
viz.,  where  the  soil  is  of  the  right  kind,  and  there  is  no  danger  of 
water  soaking  into  cellars,  or  undermining  the  pipe.  Puddling 
in  a  street  made  of  filled-in  material,  may  cause  a  general  sinking 
of  the  street  surface.  In  built-up  sections,  puddling  may  be 
objectionable  because  of  the  chance  of  water  getting  into  cable 
conduits,  or  because  of  the  inability  to  pave  at  once  upon  the 
puddled  material. 

When  puddling,  the  pipe  should  be  covered  at  least  six  inches 
by  well-rammed  earth  before  any  water  is  let  in.  Also,  if  the 
trench  has  over  5  per  cent  grade,  the  first  ramming  should  reduce 
the  grade  to  this  figure,  in  order  to  prevent  any  wash  under  the 
pipe  by  water  sinking  through  the  loose  fill.  Dams  at  frequent 
intervals  also  will  serve  to  prevent  any  scouring  out  by  water 
flowing  down  a  grade,  and  in  any  case,  dams  would  be  necessary 
to  confine  the  water  to  each  terrace  made  by  the  first  ramming. 

After  the  preliminary  ramming,  the  trench  is  filled  to  within 
about  one  foot  of  the  surface,  and  then  water  turned  in,  usually 
from  the  nearest  fire  hydrant,  the  keys  for  which  are  furnished  by 
the  municipal  authorities,  often  on  payment  of  an  annual  fee. 
Care  always  should  be  taken  to  avoid  injury  to  paving  by  the 
flow  of  water  over  it.  As  the  water  flows  along  the  ditch,  bars 
are  hand  driven  through  the  loose  material  into  the  rammed 
earth  alongside  the  pipe,  and  swung  around  in  a  circular  direction. 
The  funnel-shaped  holes  so  made  allow  much  water  to  soak  into 
the  earth  around  the  pipe,  and  perhaps  carry  earth  to  fill  any 
voids  under  the  pipe,  but  there  is  no  chance  for  a  flow  of  water 
rapid  enough  to  affect  the  stability  of  the  pipe.  As  the  earth 
sinks  under  the  action  of  the  water,  more  earth  is  added,  espe- 
cially when  needed  to  preserve  any  desired  channel  for  water 
flow  which  is  not  stopped  until  the  saturated  earth  will  absorb 
no  more.  Then  the  remainder  of  the  earth  is  thrown  in  and 
lightly  rammed  into  a  slight  mound  over  the  trench  surface. 

Too  much  ramming  is  objectionable,  as  it  tends  to  produce  a 
spongy  condition.  Too  much  water  also  is  to  be  avoided,  as  this 
softens  the  bed  of  the  trench,  causes  the  pipe  to  settle  and  makes 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH          283 

the  refilled  material  so  soggy  as  to  delay  repaying.     Ordinary 
labor  cannot  be  trusted  unwatched  on  work  of  this  nature. 

The  method  above  described  is  considered  preferable  to  the 
practice  sometimes  followed  of  throwing  in  all  the  earth  and 
digging  a  trench  in  the  centre  of  the  mound  for  the  water  to 
follow.  This  leaves  no  dry  earth  to  finish  off  the  trench. 

Where  services  are  laid  in  connection  with  the  main  work, 
especial  care  should  be  given  to  the  repair  of  the  opening  made  in 
the  house  wall,  if  there  is  to  be  puddling  and  the  water  line  will 
be  higher  than  the  service  opening.  Of  course,  the  more  porous 
the  soil,  the  more  reason  for  a  good  cement  coating,  both  on  the 
outside  and  the  inside  of  the  wall.  Also,  a  dam  of  dirt  should 
be  thrown  across  every  service  trench  at  its  junction  with  the 
main  trench. 

LOOSE  FILLING 

Naturally,  the  largest  amount  of  main  work  will  consist  in 
extensions  to  the  existing  system  made  necessary  by  new 
buildings,  and  usually  such  extensions  are  laid  in  unpaved 
streets.  With  the  ordinary  sized  main,  and  an  interval  of  some 
months  elapsing  between  laying  and  paving,  there  can  be  no 
objection  to  loose  refilling  of  the  trench,  leaving  its  gradual 
consolidation  to  time  and  street  traffic.  In  such  unpaved  streets 
there  always  are  many  trenches  beside  those  made  for  gas 
purposes,  and  the  roller  used  by  the  paving  company  is  relied  on 
to  compact  the  entire  roadbed. 

The  surface  of  this  trench  after  a  loose  refill  is  that  of  a  mound 
perhaps  a  foot  high.  This  serves  as  a  warning  to  wagons  to  keep 
away.  It  is  incumbent  on  the  gas  company  to  make  a  frequent 
enough  inspection  to  ensure  the  prompt  filling  of  any  dangerous 
holes  that  may  be  formed  after  a  hard  rain.  Also  a  certain 
amount  of  trimming  of  the  mounded  earth  may  be  required 
from  time  to  time. 

CLEANING  UP 

The  final  cleaning  up  after  any  main  laying  job  can  take  place 
only  when  repaving  is  complete,  but  as  in  many  cases  the  repav- 
ing  is  done  by  a  contractor,  such  cleaning  up  as  may  be  done 
before  repaving,  and  by  the  company's  employees,  will  be 
treated  of  now. 

Almost  any  one  can  open  trench  and  obstruct  and  dirty  a 
street  and  footway.  Few  contractors  on  street  work  ever  clean 
up  properly.  All  gas  companies  should  see  to  it  that  the  natural 


284  MAIN  WORK 

disgust  induced  in  the  occupants  of  any  street  at  seeing  it  torn  up, 
is  followed,  as  quickly  as  possible,  by  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  at 
the  prompt  execution  of  the  work  and  the  thorough  restoration 
to  previously  existing  conditions.  Water  and  a  broom  are 
aids  not  often  enough  used  in  the  final  stages,  but  they  generally 
are  needed  to  do  justice  to  the  occupants'  properties  in  the 
removal  of  all  earth  stains  on  house  fronts,  sidewalks,  tree  trunks 
and  boxes,  grass,  etc. 

In  this  connection,  good  planning  of  a  job,  to  be  sure  the 
difficult  portions  are  not  neglected,  will  do  wonders  to  make  the 
work  move  along  continuously  and  not  leave  many  gaps  remain- 
ing open  for  days  after  the  work  on  each  side  is  finished. 

REPAYING 
GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

It  is  not  considered  advisable  to  describe  the  art  of  paving,  and 
this  not  only  because  it  would  add  to  a  treatise  already 
very  long,  but  also  because  many  companies  find  it  ad- 
visable to  contract  their  paving.  This  tendency  is  increased 
by  the  growing  prevalence  of  asphalt,  the  restoration  of  which 
by  the  company  is  out  of  the  question.  In  the  old  days,  when 
cobble  and  rubble  were  alone  met  with,  a  few  paving  tools  and  a 
little  sand  were  the  only  equipment  needed  to  enable  every  main 
and  service  gang  to  restore  their  own  paving. 

So  far  only  roadway  paving  has  been  in  mind.  A  like  change 
has  occurred  in  the  footway.  Bricks  have  given  place  to  cement, 
and,  again,  the  new  form  requires  more  skill  and  equipment  in 
its  restoration  than  did  the  old.  Therefore,  as  has  been  said 
before,  the  tendency  is  to  contract  for  the  paving.  This  involves 
more  lamping  of  trenches,  rather  more  office  work  in  connection 
with  paving  bills,  and  possibly  more  inspection  of  paving  work, 
though  with  reliable  contractors,  their  work  need  not  require  any 
more  attention  and  inspection  than  would  company  paving. 
By  inspection,  two  results  are  obtained:  No  poor  work  is 
allowed  to  remain  as  an  annoyance  to  the  public  and  a  bad 
advertisement  for  the  company,  and  no  dangerous  holes  may 
exist  long  without  detection.  As  the  details  of  an  inspection 
system  will  vary  greatly  according  to  local  conditions,  no 
description  of  one  will  be  given  here. 
ASPHALT 

If  the  street  is  a  much  travelled  one,  it  is  advisable  to  leave  the 
trench  in  such  shape  that  it  may  be  driven  over  during  the 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH          285 

interval  between  refilling  and  repaying.  This  condition  has  an 
added  advantage  that  it  dispenses  with  the  expense  of  lamping 
the  trench.  When  the  material  has  practically  all  gone  back, 
the  concrete  of  the  base  (if  any)  should  be  thrown  in  on  top  of  the 
earth,  and  then  the  asphalt  pieces  laid  down.  If  the  pieces  have 
been  well  cut,  a  very  good  job  can  be  made.  In  some  cases  of 
service  trenches  on  important  streets,  with  extra  care  in  cutting 
the  asphalt,  and  the  use  of  a  little  cement  in  the  cracks  between 
the  pieces,  a  very  fine  temporary  job  results.  Again,  the  base 
material  may  be  left  along  the  trench  or  at  the  curb  in  piles,  and 
just  the  asphalt  laid  back,  or  the  asphalt  may  be  left  piled  up  and 
the  trench  surface  finished  off  with  the  base  materials.  In  most 
cases,  however,  it  probably  is  true  that  the  surface  of  a  long 
trench  cannot  be  economically  made  safe  for  bicycles  or 
motor  cycles,  and  if  there  is  much  of  such  traffic,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  lamp  the  trench  until  repaving. 

In  order  to  ensure  prompt  repaving,  it  is  advisable  to  provide 
in  the  contract  for  decreased  prices  for  all  delayed  work.  For 
instance,  if  paving  is  supposed  to  be  laid  within  four  days  of 
receipt  of  notice,  seven-eighths  price  might  be  paid  for  paving  laid 
five  days  after  notice,  three-quarters  price  six  days,  etc.  Also, 
the  use  of  concrete  base  under  all  asphalt,  whether  the  original 
paving  had  such  base  or  not,  will  result  in  a  gratifying  absence 
of  settlement,  —  a  condition  always  glaringly  apparent  in 
asphalt. 

In  towns  without  any  asphalt  plant,  it  generally  will  be  satis- 
factory to  the  municipal  authorities  to  substitute  a  cement  finish 
on  a  concrete  base  for  any  asphalt  torn  up,  this  being  regarded  as 
temporary  repaving  only,  and  being  replaced  on  the  first  occasion 
that  asphalt  material  is  available. 

CONCRETE  BASE  PAVING 

Most  modern  street  paving  is  laid  on  a  concrete  base,  and  the 
tendency  with  this  class  of  paving,  as  with  asphalt,  is  to  intrust 
its  restoration  to  a  contractor.  Usually,  the  more  or  less  broken 
masses  of  concrete  form  the  surface  of  the  trench  as  left  by  the 
refilling  gang.  Whether  such  a  trench  will  need  lamping  or  not 
until  repaved,  will  depend  on  its  location,  the  compactness  of  its 
top  surface,  the  amount  and  character  of  traffic,  etc. 

ALL  OTHER  PAVING 

Under  this  head  falls  vitrified  brick,  belgian  block,  cobble  and 
rubble,  all  on  sand  base.  Where  only  small  openings  are  made 


286  MAIN  WORK 

in  such  paving,  there  are  many  arguments  in  favor  of  its  restora- 
tion by  the  same  gang  that  did  the  opening.  In  other  words,  on 
detached  service  or  leak  work,  the  ability  of  the  gang  to  do  its 
own  paving  will  save  all  lamping  cost,  as  well  as  a  constant 
expense  entailed  by  unpaved  trenches,  such  as  water  in  cellars. 
Also,  it  is  possible  to  get  better  paving  done  by  the  company's 
men  than  by  the  contractors.  When  opening  up  a  street 
requiring  sand  between  the  paving  stones,  one  of  the  obligations 
of  a  gas  company,  to  insure  a  good  job,  is  to  see  that  such 
sand  actually  is  brushed  in  between  the  stones,  and  not  left  on 
top  to  be  a  nuisance  on  windy  days. 

As  a  rule,  however,  the  fact  that  much  of  the  paving  is  better 
contracted  for  will  incline  the  average  company  to  contract  for 
all.  In  doing  so,  a  bigger  profit  often  is  paid  to  the  contractor 
than  is  realized,  until  it  is  found  by  experience  how  cheaply,  with 
proper  organization,  sand  base  (and  even  concrete  base,  if  there 
is  enough  of  it)  paving  can  be  done. 

Below  is  given  some  information  as  to  equipment  useful  in 
paving  work : 

PAVING  SMALL  OPENINGS  AROUND  STOP  BOXES,  »ETC. 

1  Light  Push  Cart  (Figure  53,  page  178)  containing: 
1  Spoon  Bar  (C,  Figure  44,  page  166), 
1  Street  Broom, 
1  Small  Galvanized  Bucket, 
1  6-inch  Cold  Chisel, 

1  Stop  Box  Cleaner  (A,  Figure  45,  page  168), 
1  Brick  Hammer, 
1  Caulking  Hammer, 
1  Pick, 

1  Sharp  Nose,  D-Handle  Shovel, 
1  6-inch  Trowel, 
Cement,  sand  and  bricks. 

PAVING  SERVICE  AND  SMALL  MAIN  OPENINGS 

2  Street  Bars,  2  Diamond  Points, 

1  Mixing  Board,  3  by  4  ft.,  1  Rake, 

1  Street  Broom,  1  Belgian  Block  or  Paving  Rammer, 

Dust  Brush,  1  Dirt  Rammer, 

1  Galvanized  Bucket,  1  Dot  Roller,  for  cement 

2  Cold  Chisels,  1  Seamer 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH          287 

1  Paver's  Straight  Edge,  1  Flat  Nose,  D-Handle  Shovel, 

1  Curb  or  Radius  Edger,  1  Sharp  " 

1  Wooden  Float,  1  Sieve, 

2  Brick  Hammers,  1  Finishing  Trowel, 
1  Caulking  Hammer,  1  4-inch 

1  Concrete  Knife,  1  8-inch 

2  Picks  and  Handles,  1  Monkey  Wrench. 
1  Pitchen  Tool, 

Paving  supplies,  such  as  cement,  brick,  crushed 

stone,  etc. 

This  equipment  is  sufficient  to  do,  on  a  small  scale,  all  kinds 
of  paving  except  asphalt. 

PAVING  LARGE  MAIN  OPENINGS 

For  extensive  paving,  the  number  of  tools  listed  just  above  is 
increased,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  paving  to  be  done. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

RECORDING 
REASONS  FOR  RECORDS 

A  knowledge  of  the  number  of  feet  of  each  size  of  pipe  com- 
prising the  street  main  system  is  valuable  at  all  times,  and  very 
necessary  when  a  valuation  of  the  mains  is  required.  This 
knowledge,  subject  to  varying  degrees  of  error,  is  possessed  by 
every  company,  and  almost  always  presupposes  the  possession 
of  a  map  showing  the  location  of  the  mains  by  sizes.  In  many 
cases,  however,  not  only  is  there  great  uncertainty  as  to  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  sizes  shown,  but  also  the  location  as  measured 
from  the  property  or  the  curb  line  is  either  wanting  or  incorrect. 
This  lack  of  proper  records  often  is  the  natural  consequence  of 
the  fact  that  in  the  beginning  the  location  and  size  of  every  main 
was  easily  a  matter  of  memory  for  the  few  employees.  As  the 
system  grew  and  new  employees  succeeded  the  old,  there  was 
failure  to  transfer  records  from  brains  to  paper.  Another  reason 
for  no  records,  or  improper  ones,  is  carelessness  in  past  years  in 
preserving  and  entering  the  information  furnished  when  the 
main  was  laid. 

At  present,  the  necessity  for  proper  street  main  records  is 
appreciated  thoroughly,  and  the  problem  has  been  solved  in 
many  different  ways,  depending  upon  differences  in  local  condi- 
tions and  in  the  human  equation.  In  what  follows  will  be 
found  a  description  of  methods,  the  use  of  which  has  proven 
their  worth. 


SYSTEM  OF  RECORDS  FOR  NE^  MAINS 

In  determining  the  character  of  requisite  street  main  records, 
the  usual  condition  is  that  of  a  main  system  sadly  lacking  in  data 
regarding  existing  mains,  and,  therefore,  needing  records  of 
maintenance  as  well  as  extension  work.  Before  considering  this 
condition,  the  less  common  one  will  be  discussed,  where  an 
entirely  new  main  system  is  being  installed. 

(288) 


RECORDING  289 

FIELD  RECORDS 

For  the  field  record,  that  is,  the  one  taken  out  on  the  work,  a 
transit  book  is  very  convenient.  This  is  4|  by  7£  inches,  has 
about  sixty  leaves,  and  is  ruled  with  horizontal  and  vertical  lines. 
In  making  the  records,  a  zero  point  may  be  taken  at  the  beginning 
of  the  line,  and  all  locations  along  the  line  given  with  reference 
to  this  zero.  For  long  lines,  especially  in  country  roads,  this  is 
the  best  way,  and  it  also  is  very  convenient  in  city  streets. 
Following  this  method,  once  the  proposed  line  of  a  main  has  been 
measured,  and  the  position  of  all  desired  points  of  reference 
noted,  any  portion  of  the  main  as  laid  can  be  shown  quickly  on 
the  record,  no  matter  whether  gaps  occur  or  not. 

The  amount  of  record  that  will  be  needed  to  enable  the  main 
to  be  located  properly  on  a  map,  and  also  found  easily  where 
occasion  requires  uncovering,  will  depend  entirely  upon  the 
number  of  changes  occurring  in  depth  and  alignment.  The 
depth  to  top  of  pipe  and  the  distance  out  from  the  curb  or 
property  line,  should  be  given  every  hundred  feet  when  there  is 
no  change;  and  where  the  dimension  is  changing,  at  enough 
points  to  define  the  line.  A  single  line  will  suffice  to  show  the 
pipe.  All  special  castings,  whether  branches  or  bends,  should 
be  located  accurately,  the  length  of  each  special  being  considered 
to  be  the  distance  between  the  faces  of  its  bells,  where  it  has  two 
bell  ends,  or  between  the  bell  of  adjoining  pipe  or  specials,  when 
the  special  being  measured  has  two  spigot  ends,  or  between  the 
bell  of  the  special  and  the  bell  of  the  adjoining  pipe  or  special, 
where  the  special  being  measured  has  one  bell  and  one  spigot  end. 
A  bracket  mark  ( ] ),  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  pipe,  is 
an  easy  way  of  representing  the  face  of  every  bell,  the  horizontal 
lines  extending  away  from  the  face  of  the  bell. 

When  the  points  of  reference  along  the  main,  such  as  dividing 
property  lines,  intersecting  roads  or  streets,  etc.,  are  not  at 
right  angles  to  the  main,  these  points  should  be  located  by  their 
intersection  with  whatever  line  is  being  used  as  a  base  to  measure 
distances  at  right  angles  to  the  main,  and  not  by  their  inter- 
section with  the  main  itself. 

With  all  specials  thus  located  at  the  proper  distance  from  the 
assumed  zero  point,  the  amount  of  straight  pipe  laid  at  any 
moment  may  be  calculated  easily,  and,  in  some  cases,  this  is  an 
easier  way  of  getting  it  than  by  adding  up  a  series  of  figures 
showing  the  work  day  by  day.  Any  portion  of  the  line,  where 
the  depth  is  changing  rapidly^  or  where  the  pipe  is  not  parallel  to 


290  MAIN  WORK 

the  reference  line,  must  be  measured  along  the  pipe  itself,  and 
such  measurement  recorded  and  used,  instead  of  the  distance  as 
measured  on  the  reference  line,  between  the  stations  marking  the 
beginning  and  end  of  such  deviations  in  line  and  depth. 

When  there  are  many  specials  in  close  proximity,  which  usually 
means  many  changes  in  depth  and  alignment,  the  scale  sufficing 
for  the  ordinary  portions  of  the  line  will  prove  too  small.  There- 
fore, either  the  scale  ought  to  be  increased  at  these  points  to  give 
a  proper  sketch,  or  else  a  detail  sketch  on  a  larger  scale  should  be 
shown  elsewhere. 

While,  as  a  rule,  the  depth  would  indicate  which  way  the  line 
was  dripping,  at  the  same  time  it  is  surer,  and  much  more  con- 
venient for  purposes  of  permanent  record,  to  indicate  the 
direction  of  drippage  by  an  arrow  parallel  to  the  line  and 
pointing  with  the  flow. 

A  record  of  other  structures  encountered  is  generally  of  suf- 
ficient value  to  warrant  the  slight  extra  work  involved  in  making 
such  record.  This  record  of  foreign  structures  increases  in  value 
as  underground  conditions  become  more  congested,  and  when 
there  is  another  gas  company,  whose  records  probably  are  not 
very  complete,  any  records  of  its  mains  are  apt  to  prove  very 
useful,  either  in  competition  or  consolidation.  Where  the 
foreign  structures  are  mains,  they  can  be  indicated  in  the  same 
way  as  the  main  being  laid,  though  probably  not  in  so  much 
detail.  Where  they  are  conduits,  and,  therefore,  almost  invari- 
ably rectangular  in  section,  a  line  may  be  drawn  indicating  the 
nearest  upper  edge  to  the  main  being  laid.  This,  in  connection 
with  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  main,  the  breadth  and 
depth  of  the  conduit,  and  the  depth  of  its  top  surface  below  the 
street  level,  locates  it  completely. 

It  is  of  value  to  indicate  on  the  record  the  date  on  which  each 
foot  of  main  is  laid.  This  is  done  very  easily  by  placing  the  date 
of  each  day's  work  between  arrow  heads,  located  at  the  proper 
points.  Where,  for  any  reason,  the  work  is  quite  discontinuous, 
the  graphical  record  of  dates  may  prove  quite  valuable  as  a 
history  of  progress  and  of  work  condition  from  day  to  day. 

Figure  83  shows  two  opposite  pages  of  a  transit  book  with  its 
record. 

REPORTS  TO  OFFICE 

Where  the  company  is  a  small  one,  no  work-progress  report  to 
the  office  is  needed,  as  the  information  can  be  obtained  bv  an 


RECORDING 


291 


inspection  of  the  field-book,  or  is  a  matter  of  personal  knowledge 
with  the  main  foreman.  When  these  conditions  no  longer  obtain 
and  a  daily  or  weekly  report  is  needed,  a  form  as  shown  in 
Figure  84  should  be  used,  printed  on  a  postal  card  where  mailing 


is  necessary.  "Repaved"  shows  the  total  number  of  feet 
repaved  to  date;  "Back  Filled,"  what  has  been  filled  but  not 
repaved;  "Pipe  Laid,"  the  amount  of  pipe  laid  where  trench  has 
not  been  refilled;  "Trench  Open,"  the  amount  open  in  which 
pipe  is  not  yet  laid;  "Pipe  Strung,"  the  number  of  feet  of  pipe 
delivered  on  the  work  and  not  vet  laid.  This  information  is 


292 


MAIN  WORK 


SURVEYOJ?'.S      T5E.PORT 


LOCATION 


TOTAU  1.ENGT* 


RE.FAVE.D 


BACK"  F>  LI-ED 


TJUHCH  OPEH 


FIFE    STRUNG 


6013  VE.VOR. 


Figure  84.— Postal  Card  Progress  Report,  page  291. 


RECORDING  293 

valuable  particularly  in  the  case  of  a  long  line,  and  gives  the 
office  a  clear  idea  of  what  the  physical  condition  of  the  work  is 
at  the  time  of  report. 

PERMANENT  RECORDS 

The  best  form  of  permanent  records  for  the  conditions  we  have 
been  considering  all  along,  viz.,  an  entirely  new  system,  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  maps  already  available.  For  all 
large  and  many  small  cities,  atlases  generally  may  be  obtained 
with  plates  whose  scale  varies  from  200  to  500  feet  to  the  inch. 
There  are  very  few  small  towns  for  which  maps  are  not  obtain- 
able, and  in  the  country  there  often  are  available  the  maps  of 
the  Geological  Survey.  No  company  should  make  up  its  own 
map  except  as  a  last  resort,  for  map  work  easily  runs  into 
great  expense. 

On  the  map,  a  line  will  indicate,  by  its  color,  the  size,  and  by 
its  position,  the  general  location  of  a  main,  but  the  scale  will 
be  too  small  to  make  it  advisable  to  indicate  specials,  drips  or 
any  other  details.  To  get  such  details,  a  different  set  of  records 
is  wanted,  except,  indeed,  in  companies  selling,  say,  less  than 
fifty  million  cubic  feet  a  year,  in  which  the  original  field  book 
record  will,  with  the  map,  supply  all  necessary  information. 
If  the  field-book  is  used,  the  map  should  indicate  the  field-book 
number  and  page  containing  the  record  of  every  block,  or,  say, 
500-foot  section  of  main.  In  this  way  the  map  becomes  an  index 
for  the  detailed  record. 

If  the  field-book  information  is  transcribed,  the  desirable  unit 
for  the  new  detailed  record  is  either  the  city  block,  or,  on  country 
roads,  for  lines  under  1000  feet,  the  total  length  of  main,  and  for 
lines  over  1000  feet,  some  fixed  distance,  such  as  500  feet.  The 
material  used  for  the  record  should  be  tracing  cloth,  or  thin  bond 
paper,  blueprints  from  which  form  the  working  file,  while  the 
originals  themselves  are  kept  in  a  fireproof  safe.  Each  sheet 
should  be  about  7  by  18  inches,  should  give  the  main  in  plan  and 
elevation,  and  be  a  faithful  transcript  of  the  field  record  in 
every  point  necessary  to  give  a  proper  idea  of  the  location  of  the 
pipe  and  of  other  structures.  The  drawing  need  not  be  to 
scale,  and  thus  speed  may  be  gained,  and  more  space  afforded 
for  snowing  specials.  Each  sheet  should  be  numbered,  and  the 
various  sheets  numerically  arranged  in  groups  of  one  hundred. 
The  general  map,  or  maps,  would,  in  this  case,  bear  the  proper 
record  numbers  opposite  each  block  or  unit  distance.  Thus,  to 


294  MAIN  WORK 

find  any  detailed  record,  it  only  would  be  necessary  to  look  at  the 
map,  see  the  block  number,  and  turn  to  the  proper  group  of 
detailed  records,  where  would  be  found  the  record  desired  in  its 
numerical  order. 

Where  there  is  much  occasion  to  refer  to  the  detailed  main 
records,  the  above  system  is  exceptionally  valuable,  because  of 
the  quickness  with  which  the  records  may  be  found.  Where,  for 
any  reason,  such  as,  for  instance,  to  locate  a  main  for  a  service 
gang,  it  is  necessary  to  send  a  record  on  the  street,  a  convenient 
way  is  to  make,  in  triplicate  (by  means  of  carbon  paper),  a 
rough  free-hand  sketch,  using  a  white  scratch  pad  5|  by  8| 
inches;  give  all  three  the  number  of  the  office  record;  send  one 
sketch  on  the  street,  and  file  the  other  two  numerically.  The 
service  man  should  be  instructed  to  return  the  sketch,  and  no 
other  sketch  need  be  made  for  that  particular  location  until  all 
three  are  lost  or  worn  out. 

Where  the  record  may  be  needed  on  the  street  by  the  main 
foreman,  there  is,  of  course,  no  reason  why  the  proper  blueprint 
should  not  go  out,  but  for  service  work  the  sketch  system  is 
preferable. 

SYSTEM  OF  RECORDS  FOR  NEW  AND  EXISTING  MAINS 
SMALL  COMPANY 

Coming  now  to  the  condition  that  confronts  the  average  dis- 
tribution man,  viz.,  a  main  system  that  is  being  enlarged  every 
year,  and  that  also  is  lacking  in  proper  records  of  many  existing 
mains,  two  systems  of  records  could  be  used,  one  for  the  new 
mains  as  already  described,  and  another  system  for  the  old 
mains  of  unknown  location.  Where  the  company  is  selling  less 
than  fifty  million  cubic  feet  annually,  which  means  a  small  town 
with  few  underground  structures  and  few  specials  in  the  main 
system,  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  easy  ways  to  record  in- 
formation of  old  mains  as  obtained  from  time  to  time,  and  to  col- 
lect this  information  in  a  convenient  shape  from  which  to  make  a 
graphical  record  later  on,  is  by  the  use  of  the  book,  of  which  a 
specimen  page  is  shown  in  Figure  85. 

The  book  was  written  up  for  every  street  on  which  mains  were 
known  to  be,  and  distances  shown  between  each  intersecting 
street.  As  illustrated,  zero  is  the  east  fence  line  of  Erie,  and  202 
the  east  fence  line  of  Huron,  which  is  also  taken  as  zero  for  distances 
in  the  next  block.  One  line  of  the  book  was  allowed  for  every 
25  feet,  and  any  work  done  on  a  main,  or  information  gathered 


RECORDING 


295 


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by  uncovering  it,  was  entered  on  the  proper  line  according  to 
the  location.  Of  course,  if  there  were  to  he  many  openings,  this 
book  record  would  not  provide  adequate  space,  and,  therefore, 
it  is  recommended  onlv  under  the  conditions  already  described. 


296  MAIN   WORK 

As  will  be  noted,  it  also  affords  an  opportunity  for  recording  leaks. 
For  the  new  mains  of  the  small  company  just  considered,  the 
field-book  record  described  on  page  289,  with  no  transcribing, 
would  be  adequate. 

LARGE  COMPANY 

The  larger  the  mileage  of  mains,  the  more  argument  there 
probably  is  for  the  use  of  one  system  of  records  for  both  new 
and  old  mains,  although  where,  as  is  very  often  the  case,  the 
greatest  amount  of  new  mains  is  laid  in  one  or  two  compara- 
tively restricted  are'as  on  the  outskirts  of  a  growing  city,  no 
confusion  would  result  from  one  system  of  records  for  these  new 
mains  and  another  system  for  all  others.  Also,  it  is  quite 
feasible  to  sketch  all  new  mains  by  the  field-book  system,  and, 
by  means  of  the  number  on  the  general  main  map,  to  possess 
an  instantaneous  index  to  any  particular  record.  The  presence 
of  a  number  opposite  the  block  for  which  the  record  was  desired, 
would  indicate  that  such  record  was  made  according  to  the  field- 
book  system,  and  would  be  found  as  a  blueprint  in  the  pile 
(or  file)  indicated  by  its  number.  The  absence  of  a  number 
would  indicate  that  the  record  was  on  a  sketch  card  (to  be 
explained  later  on)  and  would  be  found  in  the  proper  alpha- 
betical file. 

The  great  value  of  the  blueprint  record  lies  in  its  presenting  a 
continuous  sketch  of  the  main,  but  it  does  not  lend  itself  to 
changing  conditions,  and  this  is  one  of  the  greatest  objections  to 
using  it  in  large  cities,  where,  apparently  for  many  years  to 
come,  the  installation  of  various  underground  structures, 
especially  wire  conduits  with  their  attendant  manholes,  will 
cause  many  changes  in  main  locations.  To  meet  these  condi- 
tions, the  system  of  records  used  in  Philadelphia,  alike  for  new 
and  for  old  mains,  has  proven  very  successful.  Before  describing 
it,  a  general  account  of  the  Philadelphia  organization  for  obtain- 
ing records  is  advisable. 

SYSTEM  OF  RECORDS  IN  PHILADELPHIA 

ORGANIZATION 

There  is  a  Superintendent  of  Records,  reporting  directly  to  the 
Engineer  of  Distribution.  Under  him  is  a  Chief  Draftsman,  in 
direct  charge  of  obtaining,  mapping  and  filing  records,  through 
the  agency  of  street  clerks  and  draftsmen.  A  street  clerk  usually 
is  a  graduate  of  a  technical  college  or  institute.  Upon  employ- 


RECORDING 


297 


Figure  86.— Field  Sketch,  page  298. 


298  MAIN  WORK 

ment,  he  is  first  put  to  work  in  the  Records  Division  to  familiarize 
himself  with  the  system  of  records,  one  of  his  duties  being  the 
duplicating  of  records.  After  this  inside  apprenticeship,  he  is 
sent  out,  first,  under  the  instruction  of  another  street  clerk,  and 
then  alone,  to  record  the  work  of  one  or  more  street  main  gangs. 
In  this  position  he  is  able  to  learn  all  the  details  of  street  work, 
and  to  qualify  for  the  position  of  foreman  in  charge  of  main  or 
service  work.  The  position  of  street  clerk,  besides  serving  as  a 
training  school  for  future  foremen,  superintendents  and  managers, 
allows  the  gang  foreman  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  directing  his 
men.  When  the  foreman  is  held  responsible  for  his  main 
records,  either  the  records  or  the  work,  or  both,  are  apt  to  suffer. 
The  draftsmen,  in  the  office,  post  upon  the  main  charts  the 
records  as  made  by  the  street  clerks,  and  also  furnish  various 
reports  needed  in  connection  with  main  work. 

Each  street  clerk  is  provided  with  the  following  equipment: 

1  45°  6-inch  Angle, 

1  60°  4-inch      " 

1  Brass  Plumb  Bob, 

1  Note  Book,  3f  by  6-inch,  200  pages, 

1  Sketch  Book,  4|  by  7^-inch,  120  pages, 

1  piece  Yellow  Chalk, 

1  Chalking  Cord, 

1  Band  Dater, 

1  Street  Directory, 

1  Combination  Ink  and  Pencil  Eraser, 

1  Draftsman's  Soft  Pencil  Eraser, 

1  Holder  for  Daily  Progress  Report, 

6  f-oz.  bottles  Drawing  Ink,  black,  blue,  brown,  green,  red 
and  yellow, 

1  set  Instructions  to  Street  Clerks, 

1  set  Drawing  Instruments, 

2  Ink  Pads,  red  and  black, 
1  3-H  Lead  Pencil, 

1  Medium  Lead  Pencil, 
1  6-ft.  Extension  Rule, 
1  piece  Soapstone, 
1  set  Rubber  Stamps, 
1  50-ft.  Metallic  Tape, 

Clips,  fasteners  of  various  kinds,   pens,  blotters,   printed 
forms  and  other  stationery. 


RECORDING  299 

FIELD  RECORDS 

A  field-book  record  is  made  of  all  openings.  A  standard  field 
sketch  is  shown  in  Figure  86.  As  all  subsequent  records  depend 
upon  the  field  sketch,  the  measurements  are  taken  carefully  and 
plotted  clearly  in  every  detail.  Memory  is  not  relied  on  in  any 
way  for  information  necessary  for  the  final  record.  A  3-H 
pencil  is  used  for  this  field  work.  Each  sketch  is  indexed  at 
the  back  of  the  field-book,  alphabetically  by  its  street  name, 
and  when  the  book  is  filled,  it  is  turned  in  to  the  office,  where  it 
is  dated,  numbered  and  filed  in  a  vault. 

In  making  field  sketches,  the  following  points  are  observed 
in  connection  with  measurements: 

USE  OF  MEASURING  EQUIPMENT 

Figure  87  shows,  in  a  general  way,  the  application  and  use  of 
the  tape  line,  measuring  rule  and  plumb  bob.  The  tape  line  is 
drawn  taut  sufficiently  to  bring  it  to  a  straight  line,  but  never  is 
stretched.  It  is  protected  from  the  weather  as  much  as  possible, 
and  if  it  becomes  wet  or  soiled,  it  is  dried  before  winding  into  the 
case.  Every  two  weeks  each  tape  is  tested  for  length  against  a 
steel  tape.  In  using  the  plumb  bob,  three  trials  are  made  for 
each  measurement  taken. 

MEASUREMENTS — How  AND  WHEN  TAKEN 

Curb  lines  are  used  as  bases  of  reference  wherever  possible; 
otherwise,  building  or  fence  lines,  car  tracks,  etc.  All  measure- 
ments at  right  angles  to  a  main  or  street  axis  (known  as  ordinate 
measurements)  are  taken  at  each  end  of  the  block  and  at  all 
angle  points  in  the  line,  and  are  from  the  outside  edge  of  the 
nearest  curb  to  the  centre  of  the  main.  Ordinate  measurements 
of  foreign  structures  always  are  taken  with  reference  to  the 
centre  of  the  nearest  gas  main,  and  are  to  the  nearest  edge  of 
rectangular  structures  and  to  the  centre  of  circular  structures. 
Ordinate  measurements  of  foreign  structures  with  reference  to 
curbs  are  not  taken  ordinarily. 

All  measurements  parallel  with  a  main  or  a  street  axis  (known 
as  axial  measurements)  are  taken  from  the  intersection  of  the 
curb  serving  as  a  base  for  the  ordinate  measurements,  with  the 
intersection,  actual  or  produced,  of  the  nearest  curb  of  the 
nearest  intersecting  street.  Where  streets  intersect  at  angles 
other  than  right  angles,  measurements  are  taken  as  shown  in 
Figure  88.  The  intersection  of  the  curb  lines  of  such  angle 


300 


MAIN  WORK 


DE.TAIU 
«G"TAPe.  LINE  PI.ACCO  ALONG   CORE> 


GE.NE.RAU    SKC.TO-1 

G  MtTMOo  OF  LOCATING  A  POINT. 


SHOWING   METHOD  OF  MEASURINQ  PIPE  IN   TONNEX 

ivitAsorir<o 
• 

TltD    1V3  A 

CROW-BAR,  is  HUNG   IN 
Hour.  AND  LOCATEO  FROM 

CURB,   PIPE.    THEN     LOCATED 

FROM  rix>Me  LINE  AND  MEASUREMENTS  AOOE.O  FOR  TOTAU 


Figure  87. — Methods  of  Measuring,  page  299. 


RECORDING 


301 


"PL-AM 


Figure  88.— Measurements  at  Other  than  Right  Angles,  page  299. 


302  MAIN  WORK 

streets  is  obtained  by  the  crossing  of  two  lines  of  cord  extended 
along,  and  in  line  with,  the  curbs  whose  intersection  is  desired; 
or,  by  using  a  chalk  line,  with  one  cord  only. 

All  depths  are  taken  vertically  from  the  street  surface  to  the 
top  of  all  structures.  Elevations  are  not  shown  in  the  field-book, 
unless  the  structures  to  be  sketched  are  quite  complicated,  and, 
therefore,  the  ordinary  plan  will  not  show  conditions  clearly. 

Axial  measurements,  in  every  case  to  the  face  of  the  nearest 
bell,  are  thus  taken:  On  branches,  from  the  intersection  of  the 
axes;  on  bends,  along  the  axis  from  the  angle  point;  and  on  Y's, 
from  the  intersection  of  the  axes.  Bushings  are  counted  as  being 
1  inch  and  caps  as  4  inches  long. 

Other  details  to  be  kept  in  mind  when  taking  field  records,  can 
be  stated  to  better  advantage  when  describing  the  permanent 
records. 

REPORTS  TO  OFFICE 

Each  day  the  street  clerk  makes  a  "progress"  report,  in  tripli- 
cate, one  for  the  district  office,  one  for  the  Records  Division,  and 
one  for  himself.  This  report  is  shown  in  Figure  89.  The  form 
is  self-explanatory,  except,  possibly,  as  to  the  information  called 
for  in  the  lines  opposite  "Laid  or  Overhauled"  and  "Valve, 
Drip,  Service,  etc."  In  these  cases,  the  character  of  the  work  is 
indicated  by  drawing  a  line  through  all  but  the  proper  sig- 
nificant letter. 

PERMANENT  RECORDS 

Whenever  any  pipe  is  laid,  or  old  pipe  uncovered  of  which  there 
is  no  satisfactory  record,  a  permanent  record,  known  as  the 
sketch  record  and  shown  in  Figure  91,  is  made  from  the  field-book. 
This  form,  as  well  as  Figure  86,  is  quadrille  ruled.  (Not  shown 
by  the  illustrations.)  Where  only  a  few  feet  of  old  straight  pipe 
is  uncovered  and  no  foreign  structures  encountered,  the  record 
is  made  as  shown  in  Figure  90. 

SKETCH  DETAILS 

In  making  the  sketch  record  (Figure  91)  the  following  details 
are  observed :  Nothing  is  drawn  to  scale,  though  all  of  the 
structures  are  shown  in  their  true  relative  positions.  The 
crossing  of  figures  with  lines,  and  the  crowding  of  figures,  notes 
and  lines,  are  avoided  carefully.  The  name  of  the  street  in 
which  most  of  the  work  is  done,  is  given  at  the  top  of  the  form. 
The  north  point  is  stamped  in  red  in  the  upper  left  corner. 


RECORDING 


303 


No, To Inc. 


DATE— 


MAIN  WORK  DAILY  PROGRESS  REPORT 

DISTRICT 


LOCATION 

1 
|              . 

1    •:  ' 

i  • 

i 

|f  -• 

I 

J 

INSTRUCTION   MO. 

CLASSIFICATION 

SIZE  MAIN 

" 

•• 

•• 

t» 

COMMENCED 

TOTAL  LENGTH 

• 

• 

• 

-. 

DATE  OF  LAST  REPORT 
OF  INSTRUCTED  JOB 

TOTAL  OF  LAST 

REPORT 

- 

• 

• 

• 

REPORTED  TO-DAY 

• 

• 

• 

• 

TOTAL  TO  DATE 

J 

'§ 

.  • 

•5 

LAID  OR  OVERHAULED 

LOS 

LO    5 

LO    S 

LO3 

ABANDONED  TO-DAY 

—or    •• 

—or    •• 

—or    ". 

—or    •• 

REMOVED  TO-DAY 

-or    •• 

—or    " 

-or    •• 

-or.   •• 

VALVE.DRIP.SERV.OR 

PRCSSU  HE  TEST.  STA. 

VDSP 

VDSP 

VDSP 

VDSP 

FINISHED 

FOREMAN 

1 

UAK«: 

MCMAMHS. 


HtC  O  H.O 


Figure  89. — Progress  Report,  page  302. 


304  MAIN  WORK 

In  general,  the  ruled  lines  of  the  record  card  are  used  in  every 
feasible  way,  and,  when  possible,  the  centre  lines  are  used  for  the 
mains  to  be  sketched,  which  are  shown  by  lines  ^-j-inch  wide, 
according  to  the  following  scheme: 
*  Pipe  laid  in  new  work     .      .    Solid  Red 
Existing  pipe  uncovered        .    Solid  Black 
Pipe  abandoned    ....    Solid  Green 

Pipe  removed Broken  Green 

Pipe  relaid Solid  Red  overlaid  by  Broken  Black 

*  When  the  pipe  used  is  not  cast  iron,  its  material  is  stated. 


MAIN    RECORD Diswct 

Nearest  house  No.  St.  __ 

Charge 

Nature  of  work  Date 

Size  Cover  Ft.  Ins.  Drips  towards  St 

Location  of  Main  Ft.  Ins.  of  Curb-line  of  St. 


Location  of  Joint  Ft.  Ins.  of  Curb-lino  of  St. 

Yes 

Kmd  of  Joint  Joint  recaulked  No.  Bell  faces  . 

Foreman  Kind  of  paving  Base  Kind  of  soil 

"Location'of 

Foreign  Structure  Size  fr.?ver 

Remarks 
Rec'd  B  of  R. 


Figure  90. — Main  Record,  page  302. 

Foreign  structures  are  indicated  by  lines  ^-inch  wide,  and  the 
following  scheme  is  used : 

Water  mains Solid  Blue 

Conduits Solid  Yellow 

Manholes,  handholes,  sewers,  inlets  and  house  drains  Solid  Brown 
A  separate  record  is  needed  where  manholes  enclose  mains. 
Where  a  foreign  structure  is  being  laid  at  the  same  time  as  a  gas 
main,  but  is  not  actually  in  place  when  the  main  record  is  taken, 
its  approximate  location  is  shown  by  a  dashed  line  of  appropriate 
color.  Clearances  are  shown  in  red,  and  give  the  minimum 
distances  from  a  bell  and  also  from  the  main  itself  to  any  foreign 
structure. 

Existing  curbs  and  corners  are  shown  by  a  solid   black  line 
\\-ide,  as  in  Figure  92.     Building  and  dimension  lines,  etc., 


RECORDING 


305 


Coranitneff! 
Wo. 


K  \MBAV_\_ 
'-^       TO      2  7 '  E..  E 


lr»i>.  K«. 


I  from  4  of  go*  main  to 
oufs.de  <id|e  of  rwctar 

I   sVucturas   &  to    4   of  C 

\3+rvlc.tor«». 


taken 
n«<ir< 


QiVe  cover  of    structore*  wh«n 
it  doss  noV  crats  gas  main. 


E..E..J-.CQ.      io"OKa:'  gpy  z'-fc" 


NOTE. 

TAKE   ALL  MEASUfctMtNTS    TO  GAS 
MAIN*    INOCPC.NOC.MT  OF  OTKtR    .3TWOCTORE5 
IN  THE.   ORDEH    S^   SEQOENCt    \LLU6TRATLD. 

KEEP   ABANDONED    PIPE.    MEASOREMENTd 
INDE.PENDENT. 

MEASORt-MEtsTS    TO  AUU    OTMtR 
STRUCTURE.!)   TO  E>E  MAPt    K«-V.AT»VE  TO 
THE.    G,AS   MAIM 


PX_Ats| 

\\\uktrdtlng  how  a 
3>ioold  M  mMtwriM  frwtt 
a  main. 


Figure  91.— Sketch  Record,  page  302. 


306 


MAIN  WORK 


CME.STNUT 


IONIC 

*•'*». 


Figure  92. — Designation  of  Curbs  and  Corners,  page  304. 

are  shown  as  in  Figure  93.  Telegraph  poles,  lamp  posts,  fire 
plugs  and  pier  lines,  when  needed  as  bases  for  location,  are  shown 
by  conventional  designs.  Figures  giving  sizes,  dimensions, 
covers,  etc.,  are  in  black  above  the  line  indicating  the  main,  the 
size  being  shown  at  right  angles  to  the  main,  to  avoid  confusion 
with  dimension  and  location  figures.  Solid  line,  rubber  hand- 
stamps  designate  the  various  forms  of  bells  and  specials. 
Reducers  are  shown  solid,  and  tapered  to  indicate  change  in  size. 
Where  pipe  or  specials  are  exposed  only  partially,  this  is  indi- 
cated on  the  record.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  street  clerk 
does  not  leave  in  doubt  the  character  of  any  special,  or  the 
relations  between  any  intersecting  mains. 


RECORDING  JQ7 


DIMENSION 
EXTENSION    L_lfSC.a> 
PROJE.C.TED      OCJRES 


auoo.  a<-  MOUSE.  i_mta>. 

ACTLJAU    CURE* 


1 1- 

DR1VE.WAV.&  

•STAv<e: 


.    Figure  93.— Building  and  Dimension  Lines,  page  306. 

Where  a  main  is  carried  through  the  air,  generally  attached  to 
the  upper  or  under  surface  of  a  bridge,  detailed  information  of  its 
location  is  given.  A  detail  plan  of  the  main  locations  always  is 
prepared  before  a  new  bridge  is  begun,  and  the  record  made  by 
the  street  clerk  serves  as  a  check  against  this  plan,  if  the  work 
is  carried  out  as  originally  intended,  or  records  any  difference 
between  execution  and  plan.  Where  an  existing  main  is  over- 
hauled, and  there  is  no  satisfactory  record  of  its  location  with 
relation  to  the  bridge,  the  street  clerk  secures  as  detailed  a 
record  as  conditions  allow. 

Where  pipe  is  laid  above  ground  for  temporary  use  only 
extending  over  several  months,  a  special  record  is  made. 

Where  mains  will  cross  under  steam  railroad  tracks,  a  plan 
usually  is  prepared  in  advance  of  the  work,  and  the  record  as 
taken  shows  the  relation  between  the  tracks  and  the  main,  and 
serves  as  a  check  against  the  plan.  In  the  case  of  street  car 
tracks,  a  record  of  the  tracks  is  not  taken  ordinarily  where  the  main 
crosses  at  right  angles,  but  always  where  the  main  is  under  the 
track  for  some  distance,  as  might  be  the  case  if  the  main  lies 
parallel  to  the  track,  or  crosses  under  switches. 

For  each  job,  in  addition  to  the  sketch  record  made  according 
to  the  foregoing  rules,  all  the  information  needed  for  the  sketch- 


308  MAIN  WORK 

record  card  is  filled  out  on  the  reverse  of  this  card,  as  shown  in 
Figure  94.  The  lower  half  is  written  by  the  street  clerk,  but  the 
information  on  the  upper  half  is  entered  by  the  draftsman,  who 
uses  it  for  the  monthly  report. 

Of  the  information  contained  on  the  sketch  record,  only  the 
size  and  general  location  of  the  main  are  transferred  to  the 
proper  main  chart,  using  water  colors  for  ease  in  any  subsequent 
removal,  thereby  preserving  the  surface  of  the  chart.  When 
these  charts  are  on  a  scale  no  larger  than  200  feet  to  the  inch, 
fillets  may  be  used  to  denote  connections,  but  no  other  details  as 
to  specials  should  be  indicated.  With  charts  of  50  feet  to  the 
inch,  a  fairly  complete  record  may  be  made,  but  the  same  large 
scale  that  makes  this  detailed  record  possible,  allows  such  a  small 
extent  of  territory  to  be  shown  on  any  one  chart,  that  experience 
proves  the  smaller  scale  charts  are  preferable  for  ascertaining  the 
mains  in  any  particular  region,  while  the  sketch  records  must  be 
resorted  to  usually  for  certain  necessary  details  that  even  a  scale 
of  50  feet  to  the  inch  cannot  show.  Therefore,  the  limited  use  of 
the  large  scale  does  not  warrant  the  expense  of  preparing  it. 

The  sketch  records  for  the  current  month  are  placed  in  a 
special  file  until,  at  the  end  of  the  month,  their  data  has  been 
properly  recorded.  Then  they  are  transferred  to  the  permanent 
file,  where  the  arrangement  is  alphabetical  by  street  names,  all 
records  for  the  same  street  being  filed  by  street  number.  In 
order  to  make  this  numerical  filing  possible,  a  hypothetical 
number  is  assigned  to  every  record.  Where  the  work  involves 
only  a  street  intersection,  or  an  intersection  and  more  or  less 
work  beyond  the  intersection  in  the  direction  in  which  the  street 
is  numbered,  the  hypothetical  number  assigned  is  the  highest 
number  belonging  to  the  intersection  on  the  proper  side  of  the 
street.  Where  the  work  does  not  involve  an  intersection,  or,  if 
involving  an  intersection,  extends  beyond  it  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  numbering,  the  number  assigned  is  the  lowest 
one  belonging  to  any  building  or  lot  on  the  same  side  of  the  street 
as  the  work,  and  in  front  of  which  the  work  is  done. 

When  a  record  embraces,  in  part,  or  entirely,  the  same  extent 
of  main  covered  by  a  previous  record,  it  is  filed  behind  the 
earlier  record.  Where  mains  are  changed  frequently,  it  often 
happens  that  a  true  idea  of  the  exact  main  locations  in  any  one 
block,  or  at  any  one  intersection,  can  be  obtained  only  by 
reference  notes  and  by  spreading  out  several  sketch  records  made 
at  various  times,  and  noticing  carefully  how  the  later  records 


RECORDING 


309 


MAIN  WORK  SKETCH  RECORD. 

DISTRIBUTION  DEPARTMENT 
RECORDS  DIVISION 


AMOUNT  AUTM 


TOTAL  PIPE  LAI&  PROGRESS  REPORT  STRAICHT  PIPE  ONLY  LCNOTH 

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RECORDED 

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ran  NOTES 

SU«RV» 

MO.  1  DATE 

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OLD 
NEW 

DATE 

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| 

C.  I.  MATERIAL  USED  No. 


_ CAULKERS 

.No No*. 


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NO 


REMOVED 

ABANDONED  IN  GROUND - 

JOINTS    L C 9 - PHOTO.  NO.- 

BUSINESS  CLASSIFICATION N.B A.B.L A. P. A.R. 

NATURE  OF  W>ORK 


ALBUM  No.. 

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RECEIVED.  R.  D _ 


STREET  CLERK 


Figure  94.— Sketch  Record  Card,  page  308. 


310  MAIN  WORK 

make  partial  changes  in  the  earlier  ones.  In  this  way,  the  very 
state  of  affairs,  viz.,  great  activity  in  the  installation  of  under 
ground  structures,  that  renders  advisable  the  adoption  of  the 
sketch-record  system,  as  opposed  to  the  "blueprint"  record, 
previously  described,  because  of  the  greater  ease  with  which  small 
changes  may  be  shown  by  means  of  the  sketch  record,  sometimes 
produces  so  many  sketch  records  relating  to  one  block  or  inter- 
section, that  it  becomes  advisable  to  make  what  is  called  a 
"composite"  record.  This  shows,  in  one  record,  the  block  or 
intersection  as  it  is  at  the  time  of  making  the  record,  and  until 
the  future  brings  new  changes,  the  composite  record  is  the  only 
one  that  is  consulted. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

BRIDGE  MAINS 
REASONS  FOR  BRIDGE  MAINS 

Until  recent  years,  there  were  no  bridges  in  territories  provided 
with  gas  mains,  except  where  such  territory  was  divided  by  a 
body  of  water.  In  many  instances,  the  stream  spanned  was 
navigable,  and  the  resultant  drawbridge  was  of  no  use  as  a  pipe 
support.  Where  the  bridge  was  a  fixed  one,  or  where  the 
approaches  to  a  drawbridge  extended  over  a  long  stretch  of  land, 
marshy  or  otherwise  unfavorable  for  main  laying,  in  the  former 
case,  the  whole  bridge,  and  in  the  latter,  the  approaches,  have 
been  welcomed  as  a  means  of  facilitating  the  conveyance  of  gas 
across  the  water. 

With  the  growing  abolition  of  grade  crossings  of  steam  rail- 
roads within  the  limits  of  towns  and  cities,  has  come  a  great 
increase  in  bridges,  of  which  a  considerable  proportion  carry 
streets  over  railroads.  If  it  is  necessary,  or  desirable,  to  convey 
gas  across  the  railroad  at  any  one  of  these  bridges,  the  choice  lies 
between  crossing  on  the  bridge,  or  laying  under  the  tracks. 
The  latter  alternative  usually  is  undesirable,  for  several  reasons, 
of  which  the  two  principal  ones  are:  First,  the  objection  of 
the  railroad  company,  which  desires  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
any  work,  by  outside  persons,  that  in  any  way  affects  the  road- 
bed. If  the  right  of  way  at  the  point  of  crossing  is  owned  in 
fee  simple,  permission  to  cross  will  be  given  only  on  condition 
of  removal  on  specified  notice.  This,  of  course,  is  not  a  con- 
dition that  the  gas  company  cares  to  accept.  In  every  case, 
the  railroad  must  be  held  harmless  for  any  damage  resulting 
from  the  installation  or  presence  of  the  main.  Second,  the 
increased  expense  of  installation  and  maintenance.  As  a  rule, 
a  crossing  under  the  tracks  will  mean  a  long  stretch  of  deep  mam 
on  each  side  of  the  bridge,  or  else  two  vertical  legs,  each  about 
20  feet,  either  underground  back  of  the  abutment  walls,  or 

(311) 


312  MAIN  WORK 

exposed  on  the  side  of  these  walls.  Invariably,  the  amount  of 
pipe  used  and  its  depth  will  be  greater  than  if  the  location  is 
upon  the  bridge. 

From  what  already  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  choice 
generally  will  be  for  the  bridge  crossing,  whether  over  land 
obstacles,  principally  railroads,  or  over  water.  The  disadvan- 
tages connected  with  a  bridge  main  will  be  considered  as  the 
subject  is  developed. 

LOCATION  OF  MAINS 

When  installing  a  bridge  main,  the  first  point  to  be  considered, 
viz.,  the  necessary  permission,  is  often  inter-related  with  the 
second,  —  the  location.  Bridges  generally  are  owned  by  the 
public  authorities,  but  sometimes  the  railroad  is  joint  owner. 
Unless  the  addition  of  extra  weight  is  considered  dangerous, 
permission  to  lay  seldom  is  refused,  but  the  public  authorities 
often  are  very  much  opposed  to  any  location  where  the  main  will 
be  in  evidence.  Generally,  such  a  prohibition  means  a  location 
below  the  floor  line,  and  entails  extra  expense  in  installation  and 
in  maintenance,  and  occasionally,  where  the  bridge  is  over 
railroad  tracks,  and  the  head  room  is  limited,  the  railroad 
company  interposes  with  the  provision  that  the  proposed  main 
do  not  decrease  this  head  room.  The  exact  point  at  which  any 
prescribed  location  becomes  so  disadvantageous  as  to  prevent 
the  bridge  main  altogether,  will  depend  entirely  upon  local 
conditions.  There  are,  however,  some  general  principles  of 
location  which  apply  universally. 

Where  the  roadway  is  separated  from  the  footway  by  the  main 
girders  of  the  bridge,  a  location  on  the  top  of  such  a  girder  is  ideal. 
Next,  in  point  of  desirability,  would  be  on  the  bridge  floor  itself, 
in  a  corner  of  the  roadway,  or  (preferably)  the  footway.  Blocks 
of  concave  top,  fitting  the  main,  should  raise  it  1  inch  above 
girder,  or  floor,  and  a  guard  timber  should  protect  a  roadway 
floor  main. 

If  there  is  no  location  available  above  the  floor  line  and  within 
the  bridge  lines,  then  alongside  the  bridge  usually  is  preferable 
to  underneath  it.  Often,  by  attaching  brackets  to  the  outside 
girder,  the  main  can  be  placed  just  outside  the  footway  rail- 
ing, with  the  bottom  of  the  main  about  the  floor  level.  If  the 
girder  carrying  the  footway  is  deemed  too  light  for  additional 
weight,  attachment  may  be  made  to  the  girder  at  the  side  of 
the  roadway.  This  will  bring  the  main  under  the  footway. 


BRIDGE  MAINS  313 

There  may  be  instances  where  the  only  location  possible  is 
under  the  main  floor  of  the  bridge.  Most  of  the  metal  bridges 
crossing  over  railroads  are  now  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
locomotive  gases,  by  a  tight  wooden  sheathing  over  their  whole 
bottom.  Only  as  a  very  last  resort  should  a  pipe  be  laid  between 
such  sheathing  and  the  bridge  floor.  So  laid,  it  will,  at  all  times, 
be  most  inaccessible  for  examination  and  painting,  and  be  exposed 
to  many  corroding  influences,  and  escaping  gas  will  be  both  hard 
to  detect  and  a  great  source  of  danger,  forming,  as  it  will,  an 
explosive  mixture  inside  the  sheathing.  Where  there  is  no 
sheathing,  the  choice  of  location  under  the  bridge  will  be  deter- 
mined by  giving  proper  consideration  to  the  various  elements  of 
first  cost,  maintenance  cost,  etc.,  that  may  enter  into  the  case. 

Where  the  location  is  under  the  bridge,  provision  for  a  future 
means  of  ready  inspection  should  be  made  at  the  time  of  installa- 
tion. This  generally  means  building  a  platform  under  the  pipe 
or  leaving  hangers  in  which  boards  may  be  readily  slipped 
at  any  time. 

So  far,  the  types  of  bridges  in  mind  have  been  those  composed 
mainly  of  metal  or  wood.  The  advent  of  reinforced  concrete 
has  brought  the  concrete  arch  bridge  into  the  field.  With  it, 
location  above  the  bridge  floor,  or  along  the  bridge  sides,  usually 
is  prohibited ,  on  the  score  of  spoiling  the  artistic  effect.  Location 
under  the  bridge,  in  the  few  cases  where  head  room  was  suf- 
ficient, would  mean  a  small  stretch  of  main  exposed  in  an 
inaccessible  place,  with  most  of  the  pipe  buried  in  the  sides  of  the 
bridge  arch.  This  location  also  presupposes  the  laying  of  the 
pipe  while  the  bridge  is  being  built,  for  it  is  not  probable  that 
permission  would  be  given  to  tear  apart  any  existing  bridge. 
In  most  cases,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  letting  the  pipe  be 
built  entirely  into  the  bridge.  The  coyer  usually  will  be  less 
than  3  feet,  though  something  approaching  this  depth  should  be 
striven  for.  Contact  with  any  cinder  filling  should  be  avoided. 
If  a  leak  should  develop  at  a  pipe  joint,  there  is  little  chance  of 
gas  finding  a  way  out  through  the  concrete.  In  fact,  in  a 
concrete  bridge,  it  is  well  worth  considering,  where  the  length  is 
great  and  the  saving  would  be  considerable,  whether  a  cylindrical 
passage  formed  in  the  concrete  would  not  suffice. 

PROVISION  FOR  MAINS  WHEN  DESIGNING  BRIDGE 
Except  in  discussing  the  concrete  bridge,  no  distinction  has 
been  made  between  a  bridge  designed  after  ascertaining  what 


314  MAIN  WORK 

necessary  provision  should  be  made  for  pipe  crossings,  and  one 
built  without  any  reference  to  such  crossings.  No  company 
should  allow  the  erection  of  a  bridge  on  which  there  is  any 
chance  of  a  main  being  needed,  without  at  least  making  an 
attempt  to  have  this  contingency  provided  for. 

Probably,  in  all  large  cities,  as  each  bridge  is  planned,  the 
official  in  charge  notifies  the  company,  and  asks  its  needs  as  to 
size  and  location  of  pipe  crossings.  In  any  locality,  in  default  of 
such  notice,  it  is  very  easy  to  have  a  knowledge  of  all  proposed 
bridges. 

Where  the  main  location  is  to  be  alongside,  or  under,  the 
bridge,  the  work  of  laying  can  be  cheapened  greatly  by  suitable 
openings  left  in  any  masonry,  and  sometimes  by  holes  drilled  in, 
or  brackets  fastened  to,  a  girder,  before  it  is  put  in  place.  The 
specifications  for  the  openings  in  masonry  should  state  that  the 
contractor  will  place  thimbles  at  places  designated  by  the  plan, 
these  thimbles  to  be  furnished  by  the  company.  In  this  way,  the 
company  is  bound  to  know  where  the  thimbles  are  to  be  placed, 
and  their' cost  is  insignificant,  consisting,  as  they  usually  do,  of 
spigot  pieces  of  cast-iron  pipe  of  a  size  just  large  enough  to 
permit  the  insertion  of  the  bell  or  coupling  of  the  pipe  being  laid. 

DESIGN  OF  MAINS 

MATERIAL 

Ordinary  cast-iron  pipe  with  lead  joints  probably  will  need 
frequent  recaulking,  due  to  the  vibration  of  wooden  or  metal 
bridges,  and  also  to  temperature  changes  in  exposed  pipe. 
With  cement  joints  in  sizes  12-inch  or  under,  vibration  probably 
would  not  cause  leaks,  but  temperature  changes  probably  would, 
and  in  larger  sizes,  both  vibration  and  temperature  might  be 
sources  of  trouble.  Where  cast  iron  is  buried  in  a  concrete 
bridge,  it  is  perfectly  satisfactory,  but  the  thickness  of  the 
bridge  at  the  arch  crown  may  be  so  slight  that  the  lesser  diameter 
of  a  steel  joint,  as  compared  with  a  cast-iron  bell,  makes  steel  pipe 
preferable  for  the  concrete  bridge,  as  it  certainly  is  for  the 
wooden  or  the  metal  bridge.  On  the  latter,  the  saving  in  space 
and  weight  afforded  by  steel  is  quite  desirable.  Also,  in  the  case 
of  under-floor  locations,  the  fewer  joints  and  lessened  chances 
for  leaks  are  important  points. 


BRIDGE  MAINS  315 

JOINTS 
GASKET 

For  mains  6-inch  or  under  in  size,  the  ordinary  form  of  screw 
coupling  is  advisable.  For  8-inch,  possibly,  and  for  12-inch  and 
over,  certainly,  a  gasket  joint,  with  plain  end  pipe,  should  be 
used.  As  compared  with  screw  pipe,  there  will  be  a  saving  in 
first  cost  (always  in  labor  and  often  in  material)  and  in  mainte- 
nance, for  as  each  joint  acts  as  an  expansion  joint,  temperature 
changes  bring  no  strain  on  the  line,  and  there  should  be  no  leaks. 

SCREW 

Where  screw  joints  are  used,  an  expansion  joint  of  some  kind  is 
advisable,  one  for  100  feet  of  exposed  pipe.  Where  there  is  only 
one  expansion  joint,  it  should  be  located  in  the  centre  of  the  line; 
where  more  than  one,  they  should  be  spaced  equally.  Each 
expansion  joint  should  be  secured  firmly  to  the  bridge,  in  order  to 
prevent  any  chance  of  one  joint  taking  up  all  the  movement. 
At  the  ends  of  the  line,  where  the  steel  joins  the  cast  iron  (usually 
just  before  the  main  goes  underground),  it  is  often  easy  so  to 
locate  the  necessary  specials  that  any  thrust  or  pull  will  be  taken 
up  by  a  swing  joint  effect. 

SIZE 

The  size  of  the  bridge  main  ordinarily  is  that  of  the  under- 
ground main  on  either  side.  However,  in  cold  climates,  it 
probably  is  a  mistake  to  lay  smaller  than  4-inch,  and  in  many 
cases,  smaller  than  6-inch.  Also,  if  the  region  supplied  is  a 
growing  one,  or  of  large  extent,  the  bridge  main  should  be  large 
enough  to  care  for  future  growth,  especially  if  the  location  is  such 
that  replacement  would  be  difficult. 

The  above  applies  where  the  main  is  of  moderate  size,  say, 
12-inch  and  under.  Above  12-inch,  it  often  might  be  true  that 
the  size  of  the  main  added  very  largely  to  the  expense  of  the  job. 
If  this  is  the  case,  it  often  will  prove  good  practice  to  make  the 
bridge  main  smaller  than  the  pipe  to  which  it  connects.  To 
what  extent  this  diminution  in  size  is  advisable,  will  depend  upon 
the  special  conditions  in  each  case,  one  of  the  important  factors 
being  the  length  of  the  bridge,  and  another  the  demand  for  gas 
during  the  peak  load. 

One  way  of  avoiding  the  use  of  very  large  pipe  on  a  bridge, 
when  the  size  in  itself  is  the  objection,  is  by  laying  two  or  more 
mains.  A  case  in  mind  is  where  a  concrete  arch  bridge  was 
built  over  a  single  track  steam  railroad,  well  in  advance  of  any 


316  MAIN  WORK 

development  in  the  general  neighborhood,  or  on  the  street  which 
the  bridge  served.  Future  plans  for  the  locality  called  for  a 
20-inch  main.  When  the  city  authorities  asked  what  provision 
should  be  made  for  a  gas  main,  it  soon  was  found  that  the 
minimum  depth  over  the  arch  would  not  permit  of  larger  than 
a  12-inch  steel  pipe.  Neither  could  permission  be  obtained  to 
lay  alongside,  or  on  top  of,  the  bridge.  To  go  under  the  railroad 
was  not  advisable.  Therefore,  two  12-inch  steel  pipes  were  laid 
side  by  side  in  the  concrete  of  the  bridge.  They,  of  course,  will 
not  give  the  capacity  of  a  20-inch,  but  the  bridge  is  less  than 
80  feet  in  length,  and  the  day  when  the  20-inch  capacity  may  be 
needed  is  so  far  ahead,  that  a  third  12-inch  pipe  did  not  seem 
justified. 

Except  where  required  for  real,  or  assumed,  artistic  reasons, 
or  for  protection  from  gases  of  combustion,  or  from  severe  cold, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  enclose  an  exposed  main,  but  instead,  it 
should  be  painted  with  red  lead,  covered  with  a  quiet  color. 
A  steel  pipe  kept  well  painted  is  bound  to  be  less  conspicuous, 
and  takes  less  room,  than  the  same  pipe  boxed.  A  cast-iron 
pipe,  with  its  large  bells,  does  not  present  a  neat  appearance. 
A  box  around  the  main  on  the  floor  or  side  of  a  bridge  is  a 
great  collector  of  dirt,  and  corrosion  will  progress  faster  on  a 
main  covered  by  the  ordinary  box  than  if  bare.  Any  covering 
over  the  pipe  also  renders  inspection  much  more  difficult, 
and  an  escape  of  gas  more  dangerous.  However,  there  are 
cases  where  at  least  a  wooden  shield  under  the  main  is  quite 
necessary,  to  protect  it  from  the  direct  impact  of  the  gases  from 
locomotive  or  boat  stacks. 

As  to  the  question  of  protection  from  cold,  in  the  old  days 
when  a  6-inch  was  a  large  main,  a  time-honored  rule  was  to  make 
the  pipe  rising  out  of  the  ground  and  going  over  the  bridge,  at 
least  a  size  larger  than  the  underground  pipe.  In  these  days  of 
large  mains,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  such  practice  need  be 
followed  for  latitudes  south  of  New  York  City.  In  Philadelphia, 
the  few  cases  of  exposed  mains  stopped  by  frost  have  been 
confined  to  3-inch  pipe.  Where  the  climate  is  severe  enough  to 
warrant  the  enlarging  of  exposed  pipe,  then  also  the  question  of 
its  protection  needs  to  be  considered.  Whatever  form  of  cover- 
ing is  adopted,  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  make  it  water- 
tight, not  only  to  keep  the  insulating  efficiency  high,  but  also  to 
prevent  corrosion.  A  good  quality  of  canvas,  kept  well  painted, 


BRIDGE  MAINS  317 

will  form  an  excellent  waterproof  cover,  especially  when  space 
is  limited. 

INSPECTION  OF  MAINS 

All  bridge  mains  being  more  liable  to  injury  from  atmospheric 
and  other  external  causes,  than  the  underground  piping,  should 
receive  a  periodical  and  careful  inspection  for  condition,  in 
addition  to  the  perfunctory  inspection  given  to  them  by  the 
linewalker  from  time  to  time.  This  careful  inspection  should  be 
yearly  at  least,  and  a  good  time  is  during  the  fall  months,  to 
ensure  that  everything  will  be  all  right  for  winter.  The  inspec- 
tion usually  will  disclose  the  necessity  for  repainting,  for  minor 
repairs  to  platforms  and  coverings,  and,  in  the  case  of  cast-iron 
pipe,  may  mean  a  resetting  of  many  of  the  joints.  Where  pipe  is 
exposed  to  the  action  of  combustion  gases,  it  also  is  well  to 
attempt  to  form  an  idea  of  how  fast  corrosion  may  be  proceeding. 
A  12-inch  cast-iron  pipe,  exposed  under  a  bridge  crossing  many 
busy  railroad  tracks,  was  found  on  removal  to  have  less  than 
$-inch  of  metal  left. 


SECTION  II 

MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

ORGANIZATION 

The  maintenance  of  a  system  of  mains  includes  any  necessary 
repairing,  and  involves,  therefore,  main  laying  jobs  more  or  less 
extensive,  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  existing  pipe  and  the 
ideas  of  the  management.  The  foreman  and  the  general  organ- 
ization, described  in  Chapter  XXII,  will  care  also  for  mainte- 
nance work.  The  organization  of  the  individual  gangs  will  be 
given  in  discussing  the  various  phases  of  maintenance.  Here, 
however,  should  be  noted  that  the  street  force  of  any  company 
should  be  large  enough  always  to  care  for  the  leak  work  of  some- 
what worse  than  the  ordinary  winter.  This  will  involve,  during 
some  winter  months,  with  both  main  laying  and  leaks  at  a  low 
ebb,  working  with  gangs  composed  mostly  of  skilled  men,  and, 
therefore,  at  increased  cost:  but,  to  offset  this,  if  there  are  but 
few  lay-offs  during  the  winter,  a  better  class  of  skilled  laborers 
can  be  had,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  facing  a  serious  street 
leak  situation  with  an  insufficient  force  of  trained  men.  The 
larger  the  city,  the  more  important  it  is  not  to  attempt  the 
wrong  kind  of  economy  involved  in  too  radical  a  winter  lay-off 
of  street  men.  Rather  attempt,  in  every  way,  in  localities  where 
the  climate  is  not  too  severe,  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  main  lay- 
ing throughout  the  winter,  on  days  when  leak  work  is  slack,  for 
the  increased  cost,  over  summer  conditions,  of  this  main  laying 
will  be  more  than  offset  by  the  saving  in  maintenance  expense, 
through  using  labor  otherwise  idle. 


(318) 


CHAPTER  XXX 

LINEWALKING 

FREQUENCY  OF  INSPECTION 

One  detail  of  main  maintenance  becoming  more  and  more 
essential  in  every  city  that  has  grown  beyond  the  point  where 
each  one  knows  what  everybody  else  is  doing,  is  linewalking,  viz., 
the  periodical  viewing  of  every  street  on  which  there  is  a  main. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  the  only  underground  structures  were 
sewers,  gas  and  water  mains,  and  their  house  connections. 
Usually  the  gas  main  and  service  were  the  last  in,  and  there  was 
little  reason  to  expect  any  subsequent  excavations.  Now  wire 
conduits  are  widespread,  and  their  installation  and  maintenance 
involve  a  continual  disturbance  of  the  soil  and  often  an  under- 
mining of  gas  structures.  Were  all  the  latter  of  a  size  in  accord- 
ance with  modern  practice,  the  possibilities  for  harm  might  not 
be  great,  but  as  long  as  2-  and  3-inch  mains  and  f-inch  services 
remain  general,  linewalking  is  well  worth  while. 

As  to  the  frequency  of  such  general  linewalking,  there  is  room 
for  much  difference  of  opinion,  and  from  the  nature  of  the 
question,  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down,  but  the  matter  must 
be  decided  from  experience  based  on  local  conditions.  Every 
other  day  for  central  congested  portions  of  a  city,  twice  a  week 
for  the  built-up  territory  outside  the  center,  and  weekly  for  the 
growing  fringe,  would  be  considered  good  practice.  Whatever 
the  period  adopted,  it  should  be  lived  up  to.  In  damage  suits, 
the  ability  of  the  company  to  show  a  system  of  regular  patrol, 
with  the  reasons  why  the  frequency  adopted  is  considered 
adequate,  would  be  a  good  defense  against  a  charge  of  negligence. 

To  general  linewalking  should  be  added  special  watchers  for 
openings  requiring  more  attention  than  can  be  given  by  the 
regular  linewalker.  Such  openings  are  usually  those  made  by 
public  service  companies,  of  which  notice  is  given  by  virtue  of  a 
mutual  agreement.  The  regular  linewalker  in  whose  territory 

(319) 


32 0  MAIN  WORK 

lies  the  opening,  notifies  his  immediate  superior  of  the  need  for  a 
special  watcher,  and  one  is  assigned  if,  on  investigation,  the 
linewalker's  judgment  is  confirmed. 

Special  linewalking  often  is  advisable  during  the  winter 
months  on  streets  with  a  previous  bad  leak  history.  A  special 
linewalker,  traversing  daily  each  foot  of  such  territory,  generally 
will  send  in  the  first  notice  of  any  leaks,  v/hich  in  this  way  are 
stopped  before  the  gas  has  inconvenienced  any  one  sufficiently 
even  for  a  " fake"  claim.  This  means  quite  a  financial  saving  in 
any  locality  where,  because  of  previous  leaks  and  damage  settle- 
ments, the  public  and  the  shyster  lawyers  lie  in  wait  for  the 
smallest  happening  on  which  to  base  a  claim,  and  where,  if  cases 
went  to  trial,  there  would  be  less  chance  of  a  successful  defense 
if  it  were  shown  that  previous  cases  had  occurred  in  the  same 
neighborhood,  indicating  a  generally  unsafe  condition  of  the 
mains.  It  goes  without  saying  that  this  does  not  mean  a  short 
stretch  of  main,  for,  in  that  case,  true  economy  as  wrell  as  good 
public  policy  would  dictate  a  renewal,  but  an  extensive  area 
where,  during  winter  weather,  usually  because  of  filled-in  ground, 
main  breaks  may  be  expected  anywhere. 

In  extremely  cold  weather,  when  the  frost  line  is  near  to,  or 
upon,  the  older  and  smaller  mains,  a  special  patrol  of  small 
mains,  especially  those  serving  a  congested  population,  will  be 
very  useful  in  minimizing  the  danger  of  severe  asphyxiation  cases. 

DUTIES  OF  A  LINEWALKER 

A  linewalker's  primary  duty  is  to  report  all  openings  and  how 
they  may  affect  gas  structures.  Without  neglecting  this  work, 
he  also  can  be  on  the  lookout  for  many  conditions,  knowledge 
of  which  will  be  valuable  to  the  company.  Some  of  these  are  the 
beginning  of  house  building,  meters  in  vacant  houses  with  open 
doors  or  windows,  raised  service  boxes,  and  main  or  service 
material  in  positions  dangerous  to  traffic  or  overlooked  on 
completion  of  work.  Also,  as  before  noted,  the  linewalkers  often 
will  report  street  leaks.  In  view  of  the  many  uses  to  which 
linewalkers  may  be  put,  the  cost  of  such  work  should  not  be  con- 
sidered as  chargeable  entirely  to  minimizing  street  leaks;  nor  the 
possible  increase  of  street  leaks  with  resulting  consequences,  the 
only  disadvantage  ensuing  from  the  abolition  of  linewalking. 

To  allow  for  future  main  repairs,  foreign  structures,  with 
especial  reference  to  manholes  or  conduits,  should  not  be  allowed 
any  nearer  than  given  in  the  schedule  following: 


LINEWALKING  321 

Minimum 
Size  of  Main  Distance 

2  to    6-inch,  inclusive  4  inches 

8  to  12-inch,       "  5     " 

16  to  30-inch,       "  *       6     " 

Where  a  structure  must  be  laid  on  top  of,  and  parallel  to,  a  main, 
a  minimum  clearance  of  18  inches  should  be  had. 

METHODS  OF  TRAVEL 

A  linewalker  is  more  often  a  rider.  A  bicycle  offers  a  very 
satisfactory  means  of  conveyance  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Riding  thus  over  the  principal  streets,  and  looking  each  way 
along  side  streets  as  they  slowly  are  passed,  will  enable  an 
adequate  inspection  of  most  of  the  distribution  system.  On 
those  streets  where  much  traffic  prevents  a  clear  view,  or  where 
openings  are  numerous,  actual  walking  may  be  preferable,  and 
it  will  be  required  for  all  cases  of  special  linewalking,  already 
alluded  to. 

REPORTS  OF  INSPECTION 

Adequate  and  definite  written  reports,  on  a  proper  form, 
should  be  required  of  each  linewalker.  In  this  way,  any  mis- 
understanding as  to  his  duties,  or  the  ground  to  be  covered,  will 
be  evident  at  once;  a  dishonest  man  will  be  obliged  to  falsify  his 
report  as  well  as  neglect  his  work;  and  lastly,  the  file  of  reports 
can  be  offered  as  proof  of  an  adequate  system  of  street  main 
inspection.  The  reports  should  be  so  devised  that  it  is  not 
necessary  actually  to  write  down  every  street  viewed,  as  this 
would  demand  too  much  of  the  linewalker's  time  for  mere 
clerical  work.  By  a  division  of  the  territory  into  definite  routes, 
each  representing  an  ordinary  day's  work,  an  accurate  report  for 
each  day  can  be  made  in  comparatively  few  words. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

LEAK  WORK 
SYSTEMATIC  OVERHAULING 

DETAILS  OF  WORK 

About  twenty  years  ago,  when  cobble  stones  and  other 
materials  on  a  sand  base  comprised  our  only  paying  in  large 
cities,  and  small  communities  had  little  even  of  this,  one  of  the 
golden  rules  for  distribution  men  taught  the  value  of  overhauling 
systematically  a  main  system  where  the  annual  leakage  per  mile 
of  main  reduced  to  a  *3-inch  basis,  exceeded  100,000  cubic  feet. 
To- ascertain  what  portions  of  the  system  had  a  leakage  in  excess 
of  this  figure,  it  often  was  the  custom  to  shut  off  the  meters  in 
the  section  under  test,  cut  off  all  but  one  source  of  supply,  and 
then  measure  the  gas  entering  from  this  source.  With  the 
universal  use  of  the  gas  range  during  the  months  adapted  to 
street  work,  it  now  is  out  of  the  question  to  shut  off  consumers' 
meters  to  the  extent  required  for  such  a  test.  Also,  because  of 
the  amount,  —  extensive  already  and  increasing  rapidly,  —  of 
asphalt  and  of  other  paving  on  a  concrete  base,  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  true  that  systematic  overhauling  solely  because 
of  a  large  amount  of  unaccounted-for  gas,  is  not  an  economical 
proposition.  For  most  situations,  most  overhauling  may  be 
confined  to  specific  blocks,  selected  because  of  undermining,  a 
bad  leak  record,  or  in  advance  of  paving.  Such  a  program  will 
effect,  in  a  fairly  short  time,  a  decided  improvement  in  the 
distribution  system. 

*Reducing  to  a  3-inch  basis  means  converting  the  total  length  of  exist- 
ing mains  into  a  figure  which  expresses  the  length  of  3-inch  mains  having 
the  same  joint  perimeter.  For  instance,  as  a  6-inch  main  has  twice  the 
perimeter  of  a  3-inch,  each  mile  of  6-inch  would  equal  two  miles  on  a  3-inch 
basis.  In  the  same  way,  each  mile  of  2-inch  would  be  two-thirds  of  a  mile, 
of  4-inch,  four-thirds,  etc.  The  increasing  use  of  6-inch  pipe  with  a  leak 
record  negligible  as  compared  with  3-  and  2-inch,  has  practically  nullified 
any  advantage  formerly  resulting  from  this  length  conversion  on  the  basis 
of  uniform  size. 

(322) 


LEAK  WORK  323 

This  overhauling  work  consists,  first,  in  locating,  and  second, 
in  repairing,  the  leaks  found.  As  to  the  second  part,  the  actual 
repairing  of  a  main  or  service  is  covered  in  Chapters  XXV 
and  XXXVIII,  respectively.  How  the  leaks  are  located,  is  our 
concern  now,  and  the  overhauling  of  existing  mains  will  be 
described  as  done  on  a  scale  warranting  the  employment  of  a 
special  gang  for  several  weeks.  In  general,  the  first  step  is  to 
bar  over  the  line  of  the  main,  and  in  that  way  locate  the  joints 
which  need  repair.  The  size  of  the  gang  should  be  determined 
by  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  time  available  for  it.  A  com- 
petent foreman  is,  of  course,  essential,  and  the  best  conditions 
for  thorough  work  obtain  when  the  gang  is  small  enough  to 
ensure  sufficient  oversight  of  each  man,  and  when  the  work  of 
each  can  be  specialized.  In  a  gang  of  twelve  men,  there  should 
be  one  or  two  caulkers,  or  joint  repairers,  and  sufficient  barrers 
to  keep  two  or  three  bars  going.  As  the  success  of  the  whole 
work  depends  on  the  thoroughness  of  the  barring,  these  men 
should  be  selected  with  judgment,  and  their  interest  in  their 
work  not  lessened  by  using  them  for  digging. 

Where  the  work  is  extensive  enough  to  require  more  than  one 
gang,  the  gangs  employed  should  be  kept  preferably  in  the  same 
neighborhood  for  ease  of  supervision,  but  each  gang  should  be 
worked  as  a  separate  unit,  with  no  interchange  of  men,  tools  or 
material,  unless  absolutely  unavoidable.  This  preserves  the 
individuality  of  each  gang,  locates  responsibility  for  poor  work, 
and  promotes  between  the  gangs  a  healthy  rivalry  tending 
towards  efficiency  and  economy. 

The  equipment  needed  for  an  overhauling  gang  of  twelve  men 
would  be  as  follows: 

2  Leak  Bars  2  Smelling  Pipes 

2  Searching  Bars  2  Rammers 

10  Asphalt  Cutters  10  Shovels 

1  Soap  Can  and  Brush  2  12-lb.  Sledges 

2  Street  Leak   Drills   (com-  2  pair  Bar  Tongs 

plete  with  bar  handles)  3  sets   Caulking   Tools    (m- 

3  Caulking  Hammers  eluding  chisels  for  scrap- 
10  Picks  ing  dirt  from  joints) 

6  Asphalt  Wedges 

As  the  detection  of  leaks  through  barring  requires  the  close 
proximity  of  the  bar  hole  to  the  leak,  usually  a  joint,  the  first  step 
is  to  locate  accurately  the  main  as  to  line  and  joints.  Unless 
existing  map  records  are  known  to  be  correct,  no  barring  should 


324  MAIN  WORK 

be  done  until,  by  a  sufficient  number  of  openings,  the  line  of  the 
main  and  the  probable  location  of  the  joints  have  been  deter- 
mined. An  economical  way  of  accomplishing  this  preliminary 
location  work  is  to  send  four  men  ahead  for  this  purpose  while  the 
rest  of  the  gang  are  finishing  at  a  previous  location.  These  four 
men  should  hunt  for  the  specials  at  street  intersections,  as  not 
only  will  the  specials  generally  determine  the  line  of  the  main, 
but  they  also  will  reveal  leaking  joints  and  wooden  plugs,  left, 
far  too  often,  as  permanent  stoppers  in  unused  outlets. 

After  locating  the  specials  at  adjacent  intersections,  if  there  is 
reason  to  doubt  the  location  of  the  main  as  a  straight  line 
between  them,  the  main  should  be  exposed  at  one  or  more  inter- 
mediate points  as  may  be  necessary  to  establish  its  line.  If  the 
main  in  question  is  known  to  consist  of  12-foot  lengths,  and  the 
distance  between  the  specials  is  approximately  a  multiple  of  12, 
it  will  be  safe  to  start  at  one  special  and  mark  off  every  12  feet 
as  the  location  of  a  bar  hole.  A  rope  about  120  feet  long,  tied 
with  red  tape  at  12-foot  intervals,  is  of  assistance  in  such  marking. 

If  the  distance  between  the  specials  does  not  agree  with  an  even 
number  of  full  lengths,  and  any  intermediate  openings  made  to 
locate  the  line  do  not  uncover  joints,  these  openings  should  be 
extended,  or  new  openings  made,  until  one  or  more  joints  are 
located,  from  which  bar  holes  can  be  laid  out.  If  leaks  are 
indicated  and  the  joints  uncovered  show  that  any  bar  hole  was 
more  than  two  feet  from  the  joint,  a  new  hole  should  be  driven. 
If  in  a  stretch  of  300  feet  or  more,  no  leaks  are  indicated  and  no 
joints  have  been  exposed,  two  should  be  uncovered  about 
equidistant  from  each  other  and  the  nearest  special,  in  order  to 
check  the  accuracy  of  the  bar  holes.  Of  course,  all  the  above 
refers  only  to  cases  where  the  records  are  not  dependable. 

So  far  we  have  been  concerned  with  getting  bar  holes  close  to 
pipe  and  joint.  It  also  is  important,  especially  in  large  cities,  to 
guard  against  damage  to  other  structures  while  barring.  Even 
though  the  records  do  not  indicate  such  structures,  no  barring 
should  be  done  until  a  thorough  investigation  of  manholes  and 
valve  boxes^has  shown  that  no  structures  are  in  the  line  of 
barring.  Wooden  ducts  are  especially  liable  to  injury,  as  they 
offer  little  more  resistance  than  hard  earth. 

Having  detailed  the  precautions  requisite  to  ensure  proper 
location  of  the  bar  holes,  we  are  now  ready  to  describe  how  the 
holes  are  made.  What  will  be  said  about  barring  or  drilling 
applies  also  to  the  same  operations  on  isolated  leak  work,  to  be 


LEAK  WORK  325 

considered  later.  Ordinarily,  there  will  be  three  men  to  a  bar. 
It  is  important  that  the  bar  be  driven  as  nearly  perpendicularly 
as  possible,  not  only  for  ease  in  driving,  but  also  to  ensure  its 
reaching  the  main.  When  working  through  very  hard  earth, 
asphalt,  concrete  or  macadam,  the  short  leak  bar  (D,  Figure  44, 
page  166)  will  be  driven  in  by  sledging  until  softer  material  is 
reached,  when  the  searching  bar  (B,  Figure  44)  will  be  sub- 
stituted. There  may  be  times  when  the  searching  bar  can  be 
driven  in  with  a  churning  motion,  and  no  sledging.  In 
Philadelphia,  because  of  the  harm  that  might  result  from 
puncturing  other  structures,  the  street  leak  drill  (F,  Figure  44)  is 
substituted  for  the  bar,  at  depths  of  over  one  foot,  in  all  locations 
where  there  is  danger  of  encountering  these  structures.  This  is 
the  method  followed:  One  man,  with  tongs,  holds  the  bar, 
which  is  driven  in  one  foot  by  sledges  and  then  replaced  by  the 
street  leak  drill.  This  is  revolved  by  two  men,  one  at  each  end 
of  the  handle,  while  a  third  man  bears  down  on  the  drill  and  thus 
increases  its  speed  of  penetration.  Contact  with  any  object 
becomes  evident  immediately,  and  then  the  drill  should  be 
removed  for  examination  of  the  point  to  determine  the  nature  of 
the  obstruction  and  whether  or  not  it  may  be  damaged  without 
concern.  If  not,  a  new  hole  should  be  started,  or  the  drill 
pointed  through  the  old  hole  in  a  slightly  different  direction. 
The  drill  usually  is  removed  and  cleaned  once  for  every  six 
inches  bored. 

With  either  bar  or  drill,  the  barrers  must  use  care  as  they  near 
the  top  of  the  main.  The  object,  of  course,  is  to  just  touch  the 
main,  preferably  on  the  sides.  This  contact  vouches  for  the 
proper  location  of  the  hole,  and  leaves  little,  if  any,  earth  inter- 
vening between  hole  and  joint.  When  the  main  is  struck  fairly, 
the  sound  made  by  tapping  the  bar  with  the  sledge  is  unmis- 
takable, but  striking  the  main  tangentially  is  not  indicated  by 
any  resistance.  Such  contact,  however,  is  shown  by  a  black  or 
rust  mark  on  the  side  of  the  point,  and,  therefore,  the  bar  should 
be  examined  carefully  after  each  withdrawal. 

The  hole  being  made,  the  bar  must  be  withdrawn,  and  this  may 
be  easy  or  hard,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  material  pene- 
trated ^  the  depth,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  bar  has,  by  side  blows,  been  loosened  as  it  was  driven.  One 
of  the  reasons  for  using  the  street  leak  bar  before  the  searching 
bar,  is  that  its  greater  diameter  makes  a  hole  through  which  the 
searching  bar  and  street  leak  drill  can  be  driven  and  drawn  more 


326  MAIN  WORK 

easily.  Ordinarily,  withdrawing  may  be  effected  easily  after 
tapping  the  bar  sidewise  with  a  sledge.  If  the  soil  is  so  hard  that 
lifting  the  bar  by  hand  is  very  difficult,  even  after  this  tapping, 
some  form  of  puller  should  be  used. 

After  the  bar  has  been  withdrawn,  the  chief  barrer  should 
smell  the  hole.  For  this  purpose,  the  smelling  pipe  (A,  Figure  44) 
is  well  adapted,  conveying,  as  it  does,  any  gas  from  the 
hole  to  a  convenient  distance  above  ground,  and  its  small  diam- 
eter concentrating,  and,  therefore,  intensifying,  a  small  leak. 

The  barrers  should  notify  the  foreman  of  every  hole  where  gas 
issmelled.  However,  the  foreman  personally  should  examine 
every  hole.  In  barring  at  intervals  of  12  feet,  when  several 
successive  holes  smell,  expense  often  will  be  saved  by  not  digging 
at  any  hole  until  after  several  hours,  or,  perhaps,  a  day  has 
elapsed,  for  in  that  interval,  the  smell,  perhaps  caused  by  only 
one  leak,  may  have  disappeared  from  most  of  the  holes. 

Overhauling  work  always  includes  an  investigation  of  the 
services  by  barring  or  uncovering,  precisely  as  for  mains.  This 
phase  of  overhauling,  however,  will  be  considered  when  treating 
of  service  maintenance. 

Overhauling  work  also  sometimes  includes  the  abandoning  of 
mains,  whether  because  no  longer  needed,  or  because  their 
replacement  is  demanded  for  reasons  to  be  discussed  later. 
Usually,  the  recovery  of  the  abandoned  pipe  is  determined  by 
the  relation  between  recovery  value  and  expense.  If  the  pipe 
remains  underground,  all  ends  should  be  left  closed  to  prevent 
the  main  serving  as  a  carrier  of  leaking  gas.  All  stop  boxes  over 
drips  and  services  should  be  removed. 

When  abandoning  a  main  between  any  two  points,  after 
making  both  cut  outs;  test  the  abandoned  stretch  by'water  gauge, 
to  be  sure  that  no  unknown  by-pass  connection  still  exists. 
Ensure  that  no  consumer  has  been  cut  off,  by  lighting  a  burner 
on  each  piping  system  in  every  building  that  might  "have  been 
supplied  by  the  main. 

To  AVOID  BREAKS  AND  LEAKS 

Of  late,  the  great  increase  in  underground  structures  has  been 
the  direct  cause  of  a  large  number  of  leaks  and  breaks  in  small 
mains.  For  years,  these  mains,  though  often  averaging  only  2 
feet  6  inches  of  cover,  gave  trouble  only  occasionally.  As  soon, 
however,  as  trenches  for  new  structures  were  opened  parallel  to, 


LEAK  WORK  327 

and  lower  than,  these  mains,  sufficient  settlement  occurred  to 
deprive  them  of  support  adequate  to  resist  the  frost  or  traffic 
strains  generally  withstood  before.  Therefore,  it  has  become 
increasingly  important  not  only  to  watch  the  progress  of  any 
work  likely  to  endanger  a  main,  but  also  to  use  good  judgment  in 
deciding  when  replacement  by  a  larger  main  is  called  for. 
Otherwise,  the  succeeding  winter,  especially  if  it  be  a  severe  one, 
will  witness  many  leaks  and  breaks  in  these  small  mains. 
Replacement  usually  is  advisable  only  where  the  main  is  3-inch 
or  smaller.  For  the  reasons  given  on  page  65,  it  is  true  economy, 
in  these  cases,  to  lay  a  4-inch  or  a  6-inch.  Where  the  threatened 
main  is  a  4-inch,  it  usually  may  be  made  tight  and  safe  by 
recaulking  and  placing  proper  support  under  each  length.  If, 
however,  it  has  a  shallow  cover,  it  usually  is  better,  in  places 
where  6-inch  is  the  standard  size,  to  replace  the  4-inch  with  a 
6-inch,  using  the  old  4-inch  pipe  in  a  safer  location,  because  the 
labor  cost  of  relaying  the  4-inch  would  equal  that  of  laying  a  new 
6-inch,  and  the  extra  cost  for  material  will  be  justified  by  the 
lessened  chance  for  leakage.  The  wisdom  of  this  substitution  of 
6-inch  for  4-inch  is  especially  true  where  the  troubling  excavation 
is  quite  deep.  Existing  mains  6-inch  and  larger  generally 
require  only  recaulking  and  proper  support. 

The  work  advisable  because  of  a  bad  leak  record,  usually 
concerns  mains  4-inch  and  smaller.  When  the  street  leak  record 
files  show  that  in  any  one  block  a  main  3-inch  or  smaller  has 
broken  twice,  or,  with  only  one  break,  is  known  to  have  less  than 
3  feet  of  cover,  or  to  have  had  its  support  weakened  through 
adjacent  excavation,  such  mains  should  be  replaced  by  a  4-inch 
or  larger,  according  to  the  principles  already  laid  down.  If  the 
leaking  main  is  a  4-inch  or  larger,  an  overhauling  usually  will 
suffice,  unless  it  is  a  4-inch  previously  left  in  after  an  adjacent 
excavation.  In  this  case,  follow  the  rule  for  4-inch  given  in  the 
preceding  paragraph.  The  overhauling  of  a  leaking  main  ordi- 
narily involves  barring  to  locate  the  leaking  joints,  followed  by 
their  uncovering  and  repair.  Where  the  main  is  in  such  poor 
condition  that  almost  every  joint  is  leaking,  it  is  true  economy  to 
dispense  with  barring,  and  uncover  every  joint,  unless  the  main 
is  under  expensive  paving,  in  which  case  it  often  will  pay  to 
uncover  those  joints  only  over  which  the  bar  holes  smell  the 
strongest,  and  then  wait  several  days  to  see  whether  the  leaks 
already  repaired  do  not  free  from  smell  some  of  the  previous 
bar  holes. 


328  MAIN  WORK 

It  sometimes  will  happen  that  the  mains  whose  abandonment 
is  called  for  by  the  conditions  discussed  under  this  heading,  need 
not  be  replaced,  because  their  existence  is  at  variance  with  the 
supply  of  gas  through  the  smallest  extent  of  piping  consistent 
with  economy  and  good  service.  Often  two  3-inch  pipes  will  be 
found  in  a  no-car-track,  street  of  comparatively  narrow  width, 
and  should  be  replaced  with  one  line  of  main.  Again,  because  of 
past  neglect,  a  3-inch  and  a  6-inch,  or  larger,  main  will  be  found 
on  the  same  side  of  a  street.  Here  the  abandonment  of  the 
3-inch  and  the  overhauling  of  the  larger  main  are  required. 

REQUIRED  BY  PAVING 

A  proper  consideration  for  the  rights  of  those  using  the  streets 
and,  therefore,  for  the  true  interests  of  the  company,  which  needs 
the  good  will  of  every  citizen,  demands  that  before  any  modern 
type  of  paving  is  laid,  the  underlying  gas  structures  be  put  in 
such  first-class  condition  that  future  disturbance  of  the  street 
surface  by  the  gas  company  for  repair  purposes  will  be  rare.  The 
question  of  service  renewal  under  these  conditions  will  be 
discussed  elsewhere.  The  renewal  of  mains  should  follow 
generally  the  principles  laid  down  for  renewals  to  avoid  breaks 
and  leaks.  No  2-inch  main,  and  no  3-inch,  except  in  small 
towns,  when  at  good  depth  and  not  on  important  streets,  should 
be  left  in  service.  A  4-inch  main  on  an  important  thoroughfare 
of  a  large  city  should  give  way  to  a  6-inch  or  larger.  The 
number  of  mains  on  a  street  should  be  determined  as  described 
on  page  68.  Unnecessary  mains  should  be  dispensed  with,  even 
to  the  extent  of  abandoning  a  6-  or  8-inch  if  the  duplicate  main  is 
12-inch  or  larger,  and  the  smaller  main  is  not  required  for  proper 
gas  supply  during  peak  loads.  For  leaks  will  come,  even  after 
all  precautions  have  been  taken,  and  when  occurring  under 
expensive  paving,  the  simpler  the  main  system,  the  less  expensive 
the  discovery  and  repair. 

In  general,  when  overhauling  work  is  being  done  ahead  of 
paving,  if  the  preliminary  barring  discloses  many  leaks,  it  will 
be  wise  to  assume  that  every  joint  is  in  need  of  examination  and 
repair. 

Where,  because  of  the  operations  of  other  public  service 
companies  in  improving  their  structures  prior  to  paving,  there 
has  been  a  good  deal  of  underground  disturbance,  the  principles 
laid  down  under  "To  Avoid  Breaks  and  Leaks,"  apply  with 
increased  force. 


LEAK  WORK 


329 


RESULTS  OF  OVERHAULING 

The  results  ensuing  from  following  the  principles  advocated  in 
this  chapter  -  in  other  words,  the  effect  of  a  systematic  abandon- 
ment of  2-  and  3-inch  mains  in  reducing  street  leaks,  especially  in 
severe  weather,  is  shown  by  the  following  data  from  Philadelphia. 
It  refers  to  January  and  February,  1912,  because  these  were  two 
of  the  coldest  months  on  record,  and  illustrates  in  a  striking 
degree  the  effect  of  frost  on  small  mains.  Previous  winters  had 
shown  the  comparative  immunity  of  the  newer  and  larger  mains, 
but  not  to  the  extent  of  the  figures  here  given: 

RECORD  OF  BROKEN  MAINS ^^^ 

BREAKS 


Old  3 

Jains 

New 

Mains 

ot  Mains 

Total 

Per  Mile 

Total 

Per  Mile 

7' 
3' 
4' 
6' 
8' 

25 
103 
158 
11 
5 

2.27 
.68 

.35 
.16 

.11 

5 
14 
0 

.11 
.03 
.00 

302 

19 

If  exact  figures  were  available,  a  comparison  of  leaking  joints 
on  the  above  basis  would  tell  the  same  story  as  the  breaks  do, 
and  emphasize  the  advisability,  already  mentioned,  of  improving 
every  opportunity  to  abandon  pipes  smaller  than  4-inch. 

ISOLATED  LEAKS 

INVESTIGATION 
PRELIMINARY  AND  GENERAL 

Important  as  it  is  to  follow  a  definite  program  of  systematic 
overhauling  of  the  distribution  system,  it  is  still  more  essential 
to  the  safety  of  the  public  and  to  the  reputation  of  the  company, 
that  isolated  street  leak  complaints  invariably  receive  prompt 
and  careful  attention.  Every  year,  with  the  increase  in  man- 
holes and  conduits,  there  is  more  opportunity  for  a  gas  leak  to 
result  in  the  formation  of  an  explosive  mixture,  and  also  more 
facilities  for  long  travel  from  the  leak  source.  Thus,  it  not  only 
becomes  harder  to  find  the  leak,  but  also  the  chance  of  explosion 
before  it  is  found  and  stopped  is  greater  than  formerly.  Hence, 
the  necessity  for  promptness  and  skill. 

Street  leak  complaints,  of  course,  increase  as  the  temperature 
falls.  They  may  be  received  by  the  distribution  shop  in  a 


330  MAIN  WORK 

variety  of  ways.  First,  as  a  complaint  sent  to  the  commercial 
office,  and  telephoned  from  there  to  the  shop,  if  there  is  any 
reason  to  believe  it  is  a  street  leak;  second,  as  a  complaint 
received  directly  by  the  shop  from  the  public;  and  third,  as  a 
message  from  an  employee  as  soon  as  he  knows  of  such  a  leak. 
In  the  first  and  second  cases,  a  visit  by  an  employee  (usually  a 
complaint  man)  generally  is  required  to  establish  the  fact  as  to 
whether  the  leak  is  from  the  street  or  not,  and  how  serious  it 
seems  to  be.  The  general  routine  followed  in  Philadelphia,  after 
a  complaint  man  has  left  the  shop  to  investigate  what  proves  to 
be  a  street  leak,  will  now  be  described. 

Nothing  will  be  said  here  as  to  the  procedure  of  the  complaint 
man  after  arriving  at  the  reported  location  of  the  leak  until  he 
decides  it  is  a  street  leak,  as  this  will  be  described  in  Chapter  LVII . 
As  soon  as  he  determines  that  the  leak  is  coming  from  the  street, 
he  telephones  to  the  shop,  the  message  being  received  by  a 
person  of  enough  practical  experience  with  street  leaks  to  obtain 
certain  necessary  details,  such  as  whether  or  not  the  leak  in 
question  is  capable  of  ventilation,  an  idea  as  to  general  sur- 
roundings, and  full  information  concerning  any  persons  claiming 
to  be  affected  by  the  odor.  From  this  information,  the  shop  man 
decides  what  should  be  the  immediate  course  followed. 

In  reporting  on  a  leak,  the  odor  will  be  classed  as  "doubtful," 
thus  needing  a  more  thorough  examination;  "slight",  or 
"strong."  If  "strong,"  the  man  reporting  is  instructed  to  stay 
on  the  job  until  relieved  by  another  watchman  or  by  a  leak  gang. 
The  location  of  the  odor,  i.  e.,  whether  in  the  cellar  of  the 
building,  at  one  stop  box  or  lamp  post  only,  etc.,  serves  as  a 
guide  to  the  shop  man  in  sending  a  leak  gang,  or  to  a  street 
foreman  on  arriving  with  the  gang,  to  determine  whether  imme- 
diate work  is  necessary  after  all.  Any  odor  reported  as 
"strong"  in  a  cellar  or  at  gas,  drain  or  water  boxes  at  curb, 
indicates  probably  a  broken  main  or  other  extensive  leak,  and 
hence  requires  a  street  leak  gang  as  soon  as  possible.  Any 
"strong"  odor  evident  at  a  lamp  post,  or  at  one  stop  box  only, 
indicates  a  probable  break  at  the  bottom  of  the  post  or  in  the 
service  at  the  cock,  and  whether  this  leak  should  be  worked  or 
not,  is  decided  by  a  visit  of  the  foreman. 

When  the  odor  in  a  building  is  reported  as  "slight,"  and 
ventilation  will  remove  it,  the  leak  is  not  watched,  but  in  a  short 
time  is  visited  by  the  foreman  to  decide  what  immediate  steps 
need  be  taken. 


LEAK  WORK  331 

In  cases  where  the  odor  is  reported  as  "doubtful"  in  origin,  the 
examination  by  a  foreman  will  result  in  deciding  that  the  odor  is 
not  gas,  or  else  having  him  order  a  gang  to  the  job  for  examina- 
tion of  manholes,  conduits  and  sewers  in  the  locality.  When  the 
report  is  "not  gas,"  a  further  examination  is  made  the  succeeding 
day  to  check  up  the  conditions.  The  odors  most  commonly 
mistaken  for  illuminating  gas  are  sewer  gas,  creosote,  oil  and 
gasoline. 

As  the  foreman  making  examinations  keeps  in  close  touch  with 
the  shop,  and  as  the  majority  of  the  gangs  actually  working  leaks 
can  be  reached  by  telephone  and  the  gang  foreman  instructed  to 
make  any  examination  in  his  locality,  all  cases  are  cared  for 
promptly. 

The  shop  man,  when  he  decides  that  a  street  leak  should  be 
worked  at  once,  reaches,  by  telephone,  the  foreman  of  a  leak  gang 
working  in  the  vicinity  of  the  new  leak,  and  tells  him  to  attend 
to  the  latter.  In  this  connection,  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
telephone  is  an  invaluable  aid  in  all  leak  work  and  should,  with 
the  automobile,  be  used  extensively,  especially  in  winter.  The 
telephone  will  save  both  time  and  expense,  while  the  automobile 
will  save  time  where  delay  might  result  in  great  expense.  In 
Philadelphia,  every  leak  and  main  foreman  telephones  his 
departure  from,  and  his  arrival  at,  each  job,  and  the  telephone 
number  by  which  he  may  be  reached.  He  also  notifies  the  shop 
from  time  to  time  of  the  progress  of  his  work  and  the  probable 
time  of  completion. 

When  telephoning  a  leak  order,  the  location  and  size  of  the 
main  probably  affected  is  given,  but  in  cases  involving  a  number 
of  structures,  any  information  on  file  in  regard  to  these  structures 
is  sketched  and  sent  out  to  the  foreman  by  a  special  messenger. 

An  adequate  record  should  exist  of  all  leak  work.  The  absence 
of  such  a  record  might  prove  disastrous  to  a  successful  defense 
at  law.  For  every  visit  to  any  leak  location,  a  report  should  be 
made,  showing  time,  conditions  found  and  work  done.  If  the 
work  extends  over  a  day,  a  separate  report  is  made  for  each  day. 
Also,  if  there  is  a  change  of  foreman  during  the  day,  each  foreman 
makes  a  report.  These  reports  give  a  continuous  history  of  the 
leak  from  first  complaint  to  final  repair.  In  the  interim  as  filed 
at  the  shop,  they  show  the  exact  conditions  of  all  outstand- 
ing leaks. 

In  the  above-mentioned  method  of  investigating  street  leak 
complaints,  where  reference  is  made  to  the  immediate  course  to 


332  MAIN  WORK 

be  pursued,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  during  those  days 
of  any  winter  when  the  leaks  come  in  faster  than  they  can 
be  disposed  of  finally,  the  problem  may  be  how  to  differentiate 
between  street  leaks,  to  decide  in  each  case  which  leak  is  the 
more  severe,  and,  therefore,  the  order  in  which  work  should  be 
begun.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  any  leak  requiring  barring 
to  locate,  and  then  digging  to  repair,  is  worked  on  a  few  hours 
after  receipt  of  the  complaint,  but  in  a  very  severe  winter  many 
leaks  may  have  to  wait  for  days,  and  yet  by  the  exercise  of 
good  judgment,  no  inconvenience  result  to  the  public,  except  on 
those  cases  where,  because  of  the  necessity  for  ventilation, 
rooms  cannot  be  kept  warm  until  the  leak  is  stopped. 


It  is  assumed  that  the  preliminary  investigation  already 
described  has  been  made,  and  that  the  leak  gang  with  necessary 
equipment  has  arrived  on  the  spot  and  the  foreman  given  the 
information  known  to  the  complaint  man.  In  his  work,  the 
foreman  will  be  guided  by  the  consideration  which  experience 
has  shown  generally  to  be  true,  that  certain  symptoms  indicate 
certain  probable  leak  sources.  This  rule,  however,  has  striking 
exceptions,  for  which  the  foreman  must  be  on  the  watch,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  formulate  set  rules  to  be  followed  for  each  variety 
of >  conditions  found.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  feasible  to  dis- 
criminate between  leaks,  as  to  whether  there  is,  or  is  not,  any 
odor  perceptible  in  sewers  or  other  underground  conduits,  and 
this  division  will  be  made  in  our  treatment  of  the  subject. 

If  the  leak  is  reported  as  coming  into  a  building,  or  buildings, 
the  foreman,  after  receiving  the  report  of  any  watchman,  and 
dismissing  him,  will  enter  the  building  most  seriously  affected. 
Inquiry  as  to  the  time  an  odor  was  first  apparent  should  at  once 
be  made  of  the  occupant.  In  general,  the  severity  of  the  leak  is 
inversely  proportional  to  its  age,  so  that  an  odor  of  a  few  hours 
duration  indicates  a  break,  while  if  it  has  existed  for  several  days, 
the  cause  probably  is  quite  insignificant. 

The  foreman  now  makes  an  examination  of  the  extent  and 
point  of  entrance  of  the  odor,  and  sees  to  any  further  ventilation 
that  may  be  necessary.  If  more  than  one  building  is  affected, 
each  is  visited  in  turn.  While  the  foreman  is  engaged  in  this 
work,  his  men  are  making  an  examination  of  all  stop  boxes  and 
vents  for  several  houses  on  each  side  of  the  affected  building,  and 
of  all  manholes  in  the  block.  Every  structure  through  which  an 


LEAK  WORK  333 

odor  might  reach  the  surface  should  be  examined.  Such  are 
mail  box  posts  and  hollow  poles. 

On  his  return  from  the  inside  examination,  the  foreman  decides, 
from  all  the  evidence  now  available,  the  probable  source  of  the 
odor.  The  first  condition  to  be  described  will  be  where  there  is 
no  evidence  of  any  odor  in  conduits,  but  gas  is  coming  through 
the  street  wall  of  one  building.  If  the  leak  is  in  the  roadway 
nearby,  or  in  the  service  to  the  building,  the  gas  usually  will  enter 
near  the  gas  or  water  service,  or  else  in  or  along  the  electric  or 
telephone  service,  or  the  sewer  drain.  In  the  latter  three  cases, 
however,  it  may  be  evident  in  the  manholes,  and  the  method 
followed,  for  its  detection  will  be  treated  later  on.  It  should  be 
noted  here,  however,  that  where  the  strongest  smell  is  from  a 
sewer  inlet,  it  frequently  will  be  found  that  a  faulty  joint  in  the 
inlet,  or  where  it  connects  to  the  sewer,  has,  by  allowing  earth  to 
wash  into  the  inlet  or  sewer,  undermined  a  gas  structure  and 
produced  the  leak.  Hence,  barring  over  the  settlement  may 
soon  locate  the  trouble. 

Entrance  through  the  housewall,  at  points  bearing  no  relation 
to  street  services,  frequently  denotes  a  leak  in  the  service  of  an 
adjoining  house,  or  in  cases  where  there  is  a  cement  footway,  laid 
on  a  cinder  base,  through  which  the  gas  can  travel  freely,  the  leak 
may  lie  anywhere  in  the  region  occupied  by  this  base.  If  the 
leak  is  very  strong,  and  it  is  advisable  at  once  to  stop  its  entrance 
into  the  building,  this  usually  may  be  done  by  digging  outside 
the  wall  at  the  place  of  entrance. 

The  first  step  to  locate  the  leak  should  be  to  drive  a  bar  hole  in 
the  roadway  at  the  junction  of  the  main  and  the  service.  If 
there  is  no  odor  in  the  hole,  and  the  service  is  an  old  one,  it  is 
probable  that  the  service  has  rusted  out,  or  broken  in  the  footway, 
and  one  or  more  bar  holes  should  be  made  in  the  footway  along 
the  service  line,  and  an  opening  made  if  any  odor  is  obtained.  A 
service  leak  of  this  kind  occurs  most  frequently  at  points  where 
water  may  have  had  access  to  the  service,  viz.,  at  the  foundation 
walls,  at  the  stop  cock,  or  at  the  curb. 

If  there  is  an  odor  in  the  first  roadway  bar  hole,  bar  further  in 
the  roadway.  If  no  more  odor  is  obtained,  and  the  service  is  an 
old  one,  bar  over  it  as  previously  described.  If  the  service  is  not 
an  old  one,  and  there  is  no  odor  at  the  stop  box,  bar  further  in 
the  roadway  and  be  guided  by  the  conditions  found. 

If  no  odor  is  found  in  the  first  roadway  bar  hole,  but  if  there  is 
an  odor  at  the  stop  box  only,  and  the  service  is  not  old,  test  the 


334  MAIN  WORK 

barrel  and  ends  of  cock  with  soap  suds,  if  this  can  be  done 
without  digging  up.  If  not,  or  if  no  leaks  are  found,  make 
additional  bar  holes  in  roadway.  If  these  give  an  odor,  the  leak 
probably  is  in  the  main,  but  if  they  emit  no  odor,  it  will  pay  to 
dig  over  the  service  cock,  as  the  trouble  probably  is  somewhere 
in  the  service. 

When  an  odor  is  evident  at  the  foundation  wall  of  one  or  more 
buildings  and  in  more  than  one  stop  box,  or  in  more  than  one  box 
but  not  evident  in  any  building,  bar  holes  should  be  made  over 
the  main  at  the  service  junctions  and  at  any  cross  ditches.  When 
an  odor  is  found  in  any  bar  holes,  make  sure  that  enough  bar 
holes  are  driven  to  locate  the  leak  accurately.  Then  dig  at  the 
point  of  strongest  smell,  remembering  that  if  the  service  or  any 
other  cross  ditch  is  near  this  point,  it  should  be  included  in  the 
opening.  When  no  odor  is  found  in  the  roadway  bar  holes, 
drive  holes  under  the  curb,  preferably  from  the  footway  side,  to 
learn  whether  gas  is  travelling  under  the  curb.  If  this  seems  to 
be  so,  other  things  being  equal,  it  will  be  advisable  to  open  a 
hole  over  a  service,  in  order  to  determine  from  which  direction 
the  gas  is  coming,  and  to  be  guided  accordingly.  If  no  odor 
comes  from  under  the  curb,  bar  holes  should  be  made  in  the 
footway  over  the  services. 

When  an  odor  is  evident  in  more  than  one  building,  and  not 
evident  at  any  stop  box,  the  leak  probably  is  in  a  service,  and 
bar  holes  should  be  made  over  them  in  the  footway. 

Considering  now  the  condition  when  an  odor  is  found  in  man- 
holes, sewers,  conduits,  or  any  other  open  underground  spaces 
where  there  is  great  possibility  of  the  existence  of  an  explosive 
mixture,  the  utmost  effort  should  be  used  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  such  a  mixture,  and  to  dissipate  it  by  ventilation  as  soon  as 
possible.  To  this  end,  the  covers  of  all  manholes  should  be 
removed,  partially  or  entirely,  each  opening  thus  made  being 
guarded  by  a  watchman.  He  should  be  provided  with  a  danger 
signal  by  day  and  a  red  lantern  (B,  Figure  55,  page  180)  by  night. 
If  the  manhole  is  near  a  car  track,  the  cars  should  be  compelled 
to  pass  with  power  off,  and,  in  addition,  the  rails  kept  wet  if  they 
are  dirty  and  hence  more  liable  to  cause  sparks.  When  no 
watchman  is  available,  and  the  odor  is  slight,  the  case  may  be 
met  by  placing  two  bars  across  the  manhole  and  resting  the 
cover  on  them.  This  allows  fair  ventilation  without  creating  the 
menace  of  an  unguarded  opening. 


LEAK  WORK  335 

The  direction  of  a  leak  may,  at  times,  especially  with  small 
ducts,  be  told  by  feeling  or  smelling  the  gas  as  it  issues  from  a 
duct  into  a  manhole.  When  by  an  examination  of  any  manhole, 
it  has  been  determined  from  which  duct,  or  set  of  ducts,  the  odor 
is  entering,  none  of  the  pipes  in  this  set  of  ducts  should  be 
sealed,  but  all  the  other  ducts,  entering  or  leaving  the  manhole 
in  opposite  directions,  should  be  sealed.  The  nearest  manholes 
connected  with  the  unplugged  ducts  should  be  opened.  A 
similar  sealing  of  ducts  in  these  adjacent  manholes  sometimes 
may  be  advisable.  In  this  way,  the  probable  location  of  the 
leak  may  be  determined  closely.  It  is  bad  practice  to  bottle  up 
any  leak,  unless  the  odor  is  so  slight  that  there  is  doubt  as  to  it 
being  illuminating  gas,  and,  therefore,  it  is  advisable,  for  awhile, 
to  concentrate  the  smell.  A  different  condition  exists  where  gas 
is  rinding  its  way  into  a  cellar  through  a  duct.  This  calls  for 
prompt  sealing,  followed  by  barring  and  digging,  with  investi- 
gation in  manholes. 

When  the  odor  has  been  located  in  certain  ducts,  all  gas 
structures  parallel  and  close  to  the  duct  line  should  be  barred 
over,  as  should  also  the  intersection  of  the  duct  line  with  a  gas 
structure  or  a  cross  ditch.  If  no  odor  is  found,  or  if  barring  is 
impossible  because  of  the  relative  position  of  gas  main  and  ducts 
or  from  any  other  conditions,  openings  should  be  made  at  the 
locations  most  advisable,  taking  into  consideration  the  relation 
of  each  opening  to  the  cost  of  paving  and  number  of  possible  leak 
sources.  If  the  leak  still  is  undiscovered,  sections  of  the  main 
should  be  bagged  off,  and  in  this  way,  by  decrease  in  odor,  the 
leak  located  in  one  particular  section. 

WThen  an.  odor  exists  in  one  manhole  only,  but  does  not  issue 
from  the  ducts,  this  indicates  that  the  leak  probably  is  close  to  the 
manhole,  and  all  nearby  gas  pipes  should  be  barred  over.  Often 
such  a  leak  is  found  in  or  close  to  the  manhole  wall,  due  to  a  break 
or  a  pulled  joint  in  a  main  built  into  or  lying  under  the  manhole. 

Occasionally,  a  main  will  be  so  imbedded  in  the  concrete  of  a 
duct  that  barring  is  impossible.  It  may  be  feasible,  however,  to 
bag  off  successive  portions  of  the  main,  and  then,  by  examining 
at  each  step  the  change  in  the  escape  of  gas  in  th£  affected 
manholes,  determine  the  approximate  location  of  the  leak, 
before  digging. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRECAUTIONS 

In  making  the  investigations  that  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  street  leak 
gang,  whose  work  has  been  only  imperfectly  sketched,  and,  from 


336  MAIN  WORK 

the  very  character  of  the  work,  this  must  be  so,  there  are  certain 
general  principles  which,  if  borne  in  mind,  will  aid  all  concerned 
to  avoid  accidents  and  to  acquire  great  skill  in  locating  leaks, 
before  making  any  openings.  Over  a  period  of  some  months, 
there  were  eight  leaks  found  for  every  nine  openings  made. 
When  it  is  considered  that  most  of  the  leak  work  occurs  in  the 
winter,  with  18  inches  or  more  of  frozen  ground  to  get  through, 
the  gain  in  time  and  cost  by  minimizing  openings  is  very  apparent. 
The  principles  referred  to  are  as  follows: 

Other  things  being  equal,  gas  always  rises  as  it  travels. 

The    examination    of    buildings    or    underground 

structures  should  not  be  discontinued  as  soon  as  an 

odor  is  found,  but  should  be  done  as  thoroughly  as  if 

no  odor  had  been  discovered. 

Do  not  be  in  such  haste  to  make  an  opening  that  the 
real  leak  is  missed.  In  general,  if  the  probable  source 
of  the  leak  is  not  determined  otherwise  within  com- 
paratively narrow  limits,  depressions  over  mains  or 
services  should  be  examined  and  barred,  before  other 
barring  or  any  digging. 

If  a  stop  box  is  found  obstructed,  especially  in  cases 
where  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  if  clear  there 
would  be  an  odor,  it  should  be  cleaned  or  a  bar  hole 
driven,  carefully  avoiding  the  cock. 

A  footway  leak  seldom  will  show  in  roadway  bar 
holes,  and,  therefore,  it  generally  is  a  safe  assumption 
that  an  odor  in  the  latter  means  a  roadway  (main)  leak. 
Every  bar  hole  should  pass  down  alongside  of  the 
pipe,  as  in  this  way  an  opening  is  made  into  any 
hollow  ^  through  which  gas  may  be  passing  under 
the  main. 

The  location  of  the  first  bar  hole  should  be  decided 
from  the  conditions  previously  noted  and  from  knowl- 
edge of  the  size  and  conditions  of  gas  structures  in  the 
vicinity.  For  instance,  other  things  equal,  a  pumping 
main  is  more  apt  to  leak  than  a  low-pressure  main. 

When  in  doubt,  owing  to  observed  conditions,  as  to 
the  best  location  for  an  opening,  it  should  be  made  so  as 
to  uncover  the  greatest  number  of  joints,  or  the  point 
of  most  probable  breakage,  such  as  a  cross  ditch. 


LEAK  WORK  337 

When  a  leak  is  under  asphalt,  or  any  other  pavement 
having  a  more  or  less  air-tight  foundation,  enabling 
the  formation  of  a  reservoir  of  gas,  a  ventilating  hole 
may  be  required  before  an  accurate  idea  of  the  leak 
source  is  possible. 

After  uncovering  a  pipe,  a  thorough  examination 
should  be  made  before  it  is  decided  that  no  leak  exists. 

When  working  on  any  leak  that  might  have  obtained 
entrance  to  any  building,  and  admission  cannot  be 
gained,  it  should  be  decided  from  existing  conditions 
whether  or  not  a  policeman  should  be  asked  to  force 
an  entrance  and  permit  an  examination  by  the  fore- 
man. This  is  necessary  especially  if  the  place  in 
question  contains  sleeping  rooms,  and  the  complaint 
has  been  received  at  night. 

Temporary  repairs  should  be  made  carefully  to 
avoid  a  second  leak  complaint,  previous  to  the  perma- 
nent repair. 

After  one  leak  has  been  found  and  stopped,  it  should 
not  be  assumed  that  the  trouble  has  been  remedied 
completely.  At  least  two  subsequent  examinations 
should  be  made  to  be  sure  that  the  odor  has  disap- 
peared. 

There  are  also  certain  precautions,  which  are  mentioned  here 
as  peculiarly  applying  to  leak  work,  but  the  observance  of  which 
spells  safety  wherever  gas  is  encountered. 

Goggles  should  be  furnished  to  protect  the  eyes  of 
any  workman  exposed  to  much  escape  of  gas. 

Open  flames  have  no  place  in  leak  gang  work. 
Electric  lights,  with  globes  guarded  against  breakage, 
should  furnish  the  only  light  provided.  Figure  55, 
page  1 80,  shows  types  of  available  lights.  Any  danger 
from  outsiders  smoking,  or  with  open  lights,  should  be 
met  by  the  aid  of  the  police  or  by  one  or  more  workmen 
designated  specially  for  this  purpose.  Usually  when 
leaks  catch  fire  the  flames  must  be  extinguished  in 
order  to  prosecute  the  search.  Wet  bagging  or  clay- 
are  effective  extinguishers.  However,  when  the  escape 
is  very  great,  this  procedure  may  not  be  advisable. 

The  First  Aid  wagon  kit  (C,  Figure  57,  page  183) 
should  form  part  of  the  equipment  of  every  leak  gang, 


338  MAIN  WORK 

and  the  respirator  (Figure  56,  page  181)  always  should 
be  on  hand  when  the  leak  is  strong. 

Except  for  an  urgent  reason,  a  manhole  should  not 
be  entered  until  well  aired.  At  least  one  man  on  top 
and  not  more  than  one  man  in  the  manhole  should  be 
the  rule.  Where  the  odor  is  strong,  a  rope  should  be 
placed  under  the  arms  previous  to  entering  the  man- 
hole. 

No  work  in  which  an  escape  of  gas  is  probable  should 
be  done  unless  at  least  two  workmen  are  close  to  the 
point  of  probable  leak.  Often  the  workmen  will  be 
exposed  to  much  gas,  especially  when  digging  to  the 
leaking  structure.  Such  a  man  should  be  watched 
carefully,  worked  in  short  shifts,  and  sent  away  from 
the  opening  when  resting.  A  good  foreman  seldom 
will  allow  a  workman  to  be  overcome. 

No  foreman  should  expose  himself  to  gas  any  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  it  is  of  vital  importance 
that  the  man  in  charge  of  the  work  should  maintain  a 
clear  mind.     A  foreman  who  tries  to  show  his  capacity 
to  "eat  gas"  may  prove  a  dangerous  factor. 
The  observance  of  the  above  rules  for  protecting  the  workman 
against  gas  has  resulted  in  no  fatalities  over  a  period  of  eighteen 
years  in  a  company  laying  about  forty  miles  of  main  and  seven- 
teen thousand  services  annually. 

REPAIR 

JOINT 

The  repair  of  a  leaky  lead  joint  is  effected  by  recaulking.  If 
of  cement,  two  courses  are  open:  To  cut  out  the  entire  joint  to 
the  back  yarn,  or  only  a  part  of  it.  The  first  course  is  necessary 
when  the  leaky  joint  is  to  be  replaced  by  another  cement  joint, 
and  generally  preferable  when  cast  lead  is  to  be  used.  The 
second  course,  that  is,  the  removal  of  only  a  portion  of  the  cement, 
is  adequate  when  the  substituted  material  is  lead  wool. 

In  cutting  out  the  cement,  a  cape  chisel  (Figure  39,  page  158) 
is  used,  with  a  6-pound  caulking  hammer.  On  mains  16-inch 
and  larger  two  men  per  joint  can  work  if  time  is  any  object. 

When  using  lead  wool,  the  cement  is  cut  out  to  such  a  depth 
that  after  yarn  has  been  driven  against  the  cement,  the  space  left 
is  equal  to  that  used  for  lead  wpol  in  joints  of  that  size. 


LEAK  WORK  339 

It  sometimes  happens  that  repeated  caulkings  of  cast  lead,  or 
renewal  of  cement,  fail  to  result  in  tight  joints.  Under  these 
conditions,  especially  where  the  pressure  in  the  main  exceeds 
the  ordinary  distribution  values,  a  leak  clamp  is  often  advisable. 

The  kind  of  packing  to  use  with  the  clamp  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  study.  Specially  treated  rubber  has  met  with 
more  or  less  success  on  natural  gas  lines,  and  even  with  artificial 
gas ;  probably  in  the  latter  case  for  the  reason  that  the  rubber  is 
under  great  compression;  only  a  thin  edge  is  exposed  to  gas,  and 
for  a  long  time  after  installation,  there  may  be  little  or  no  leak 
from  the  joint.  Asbestos  also  has  been  used  with  artificial  gas, 
but  disastrously  in  at  least  one  situation.  In  recent  years, 
paranite,  a  rubber  compound,  has  been  highly  recommended, 
and  a  gasket  of  this  material  is  shown  in  A,  Figure  95. 

In  installing  a  clamp,  the  joint,  if  lead,  is  recaulked,  after 
which  the  entire  joint  is  cleaned  thoroughly  with  foundry 
brushes  to  prevent  any  dirt  or  rust  remaining  between  the  lead, 
or  cement,  and  the  packing. 

The  packing  band  is  cut  about  \\  inches  shorter  than  the 
circumference  of  the  spigot,  and  pulled  up  tight.  The  ends,  cut 
diagonally,  are  cemented  with  a  good  rubber  cement,  and  held 
temporarily  with  a  long  tack,  which  is  pulled  out  before  the 
clamp  is  drawn  up  tight.  Then  the  bull  ring  (that  portion  of  the 
clamp  which  fits  back  of  the  bell)  is  put  into  place,  and  after  it, 
the  follower  ring  (that  portion  of  the  clamp  which  fits  in  front  of 
the  bell).  The  bolts  are  then  entered  and  drawn  up  tight. 

The  work  up  to  this  point  is  done  by  two  men.  Then  one 
man  uses  a  machine  wrench,  tightens  each  nut  one-half  turn  at 
a  time,  until  the  bolts  all  have  the  same  tension,  and  the  position 
of  the  face  of  the  follower  ring  is  in  a  parallel  plane  with  the  face 
of  the  bell,  the  distance  between  them  being  about  f^-inch. 

Yarn  is  then  stuffed  in  the  space  left  between  the  face  of  the 
bell  and  the  face  of  the  follower,  also  between  the  spigot  of  the 
pipe  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  follower  ring.  The  clamp, 
which,  on  receipt,  had  received  a  coat  of  protective  paint,  is 
given  an  additional  coating,  this  time  of  Hickenlooper  mixture, 
before  back-filling. 

In  Figure  95,  B  shows  the  hollowed  back  of  a  20-inch  bull  ring 
section.  C  is  a  section  of  the  follower  ring  showing  the  inclined 
surface  that  presses  the  packing  against  the  joint  face. 


340 


MAIN  WORK 


The  equipment  used  for  this  work  is  distinct  from  that  needed 
for  any  other  line  of  main  work.  For  this  reason,  and  to  ensure 
the  presence  of  all  necessary  tools,  it  is  advisable  to  provide  a 
leak  clamp  kit,  which  will  be  complete  as  delivered  at  the  place 
of  work.  The  kit  consists  of  a  box,  1  foot  7  inches  by  11^  by  3-f 
inches  deep,  made  of  heavy  tin,  and  provided  with  clamps, 
handle  and  shoulder  strap,  and  with  a  hinged  top  1^-  inches  deep. 
There  are  racks  and  clamps  to  hold  in  place  the  contained  equip- 
ment, which  is  as  follows: 


Figure  95.— Leak  Clamp  Sections  and  Packing,  page  339. 


1  11 -inch  Pinch  Bar 

1  box  Rubber  Cement 

1  5-inch  Cold  Chisel 

1  8-inch  Half-Round  File 

1  1^-lb.  Ball  Pein  Hammer 

An  assortment  of  small  blocks  to  centre  clamps. 


1  3-inch  Knife 

1  box  Tacks 

1  10-inch  Monkey  Wrench 

1  9-inch  S  Wrench 


The  temporary  repair  of  a  broken  main  is  accomplished  by 
forcing  soap  into  the  crack  and  spreading  it  on  the  main  around 
the  crack  until  all  escape  of  gas  is  stopped.  The  pipe  on  each 
side  of  the  crack  is  blocked  firmly  to  prevent  any  settlement 


LEAK  WORK  341 

pending  permanent  repair,  and  then  tallowed  muslin  is  placed 
over  the  soap  and  wound  and  tied  tightly  around  the  pipe.  In 
this  way  all  escape  will  be  prevented  for  days  if  necessary.  Of 
course,  if  there  are  no  other  urgent  leaks  to  be  investigated,  the 
permanent  repair  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  proper  material 
is  at  hand,  thus  saving  a  refilling  and  subsequent  opening  over 
the  leak. 

The  permanent  repair  usually  is  effected  by  the  use  of  a  split 
sleeve, — plain  where  no  service  is  involved,  and  tapped  where  the 
break  has  occurred  at  a  service  hole.  When  the  break  is  in  a  bell, 
it  sometimes  is  cut  off  and  a  plain  split  sleeve  used.  Often, 
however,  the  cutting  off  of  a  cracked  bell  would  involve  a  gap 
too  long  for  sleeving.  In  this  case,  enough  of  the  existing  main 
would  be  cut  out  to  allow  the  insertion  of  a  new  piece  and  solid 
sleeve.  The  details  of  making  these  permanent  repairs  are 
covered  fully  on  pages  235  and  236. 

GENERAL 

Under  the  abnormal  conditions  spoken  of  on  page  332,  not 
only  should  every  effort  be  made  to  increase  the  leak  gangs,  but 
also  there  should  be  a  certain  lengthening,  of  working  hours. 
For  short  periods,  men  may  be  worked  16  hours  a  day,  and  this, 
in  conjunction  with  regular  night  gangs,  will  ensure  unceasing 
search, — quite  important  as  long  as  serious  leaks  remain  unfound. 
In  expanding  the  leak  gangs,  men  from  the  fitting  department 
are  preferable  to  new  employees  familiar  with  digging,  but  new 
to  leak  work. 

When  unusual  severity  of  weather  has  resulted  in  many  days 
and  nights  of  strenuous  labor,  those  in  authority  should  appre- 
ciate the  effect  of  sympathy  and  praise  in  spurring  men  to 
renewed  effort.  Also,  to  night  gangs  and  all  men  working  past 
the  usual  meal  hours,  suitable  food  should  be  served. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

DRIP  WORK 

ADMINISTRATION  ' 

The  same  conditions  of  underground  congestion  in  large  cities, 
particularly  the  abundance  of  manholes,  causing  the  use  of  many 
bends  in  main  laying,  have  increased  largely  the  number  of  drips. 
Though,  because  of  their  number  and  average  long  distance 
from  the  point  of  send  out,  the  amount  of  condensation  in  each 
drip  is  apt  to  be  slight,  good  practice  calls  for  the  installation  of  a 
standard  drip  pot  where  a  change  in  grade  is  required.  This 
point,  as  well  as  the  question  of  drip  pot  design,  has  been  covered 
on  pages  58  and  80.  With  a  large  number  of  drip  pots,  an 
adequate  system  of  location  and  condensation  records  is  required 
to  prevent  any  unnecessary  drip  work.  In  the  absence  of  either 
record,  the  first  is  established  easily,  at  least  as  to  the  known 
drips,  by  accompanying  the  drip  man  to  all  the  drips  he  visits  and 
taking  proper  measurements.  Any  drips  whose  existence  has 
been  forgotten,  and  which,  therefore,  are  not  being  cared  for, 
either  are  receiving  no  condensation  or  are  on  mains  fed  from 
two  directions,  and  their  discovery  will  be  a  matter  of  chance. 

A  condensation  record  must  be  kept  for  a  year  before  it  can 
become  of  the  greatest  value.  It  consists  of  a  white  card, 
3  by  5  inches,  headed  with  the  location,  or,  preferably,  the 
number  of  the  drip,  and  filed  with  the  drip  location  card.  On 
the  condensation  card  is  recorded  the  date  of  each  visit  and  the 
amount  of  condensation  removed.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  an 
inspection  of  such  a  record,  in  connection  with  the  drip  capacity 
as  shown  on  the  location  card,  will  soon  indicate  how  often  a 
drip  should  be  visited,  and  from  this  knowledge  all  drip  work 
can  be  executed  intelligently.  Where  proper  main  laying 
records  were  not  kept,  drip  capacity  may  have  to  be  largely 
assumed,  but  good  judgment,  aided  by  measuring  the  depth  of 
condensation  and  checking  against  quantity  removed,  will 
furnish  data  far  superior  to  none  at  all,  and  it  always  will  be 

(342) 


DRIP  WORK  343 

advisable  to  show  some  figure  of  capacity  on  the  drip  card. 
Where  the  main  is  an  important  one,  it  generally  will  pay  to 
excavate  if  this  is  the  only  way  of  getting  the  necessary 
information. 

In  the  case  of  a  main  system  mostly  modern,  the  drips  probably 
have  been  installed  with  reference  to  the  condensation  they  are 
likely  to  receive.  In  that  case,  where  there  is  little,  if  any, 
transfer  of  gas  to  outlying  holders,  the  condensation  record  will 
show  only  a  few  drips  (and  those  close  to  the  point  of  send  out) 
that  require  attention  oftener  than  weekly. 

Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  system  is  old  and  many  drips 
always  have  been,  or  have  now  become,  inadequate  to  the 
demand  on  them,  it  will  be  seen  that  many  require  pumping 
daily  or  semiweekly.  With  either  condition,  whether  any,  or  if 
any,  how  many,  drips  should  be  enlarged,  is,  of  course,  merely  a 
question  of  relative  economy  to  be  figured  according  to  the  costs 
holding  good  for  local  conditions.  It  always  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  in  connection  with  drips  whose  overflowing 
would  seal  off  important  mains,  that  on  the  score  of  absolutely 
avoiding  this  danger,  there  is  a  strong  argument  for  having  their 
capacity  equal  two  days'  accumulation  of  the  heaviest  drip  period. 

Where  all  advisable  increases  in  drip  capacities  have  been  made, 
the  drip  pumping  program  may  be  considered  settled  for  the  time. 
A  periodical  inspection,  however,  should  be  made  of  the  con- 
densation record  to  determine  whether  recent  data  indicates  the 
advisability  of  reclassifying  some  of  the  drips.  The  execution  of 
any  program  will  be  rendered  easier  by  grouping  the  drip  cards 
according  to  times  of  pumping,  viz.,  daily  drips,  semiweekly 
drips,  etc.  Then,  by  lifting  the  proper  cards,  the  drip  man's 
route  can  be  listed  for  him.  After  the  first  lists  have  been  made 
out  and  until  changes  are  required  in  the  program,  new  lists 
can  be  written  by  copying  from  old  ones,  thus  saving  any  card 
lifting.  The  condensation  marked  down  for  each  drip  by  the 
drip  man,  is  posted  from  the  list  to  the  proper  condensation 
card. 

There  will  be  many  drips  which,  in  six  months  or  a  year,  will 
show  little  or  no  condensation.  It  often  will  be  more  economical 
to  send  a  man  on  foot  or  a  wheel  to  rod  these  drips  several  days  in 
advance  of  the  time  for  their  pumping.  In  this  way  will  be 
avoided  the  more  costly  visit  of  the  drip  wagon  to  all  those  drips 
which  show  dry  or  nearly  so.  It  is  wise  to  visit  each  drip  at  least 
yearly,  preferably  in  the  late  fall,  even  though  no  showing  of 


344  MAIN  WORK 

liquid  is  obtained,  as  such  an  inspection  brings  to  light,  cases  of 
drip  boxes  resting  on  standpipes,  paved  over,  or  covered  by  dirt 
in  unpaved  streets,  and  also  assures  that  no  drip  can,  by  any 
chance,  be  sealed  off  for  more  than  a  year. 

Two  types  of  drip  wagons  are  described  on  pages  162  and  165 
(Figures  42  and  43),  and  it  is  there  stated  that  one  man  should 
suffice  where  the  condensation  was  not  excessive.  However, 
wherever  there  is  a  large  mileage  of  pumping  mains  transferring 
gas  from  one  station  to  another,  some  drips  on  these  mains  will 
require  daily  pumping,  and  contain  so  much  liquid  that  in  the 
absence  of  any  provision  for  power  pumping,  two  men  will  be 
needed  for  the  drip  wagon. 


CHAPTER  XXXIH 

ELECTROLYSIS 

The  author  is  unable  to  discuss,  from  the  standpoint  of  personal 
experience,  the  electrolysis  of  mains  and  services.  A  few  scat- 
tered examples  in  almost  twenty-four  years,  twenty  of  which 
have  been  spent  with  a  main  system  of  over  fifteen  hundred 
miles,  while  disqualifying  one  as  an  electrolysis  expert,  show 
strikingly  that  the  single-wire  trolley  system  can  exist  without 
extensive  damage  to  gas  mains  and  services.  The  electrolysis 
investigations  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  included  measure- 
ments in  Philadelphia,  but  it  has  never  expressed  any  opinion  as 
to  the  reasons  for  the  negligible  amount  of  current  being  carried 
by  the  gas  structures  there.  The  author  will  venture  to  state 
the  conditions  that,  in  his  belief,  have  produced  this  immunity. 
They  are:  a  very  well  bonded  and  large  section  rail;  generous 
copper  provision  for  return  current;  location  of  water  main  in 
centre  of  street,  and,  therefore,  usually  of  track;  location  of 
underground  conduits  between  car  track  and  gas  main;  practice 
of  two  gas  mains,  each  close  to  curb,  on  each  car  track  street; 
use  of  cement  joints  on  all  new  mains,  now  equal  to  35  per  cent 
of  total  mileage. 

The  gas  engineer  who  is  confronted  continually  with  the 
problem  of  electrolysis,  should  read  the  publications  of  the 
Bureau  of  Standards  and  the  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Electrolysis  of  the  American  Gas  Institute,  with  as  many  of  the 
references  quoted  as,  on  investigation,  prove  of  value  to  him; 
should  fight  shy  of  indiscriminate  bonding  between  gas  and 
other  structures;  and,  in  general,  beware  of  any  method  or  man 
claiming  to  work  wonders. 


(345) 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

PRESSURES 
GENERAL  REMARKS 

At  the  outset  of  this  book,  in  Chapter  I,  it  is  asserted  that 
control  of  pressures  should  lie  with  the  distribution  rather  than 
the  manufacturing  department,  as  the  former  deals  directly  with 
the  public,  and,  therefore,  is  in  a  better  position  to  know  the 
pressure  necessary  for  good  service.  An  illustration  of  this  could 
be  drawn  from  any  location  at  the  time  the  inverted  light  was 
first  used.  The  distribution  department  installing  these  lights 
knew  that  flashing  back  was  apt  to  occur  with  any  pressure 
below  2  inches.*  Therefore,  any  existing  pressure  standard  that 
allowed  pressures  to  fall  below  2  inches  in  the  evening  hours,  in 
months  of  peak  load,  should  be  changed,  unless  the  company  was 
either  unable  or  unwilling  to  meet  the  necessary  expense. 

Another  reason  is  that  pressure  is  one  of  the  important  elements 
of  good  service,  and  from  the  doctrine  of  concentration  of 
responsibility,  its  control  should  be  vested  with  the  distribution 
department,  leaving  the  manufacturing  department  responsible 
only  for  continuity  of  supply  and  uniformity  of  composition, 
two  points  as  to  which  no  shifting  of  blame  is  possible.  Before 
discussing  how  this  oversight  of  pressures  should  be  maintained, 
it  will  be  well  to  consider  how  to  decide  upon  a  pressure  standard. 

PRESSURE  STANDARD 

In  determining  a  pressure  standard,  there  are  four  points  to  be 
fixed,  viz.,  maximum  pressure,  minimum  pressure,  and  variations 
at  any  one  meter,  either  practically  instantaneous  or  within  24 
hours.  The  usual  maximum  pressure,  as  allowed  by  any  com- 
mission regulations,  is  6  inches,  and  this  should  be  considered  as 
required  only  by  the  distribution  conditions  obtaining  in  large 
cities,  as  in  those  of  moderate  size,  5  inches,  and  in  towns,  4.5 

*A11  pressure  measurements  mentioned  in  this  book  are  given  in  inches  of  water  column. 

(346) 


PRESSURES  347 

inches,  are  maxima  which  it  should  be  possible  to  comply  with,  at 
no  undue  distribution  expense.  The  objection  to  maxima 
higher  than  4.5  inches  lies  in  the  increasing  difficulty  experienced 
above  that  point,  to  meet  the  requirement  as  to  variation  within 
24  hours,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

The  minimum  pressure  should  never  fall  below  2  inches  at  the 
burner,  in  order  that  inverted  lights  give  satisfactory  service. 
As  the  pressure  must  be  measured  in  the  main,  allowance  should 
be  made  for  a  permissible  loss  of  pressure  through  the  meter  and 
housepiping.  This  may  be  considered  as  0.5  inch,  making  the 
minimum  pressure  in  the  main,  2.5  inches.  Of  course,  there 
may  be  special  regions  where,  principally  because  of  difference  in 
level  such  a  minimum  could  not  be  maintained,  and  any  com- 
mission regulation  requiring  over  2  inches  would  then  be  a 
hardship.  As  a  general  proposition,  however,  2.5  inches  is  the 
minimum  pressure  allowable  over  extended  areas  and  times. 
Better  general  service  will  be  afforded  by  a  3-inch  minimum,  as 
this  allows  over  2  inches  at  the  burner,  even  with  overloaded  and 
partially  obstructed  piping,  —  conditions  more  or  less  prevalent 
in  all  places,  and  either  unknown  to  or  beyond  remedy  by 
the  company. 

The  instantaneous  variation  of  pressure  refers  to  fluctuations 
caused  by  gas  engines  or  instantaneous  water  heaters.  Such  a 
variation  hardly  should  be  the  subject  of  commission  regulation, 
because  the  cure  usually  is  so  inexpensive  that  if  the  company 
is  responsible,  it  is  inconceivable  that  the  condition  would  not  be 
remedied,  and  if  the  consumer  is  responsible  by  reason  of  not 
providing  sufficiently  large  housepiping,  it  is  not  fair  to  mulct 
the  company.  The  permissible  variation  should  not  exceed  that 
which  causes  an  annoying  fluctuation  in  any  light,  and  its 
amount  will  depend  upon  the  normal  pressure.  When  the  latter 
is  about  2.5  inches,  any  variation  over  0.5  inch  probably  will  be 
excessive.  The  remedies  for  such  pressure  fluctuations  will  be 
described  when  treating  of  the  appliance  whose  sudden  demand 
for  gas  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

The  24-hour  variation  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  varying  demands 
for  gas  at  different  hours.  With  the  increasing  use  of  gas  as  fuel, 
the  greatest  instantaneous  demand  on  the  main  system  comes  on 
those  autumn  days  when  darkness  falls  and  lights  are  needed 
while  the  evening  meal  is  still  cooking  on  the  gas  range.  In  the 
latitude  of  Philadelphia,  this  is  about  October,  and  at  that  time 
a  5-minute  observation  would  show  the  greatest  rate  of  output, 


348  MAIN  WORK 

and,  hence,  the  lowest  pressures  are  reached.  The  dip  is  a  very 
sharp  one  and  seldom  extends  over  15  minutes.  The  pressure 
difference  between  the  low  point  at  this  time  and  the  maximum 
during  the  rest  of  the  day,  should  not  exceed  2  inches,  and  it  will 
be  better  for  the  performance  of  most  appliances  if  it  is  kept 
within  1  inch,  and  this  probably  will  be  true  for  most  of  a  system 
living  up  to  the  other  pressure  requirements  already  described. 
Such  a  distribution  system  would  maintain  6  and  4  inches,  and 
5  and  3.5  inches,  or  4  and  3.5  inches  at  its  street  main 
governors,  during  its  times  of  greatest  and  least  sendouts  respect- 
ively, and  these  pressures  would  correspond  at  the  extremities  of 
the  system  to  2  and  3  inches,  so  that  only  those  consumers  close  to 
the  governors  would  get  a  variation  of  over  1  inch. 

PRESSURE  MAINTENANCE 
DAILY  OPERATIONS 

In  order  that  there  be  accurate  knowledge  of  the  actual 
pressures  obtaining  throughout  a  distribution  system  at  all  times, 
it  is  essential  to  maintain  recording  gauges  at  an  adequate 
number  of  pressure  points.  Preferably,  the  charts  should 
extend  over  24  hours  only,  and  seven  charts  obtained  every  week, 
but  in  special  locations,  a  168-hour  chart,  or  a  24-hour  chart 
taken  once  or  twice  a  week  at  the  time  of  probable  greatest 
pressure  variations,  may  be  substituted  where  a  chart  each  day 
involves  too  great  expense.  There  should  be  a  gauge  at  the 
outlet  of  each  street  main  governor,  in  every  district  shop  and 
commercial  office,  and  in  any  other  company  building  the 
record  from  which  would  be  representative  of  a  section  not 
already  cared  for  by  shop  or  office.  Additional  gauges  should  be 
placed  in  consumers'  premises  as  far  as  may  be  necessary  to 
secure  records  truly  representative  of  the  various  conditions 
obtaining  throughout  the  main  system.  Each  gauge  should  be 
connected  with  the  street  main  by  a  service  from  which  no  other 
supply  is  taken.  In  general,  records  should  be  taken  from 
typical  trunk  mains,  from  intermediate  mains  and  from  those  at 
the  extreme  ends. 

All  regular  pressure  charts  should  be  sent  to  one  person,  and 
he  made  responsible  to  the  distribution  head  for  the  subject  of 
pressures.  In  Philadelphia,  this  duty  devolves  on  the  Inspector 
of  Pressures,  who  always  has  been  one  of  the  district  superin- 
tendents, as  the  work  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  one  man  busy,  and 
can  be  added  to  the  duties  of  the  superintendent  of  a  small 


PRESSURES  349 

district  without  unduly  burdening  him.  The  inspector  looks  at 
each  chart  and  is  on  the  watch  for  any  unusual  variation.  On 
those  infrequent  occasions  when  some  occurrence  at  a  street- 
main  governor  has  caused  uncalled-for  fluctuations,  he  asks  for  an 
explanation  from  the  governor  man,  and  when  the  fluctuation  is 
considerable,  reports  the  case  to  the  distribution  head.  This 
constant  watchfulness  is  productive  of  great  care  on  the  part  of 
every  one  having  to  do  with  pressure  regulation. 

As  often  as  may  be  required  by  the  change  in  length  of  day- 
light, or  the  seasonal  changes  in  the  use  of  gas,  the  inspector  issues 
a  new  schedule  of  pressures.  This  is  sent  in  the  form  of  a  type- 
written letter  to  each  man  in  charge  of  a  street  main  governor, 
and  its  receipt  must  be  acknowledged.  All  pressure  changes, 
except  minor  ones  applying  to  only  one  governor,  call  for  a  new 
schedule.  This  practice  often  involves  sending  a  new  letter  to 
some  locations  where  pressures  remain  unchanged,  but  it  has  the 
advantage  of  affording  readier  knowledge  of  the  schedule  gov- 
erning all  the  governors  on  any  given  day.  About  seven- 
teen schedules  are  issued  each  year,  and  the  change 
in  the  date  of  issue  does  not  vary  greatly  from  one  year  to 
another.  Therefore,  with  the  knowledge  of  what  governor 
pressures  have  been  required  in  the  past  to  obtain  certain  condi- 
tions throughout  the  distribution  system,  and  with  the  current 
charts  before  him,  it  is  not  difficult  for  the  inspector  to  determine 
the  details  of  each  schedule.  In  the  old  days,  an  increase  at  dusk 
and  at  dawn,  with  a  later  decrease  as  the  people  went  to  bed  or 
to  work,  were  the  only  variations  required.  Now,  in  summer  the 
cooking  load  also  must  be  cared  for,  and  this,  on  Sunday,  will 
require  higher  pressures  than  any  save  those  at  autumn  dusk. 

In  order  that  the  distribution  head  should  keep  in  touch  with 
the  work  of  the  inspector  and  with  the  pressures  being  main- 
tained, there  should  pass  over  his  desk,  or  that  of  his  assistant, 
a  complete  set  of  charts  for  one  day  in  the  week. 

YEARLY  SURVEY 

The  regular  charts  already  spoken  of  would  give  some  idea  of 
the  loss  in  pressure  during  the  days  and  hours  of  maximum 
consumption,  and  those  at  the  extremities  would  tell  how  much, 
if  any,  was  the  deficiency  there.  Their  number,  however,  is 
insufficient  to  tell  all  that  should  be  known  of  the  loss  in  pressure 
from  each  governor  to  its  extremities  of  supply,  before  deciding 
intelligently  upon  main  enlargements  or  extensions,  and  they 


350  MAIN  WORK 

should  be  supplemented  by  special  charts,  taken  principally  at 
strategic  points  on  trunk  mains,  during  the  half  hour  of  maximum 
consumption  on  those  days  when  the  instantaneous  demand  is 
apt  to  be  the  greatest.  In  Philadelphia,  these  charts  are  taken 
during  October,  and  require  four  weeks  of  five  days  each, 
Saturday  being  the  weekday  omitted. 

These  yearly  pressure  locations  remain  unchanged  except  as  to 
the  few  affected  by  new  trunk  mains  and  an  extending  main 
system.  The  list  for  each  year  is  sent  out  a  month  in  advance. 
This  enables  ample  time  for  putting  into  shape  all  necessary 
equipment  and  inspecting  each  location  to  ensure  that  proper 
connections  can  be  made.  At  all  presumably  permanent  pressure 
points,  a  1-inch  pipe  is  screwed  into  the  top  of  the  main  and 
brought  to  the  street  surface,  terminating  under  a  stop  box 
marked  "Gas  Test."  In  other  locations,  lamp  posts  or  drip  pots 
are  used,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  latter  are  completely  dry . 

In  sending  out  the  yearly  list  to  the  Inspector  of  Pressures  and 
the  district  superintendents,  a  date  is  assigned  for  each  set  of 
observations.  An  average  of  ten  is  taken  each  evening,  and  they 
furnish  a  simultaneous  record  of  the  pressures  during  peak  load  in 
one  section  of  the  system.  Each  of  these  sections  is  visited  in  the 
same  order  every  year,  so  the  comparison  with  previous  years  is 
as  close  as  can  be  obtained. 

The  taking  of  these  pressures  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
inspector,  to  whom,  however,  men  for  watching  gauges  are  fur- 
nished by  the  district  superintendent.  One  wagon  carries  the 
gauges,  a  driver,  and  a  gauge  man.  Starting  at  2:00  p.  M.,  all 
the  gauges  will  be  set  by  4:30,  each  gauge  watchman  being  met 
at  his  appointed  spot.  At  the  last  location  the  gauge  man  usually 
acts  as  his  own  watchman.  The  removal  of  the  gauges  begins 
at  7 :00  p.  M.,  and  usually  is  in  reverse  order  to  their  setting.  It 
will  be  noted  that  this  program  allows  about  two  and  one-half 
hours  for  the  shortest  record,  though  not  more  than  a  half  to  one 
hour  is  needed.  The  additional  time  is  required  for  days  when 
unexpected  difficulties  may  be  encountered. 

The  gauges  used  for  this  work  in  Philadelphia  are  of  the 
Bristol  recording  type  (B,  Figure  46),  equipped  with  a  water 
gauge  (A,  Figure  46)  for  standardizing  purposes,  as  described  on 
page  169.  In  locations  where  the  cost  of  the  gauges  needed  for 
anything  like  ten  simultaneous  readings  would  be  out  of  the 
question,  valuable  information  may  be  obtained  by  employing 
careful  men  with  synchronized  watches,  to  make  readings  of 


PRESSURES  351 

water  tube  gauges  at  definite  times;  or,  by  using  only  three  or 
four  gauges  and  each  day  repeating  one  record  of  the  previous 
day,  a  composite  record  may  be  obtained,  probably  as  valuable 
as  a  single  day's  record,  except  where.the  pressure  variations  are 
great.  The  records,  however  obtained,  should  be  sent  to  the 
distribution  head  and  compared,  by  him  or  his  assistant,  with 
previous  records  to  see  what  main  work  may  be  necessary  next 
spring  and  summer  to  prevent  any  departure  from  the  pressure 
standard  during  the  succeeding  autumn  and  winter.  A  direct 
comparison  of  pressures  in  connection  with  pressure  changes 
produced  by  definite  enlargements  and  extensions  in  the  past, 
probably  would  suffice  to  determine  the  particular  size  of  main 
to  produce  a  desired  result.  In  Philadelphia,  the  practice  has 
been  to  convert  into  volume  deliveries,  by  the  use  of  a  computer, 
the  pressure  differences  along  each  line  of  main.  In  this  way, 
although  it  is  well  known  that  the  quantities  obtained  are  not 
correct  in  any  absolute  sense,  it  is  believed  that  effects  produced 
by  existing  mains,  and  to  be  predicated  of  proposed  mains,  are 
shown  more  easily  and  strikingly  than  by  using  pressures  only.  A 
rough  check  of  the  calculated  deliveries  in  the  mains  leading  from 
each  governor,  is  obtained  from  5-minute  readings  of  the  actual 
output  from  each  governor  as  measured  by  fall  of  holder  on 
several  evenings  while  yearly  pressures  are  being  taken. 

Each  year,  about  December  1st,  tables  of  minimum  pressures 
this  year  and  for  ten  previous  years,  as  obtained  from  the  yearly 
pressure  charts,  and  of  assumed  deliveries  this  year,  with  a  dis- 
cussion of  any  particular  features  of  this  year's  records  and 
definite  recommendations  for  any  mains  thought  necessary,  are 
submitted  to  the  Engineer  of  Distribution.  In  this  way,  an 
early  decision  may  be  had  upon  next  year's  big  main  work,  pipe 
bought  cheaply  and  specials  ordered  in  plenty  of  time,  so  that 
April  1st  may  see  the  work  started  and  September  1st  see  it 
finished,  no  matter  what  its  magnitude. 

LOCAL  FAILURES 

As  most  distribution  systems  still  contain  2- and  3-inch  mains, 
cases  will  arise  frequently  where,  with  good  pressures  throughout 
the  system  as  a  whole,  there  will  be  a  lack  of  gas  in  a  limited 
extent  of  main.  Of  recent  years,  this  deficiency  of  supply  is  due 
more  and  more  to  an  increased  use  of  gas.  A  case  in  mind  is 
where  a  3-inch  main  was  called  upon  for  a  continually  increasing 
number  of  fuel  appliances  until  the  pressure  at  the  appliances  fell 


352  MAIN  WORK 

below  2  inches,  and  poor  performances  resulted.  A  pressure 
chart  was  obtained  on  the  3-inch  main  near  the  service  to  the 
appliance,  and  also  on  a  6-inch  main  about  200  feet  away. 
These  records  showed  that  the  drop  was  in  the  3-inch  main,  and 
the  gas  flow  computer  indicated  that  the  gas  being  used  by  the 
appliances  should  produce  approximately  the  observed  drop. 
Therefore,  it  was  clear  that  a  larger  main  was  needed,  and  after 
laying  a  6-inch,  the  trouble  disappeared. 

If  the  observed  pressure  had  indicated  the  drop  to  be  in  the 
3-inch  main,  but  with  a  gas  flow  too  small  to  account  for  the 
drop,  it  would  follow  that  the  main  was  trapped  or  obstructed 
in  some  other  way.  With  a  2-inch  main  always,  and  a  3-inch 
main  generally,  except  where  the  length  is  great,  it  is  good  policy, 
and  not  so  very  much  more  expensive,  to  lay  a  larger  main, 
instead  of  locating  and  removing  the  obstruction.  A  search  of 
this  kind  would  be  conducted  by  a  continual  bisection  by 
openings,  of  the  pipe  remaining  unexplored,  and  an  observation 
in  each  opening  of  the  pipe  slope,  with  possible  bagging  off  to 
get  an  idea  of  relative  strength  of  gas  flow,  supplemented,  if 
necessary,  by  pressure  observations. 

As  will  be  inferred  from  what  has  preceded,  the  procedure  on 
complaints  of  insufficient  supply,  after  the  trouble  has  been 
shown  to  be  on  the  street  side  of  the  meter,  is  to  determine,  by 
pressure  records,  the  drop  through  the  service,  and,  if  the  service 
proves  large  enough,  to  find  the  drop  through  a  section  of  main. 
Both  for  service  and  for  main,  the  drop  observed  should  be 
checked  with  that  indicated  by  the  computer  for  the  size  and 
length  of  pipe  and  amount  of  gas  flow.  In  selecting  locations  for 
main  pressures,  one  point  generally  should  be  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  service  junction,  unless  it  is  known  that  the  service  is  large 
enough,  in  which  case  the  pressure  at  the  head  of  the  service  may 
be  taken  as  the  main  pressure  at  the  service.  A  second  point  on 
the  main  should  be  its  junction  with  the  nearest  intersecting  main, 
unless  these  two  mains  are  the  same  size  and  there  is  an  inter- 
section with  a  larger  main  not  much  further  away.  Then  this 
latter  intersection  is  preferable  as  a  pressure  point,  for  it  will 
show  whether  the  lack  of  pressure  is  confined  merely  to  the  small 
main  or  is  more  widespread. 

The  pressure  records  should  cover  the  periods  of  greatest 
demand.  In  many  of  these  cases  of  isolated  failures,  it  is  a 
question  of  industrial  use  only,  the  small  lighting  load  being  so 
negligible  that  the  records  can  be  taken  at  any  time  when  all  the 


PRESSURES  353 

appliances  concerned  are  in  use.  In  other  cases,  especially  in 
residential  districts,  the  record  must  cover  the  lapping  of  the 
lighting  and  cooking  peak,  and  where  there  are  automatic  water 
heaters  in  use,  a  24-hour  record  is  advisable. 

To  obtain  main  pressures  without  digging,  a  drip  or  street 
lamp  often  may  be  used.  Lacking  these  facilities,  pressures  at 
the  heads  of  certain  services  supplying  little  or  no  gas  are  among 
the  possibilities,  but  the  conditions  in  connection  with  these 
services  must  be  known  positively  before  such  records  are 
considered  as  indicating  main  pressures. 

It  perhaps  hardly  is  necessary  to  say  that  unless  individual 
cases  of  poor  supply  are  promptly  and  intelligently  investigated, 
and  quickly  remedied,  there  will  be  a  failure  to  furnish  the 
perfect  service  aimed  at  when  providing  for  daily  pressure 
records  at  representative  points  and  a  yearly  survey  of  the  whole 
system  under  peak  load. 


PART  V 

SERVICE  WORK 

Under  this  heading  is  given  the  details  of  service  work,  the  line 
of  treatment  being  similar  to  that  already  followed  for  main  work. 


SECTION  I 

INSTALLATION 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

ORGANIZATION 
SMALL  TOWNS 

For  services,  as  for  mains,  the  organization  of  a  working  force 
will  vary  according  to  local  conditions  and  to  the  scale  of  opera- 
tions. In  small  towns,  both  mains  and  services  would  be  looked 
after  by  one  man,  the  general  street  foreman,  who,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  scale,  would  be  a  working  foreman,  taking  his  orders  from 
the  superintendent.  In  discussing  service  work,  the  man  in 
charge  will  be  referred  to  as  the  service  foreman. 

In  the  small  town,  or  a  district  in  the  growing  fringe  of  a  large 
city,  the  work  of  the  service  foreman  would  comprise  much  detail. 
He  would  preinspect  service  locations,  direct  the  movement  of 
the  service  gangs,  see  to  the  ordering  and  delivery  of  material, 
inspect  the  finished  work,  check  the  report  of  the  cart  foreman, 
do  any  clerical  work,  and  act  as  timekeeper. 

The  growing  fringe  of  a  large  city  has  been  included  under  the 
same  head  as  a  small  town  because,  while  its  service  work  is  on  a 
larger  scale,  it  is,  in  general,  the  repetition  of  the  same  simple 
operation  over  and  over  again,  and  does  not  involve  the  compli- 
cations attendant  on  service  laying  in  the  congested  portions  of 
large  cities.  In  the  growing  fringe,  most  of  the  services  are  laid 
in  batches  of  fifty  or  more  to  blocks  of  unfinished  houses  on 
unpaved  streets.  Under  these  conditions,  the  service  cart 
foreman  does  not  need  very  close  inspection  on  the  part  of  the 
service  foreman,  for  the  cart  foreman  soon  learns  how  to  cope 
with  the  few  emergencies  possible.  If,  however,  the  work 
involves  more  service  gangs  than  the  service  foreman  is  able  to 
direct,  he  is  given  the  assistance  of  one  or  more  service  inspectors. 

(357) 


358  SERVICE  WORK 

The  personnel  of  a  service  gang  for  this  work  would  comprise 
the  cart  foreman,  one  drilier  and  six  or  more  laborers,  the  exact 
number  depending  upon  the  average  length  of  the  services  laid, 
for  the  longer  the  service,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  more  services 
laid  without  moving  the  cart,  the  larger  the  number  of  laborers 
the  other  two  men  can  keep  employed.  Of  the  laborers,  more 
than  half  usually  will  be  old  hands,  skilled  at  the  work.  The 
cart  foreman,  besides  directing  the  operation  of  his  men,  would, 
with  the  driller,  tap  the  main  and  do  all  the  pipe  work.  He 
should  be  of  good  intelligence,  and  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
service  work  and  some  understanding  of  main  work. 

LARGE  CITIES 

Service  work  in  the  congested  portions  of  large  cities  differs 
decidedly  from  conditions  already  described.  It  consists  almost 
entirely  in  the  renewal  and  enlargement  of  existing  services,  and 
often  involves  interference  with  other  structures.  The  service 
foreman  must  consult  with  the  employees  of  companies  owning 
the  structures  and  with  the  architects  and  builders,  to  determine 
service  locations.  He  will,  in  general,  decide  upon  the  move- 
ments of  his  cart  foremen,  but  will  not  have  much  time  to  oversee 
their  work  in  detail.  If  there  are  many  of  them,  he  will  need  one 
or  more  inspectors,  on  the  basis  of  one  inspector  to  three  or  four 
gangs.  The  service  foreman  will  have  charge  of,  and  be 
responsible  for,  the  routing  of  the  teams  delivering  service 
material,  but  the  inspectors  or  the  cart  foreman  usually  will 
determine  the  nature  of  the  material  and  the  desired  time  of  its 
delivery.  The  inspector,  besides  serving  as  an  intermediary 
between  the  service  foreman  and  certain  cart  foremen,  is  of 
especial  value  for  the  preinspection  work  described  on  page  359. 

Service  work  in  congested  districts  usually  is  slow  and  difficult 
from  the  presence  of  numerous  underground  structures.  Dense 
street  traffic  prohibits  an  extensive  amount  of  ditch  openings  at 
any  one  time,  and  renders  advisable  the  filling  of  all  openings  at 
night.  All  these  conditions  militate  against  the  economical  use 
of  a  large  service  gang,  and  the  force  recommended  would 
comprise  the  cart  foreman,  one  skilled  and  two  ordinary  laborers. 
The  foreman  would  do  his  own  tapping,  cutting  and  threading. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

PRELIMINARY  WORK  AND    REMOVING  PAVING 
PRELIMINARY  WORK 
PREINSPECTION  OF  SITE 

In  order  to  execute  work  of  any  kind  economically,  proper 
planning  is  requisite.  This  is  peculiarly  true  in  regard  to  service 
work.  For  a  new  house,  the  service  should  be  run  before  the 
footway  paving  is  laid,  i.  e.,  before  the  house  is  completed.  In 
the  case  of  operation  houses,  this  involves  careful  planning  with 
the  builder  and,  often,  the  subcontractor,  to  ensure  that  on  the 
days  set  for  the  service  work,  there  will  be  the  least  amount  of 
building  material  in  the  way.  When  one  service  foreman  has  a 
district  in  which  there  are  many  such  operations  under  way  at 
one  time,  he  must  plan  his  work  several  weeks  ahead,  and  also  be 
ready  to  make  quick  changes,  to  avoid  running  out  of  work,  and, 
as  a  rule,  to  meet  the  builders'  desires,  all  without  involving  too 
long  jumps  of  service  gangs  from  one  job  to  another.  It  easily 
will  be  seen  that  work  of  this  character  often  entails  several  visits 
to  one  site  before  the  cart  foreman  is  ordered  there.  At  the  time 
of  these  visits,  the  size  and  location  of  each  service  may  be 
decided,  generally  being  the  same  for  houses  of  similar  design, 
and  being  governed  by  the  principles  described  in  Chapter  XV. 
The  cart  foreman  is  given  what  directions  he  may  need,  usually 
when  he  is  told  to  proceed  to  the  place  in  question.  In  case  of 
services  to  new  isolated  houses,  building  material  is  less  apt  to  be 
in  the  way,  and  for  these  services  the  proper  date  for  laying  is 
determined  easily. 

Service  renewals,  forming  the  larger  part  of  the  work  in  con- 
gested districts,  involve  preinspection  mainly  for  size  and  location, 
as  the  time  for  the  work  usually  is  the  earliest  date  possible.  In 
so  far,  however,  as  this  work  may  involve  the  temporary  discon- 
tinuance of  gas  supply,  the  exact  time  becomes  of  great  import- 
ance in  industrial  operations,  and  the  inspector  has  a  chance  to 

(359) 


360  SERVICE    WORK 

use  good  judgment.  Under  every  condition,  the  person  for  whom 
the  service  is  being  run  should  know  when  the  work  will  be 
begun,  so  that  the  arrival  of  the  service  gang  is  never  unexpected. 

If  the  proper  location  for  a  new  service  may  be  determined 
definitely  while  the  house  wall  is  being  built,  the  insertion  of  a 
sleeve  of  stove  pipe,  or  similar  material,  exceeding,  by  2  inches, 
the  service  diameter,  is  worth  considering.  Its  value  is  great 
when,  because  of  inferior  construction,  any  opening  in  a  wall  is 
apfto  affect  its  stability.  It  is  an  absolute  necessity  when  the 
building  is  large  and  the  foundation  wall  very  thick. 

Where  there  is  no  sleeve  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
wall  is  then  in  bad  condition,  or  will  become  so  when  broken  into 
during  service  work,  the  foreman,  or  inspector  who  preinspects 
the  site,  should  make  a  careful  note  of  the  conditions  and  possibly 
have  photographs  taken.  These  precautions,  in  connection  with 
great  care  in  making  the  service  opening,  will  minimize  any 
actual  damage  and  prevent  claims  for  conditions  existing 
previous  to  work.  Under  extreme  conditions,  no  work  should  be 
done  without  securing  a  release  from  the  owner. 

ORDERS  FOR  WORK 

To  avoid  confusion,  no  work  should  be  assigned  to  a  service 
gang  except  upon  a  written  order  issued  to  the  service  foreman. 
This  order  may v  be  conveniently  in  the  shape  of  a  3  by  5-inch 
card,  one  for  each  service,  bearing  the  house  number,  with  the 
size  and  location  of  the  main  if  known.  This  card,  as  described 
on  page  383,  finally  becomes  a  record  of  the  work  done. 

It  might  be  said  here  that  the  average  cart  foreman  is  not  a 
success  at  clerical  work,  which  should  be  attended  to  by  the 
inspectors,  or,  in  their  absence,  by  the  service  foreman. 

DELIVERY  OF  MATERIAL 

In  service  work  to  blocks  of  houses,  all  of  the  material  is 
delivered  directly  to  the  site.  This  reduces  to  a  minimum  the 
load  in  the  service  cart.  The  pipe  often  is  taken  directly  from 
the  storage  place  in  double  team  loads  and  unloaded  at  one  or 
more  locations,  several  days  in  advance  of  the  gang.  Stop  boxes 
also  may  sometimes  be  delivered  directly  without  involving 
district  rehandling.  The  fittings  and  stop  cocks  (material  too 
valuable  to  leave  unguarded)  are  delivered  to  the  service  gang 
the  morning  the  job  is  started. 

Material  for  isolated  jobs  is  either  carried  there  by  the  service 
carts  or  delivered  to  the  cart  after  the  work  has  started.  Where 


PRELIMINA  R  Y  WORK  A  ND  REMO  VI NG  PA  VI NG    361 


footway  or  roadway  traffic  is  dense,  it  is  particularly  objection- 
able to  deliver  material  in  advance  of  the  gang's  arrival. 

In  material  delivery,  the  service  foreman  will  have  a  splendid 
opportunity  to  exercise  his  brains  and  effect  operating  economies. 

NATURE  OF  EQUIPMENT 

The  equipment  recommended  for  a  service  cart,  manned  and 
moved  by  four  men  installing  services  2-inch  and  smaller  in  size, 
is  detailed  below.  For  a  larger  gang,  additional  picks  and 
shovels  would  be  required.  The  material  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
emergency  supply,  to  allow  for  delivery  delays. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  SERVICE  CART 

TOOLS 
EXCAVATING  AND  REFILLING 


1  Searching  Bar  (B,  Figure  44, 

page  166), 
1  Stone    Bar    (A,    Figure    13, 

page  114), 
1  Tunnelling  Bar    (C,    Figure 

13), 
4  Asphalt  Cutters  (D,  Figure 

7,  page  104), 
4  Pick  Handles, 
3  Picks  (page  115), 
1   Driving  Point  (G,  Figure  13), 


2  Rammers  (B,  Figure  19,  page 

123), 

3  Sharp    Nose    Shovels    (page 

113), 

1  Tunnelling  Shovel  (page  11 3), 

2  12-tt>.  Sledges  (C,  Figure  16, 

page  123), 
2  Asphalt  Wedges  (A,  Figure 

9,  page  106), 

2  Frost  Wedges  (B,  Figure  9), 
2  Rock  Wedges  (D,  Figure  9). 


CAST-IRON   MAINS 

(Not  needed  on  ordinary  service  work) 


2  2-in.  Rubber  Bags' 


(E,  Fig- 


3  3-in.  ure  24, 

2  4-in.       "  "|  page 

2  6-in.        "  "     j  132), 

2  Cape    Chisels    (Figure   39, 

page  158), 

3  Cold  Chisels  (E,  Figure  26, 

page  136), 
2  Dog  Chisels  and  Handles  (D, 

Figure  26), 
1  Caulking  Hammer, 
1   8-lb.  Striking  Hammer   (D, 

Figure  19), 


2  Yarning    Irons    (Figure    40, 

page  159), 

4  Diamond  Points  (A,  Figure 
26, 

3  6-in.  Stoppers  (A,  Figure  24, 

1  set  Caulking  Tools  (Figure 
40), 

1  Trowel  (B,  Figure  36,  page 

153), 

2  Bursting  Wedges   (F  &  G, 

Figure  26). 


362 


SERVICE   WORK 


1  24-in.  Wall  Bar  (A,  Figure  13), 

1  Extra  Long  Chain, 

2  12-in.  Wall  Chisels  (B,  Fig- 

ure 62,  page  192), 
1   18-in.  Wall  Chisel  (B,  Figure 

62), 

1  Wood  Chisel  (A,  Figure  62), 
1   Roller  Pipe  Cutter,  f-in.  to 

2-in.  (page  138), 
1   3-wheel  Pipe  Cutter,  f-in.  to 

2-in.  (page  138), 
1  set   Combination    Drill  and 

Tap  (C,  Figure  29,  page 

142), 

1  24-in. Spirit  Level  (page  131), 
1  Mueller   Machine,  complete 

(Figure  30,  page  144), 
1   set  Rubber  Plugs  (B,  Figure 

24), 


SERVICES 

1  Reamer,  f-in.  to  1-in.  (F, 
Figure  29,  page  142), 

1  Reamer,  If-in.  to  2-in.  (F, 
Figure  29), 

1  set  Rubber  Saddles  (A,  Fig- 
ure 32,  page  147), 

1  Adjustable  Stock  and  Dies, 
l|-in.  to  2-in.  (page  140), 

1  Solid  Stock,  Dies  and  Guides 
for  f-in.  to  2-in.  pipe  (A, 
Figure  27,  page  139), 

1  Bench  Vise,  (B,  Figure  32), 

1   14-in.  Monkey  Wrench 

1   10-in.  Trimo  Wrench  1 

1  14-in.      "  I  (page 

2  18-in.       "  I   146). 
2  24-in.       "             "         I 


MISCELLANEOUS  ACCESSORIES 


1  Galvanized   Iron  Stationery 

Box, 

1   Dope  Brush, 
Soap       " 

Galvanized  Iron  Bucket, 
Dope  Can, 

1-qt.  Machine  Oil  Can, 
1-gal.  Oil  Can, 
Squirt  Oil  Can, 
10-in.  Screw  Driver, 
File, 
Hatchet  (A,  Figure  15,  page 

117), 
1  Stop  Cock   Key  (B,  Figure 

45,  page  168), 

1  Asphyxiation  Kit  (C,  Figure 
57,  page  183), 


1  Lamp  Post  Ladder  (Figure 
47,  page  171), 

6  Danger  Lamps  (F,  Figure  1 3) , 

1  Safety  Lamp  or  Electric 
Torch  (C,  Figure  55,  page 
180), 

1  25-ft.  Tape  Line, 

1  pr.  12-in.  Gas  Pliers  (E,  Fig- 
ure 62), 

1  Compass  Saw  (page  194), 

4  Danger  Signs  (E,  Figure  13), 

1  Sponge, 

1  pr.  Bar  Tongs, 

2  Solid  Wrenches  for  Split 

Sleeves. 


PRELIMINA  R  Y  WORK  AND  RE  MO  VI NG  PA  VING    363 


BUSHINGS 

i-  r  xif 
1  —  2  "xif 
i- ir  xif 

2  —  If  xl  ' 

2  — 1  "x    I" 

ELLS 

3-11" 

3  —  1  • 

2-i"Xf' 

SOCKETS 

4— If 

2  —  1    * 

2  — If  xl   " 

3-i3;;x  f 
2-ifx  r 


MATERIAL 

CAPS  PLUGS 

1  —  11*  2  —  2 

1  — If*  2  —  1$ 

2  — I*" 

8-    | 

COCKS 
2  —  11"  TEES 

3-lf 

SERVICE  ELLS    2 1    "  X  If 


NIPPLES 
SIZE 


5  -  If 
3—  1  " 


2-  fxll' 

4-if  x  r 


LENGTH 

r 

1" 

CLOSE   2 

2 

2     2 

2 

3     2 

2 

5     3 

2 

6     3 

2 

8     3 

2 

10    3 

3 

12     - 

3 

45°  ELLS 

2-ir 

4— If 

LONG  SCREWS  4 If  X 

2  —  H"      3—1  ' 
1-1   "       3-  fx 
1—   ¥ 


SERVICE    TEES 


2  - 

2  1 

2  2 

2  - 

2  2 

2  - 


5  gallon  Red  Lead 
1  gallon  Coal  Oil 
1  quart  Machine  Oil 
1  Long  Service  Box 
lj  lengths  IJ-in. 

Service  Pipe 
4  cakes  Soft  Brown 
Soap 

1  roll  Tallowed 

Muslin 

2  3-in.  Wood  Plugs 
2  4-in.  Wood  Plugs 


Cocks,  especially  if  all  brass,  should  be  handled  carefully  and 
kept  apart  from  other  material.  Unless  they  are  in  a  separate 
container,  they  should,  while  in  the  service  cart,  be  closed  at 
both  ends  with  screw  plugs,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  surface  of 
the  barrel. 

One  of  the  duties  of  the  service  foreman  or  inspector  should  be 
to  see  that  all  tools  unfitted  for  good,  rapid  or  safe  work,  are 
repaired  or  replaced.  In  very  cold  weather,  the  cart  foreman 
should  examine  daily  such  of  the  contents  of  the  asphyxiation 
kits  as  are  affected  by  freezing. 

LOCATION  OF  EQUIPMENT 

On  isolated  services,  the  cart  should  be  placed  near  the 
trench,  and  on  operation  work,  somewhere  near  the  centre 
of  the  job. 

Where  service  work,  usually  to  isolated  houses,  is  required 
from  time  to  time  in  a  settlement  several  miles  from  the  ordinary 
spheres  of  activity,  it  will  prove  economical  to  have  a  service 
cart,  fully  equipped,  located  permanently  in  each  such  settle- 


364  SERVICE  WORK 

ment.  Ordinarily,  it  may  be  left  in  a  vacant  lot,  with  small  loss 
of  tools  or  damage  to  carts.  This  plan  will  avoid  long  pulls  by 
the  service  gangs,  who,  instead,  will  reach  the  cart  by  trolley  car, 

MARKING  TRENCH 

The  location  of  the  service  having  been  decided  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  laid  down  on  page  95,  the  trench  is  marked 
out  by  the  cart  foreman.  Its  width  should  vary  from  16  to  18 
inches.  The  length  of  opening  at  the  main  should  be  4  or  5  feet, 
according  as  one  or  two  services  were  being  run  in  the  same 
trench.  The  width  of  this  main  opening  should  follow  the 
table  given  on  page  223. 

REMOVING  PAVING 

The  remarks  already  made  under  this  head  in  describing  main 
work  on  page  224  and  following,  apply  equally  well  to  service 
jobs.  In  cutting  asphalt,  it  sometimes  may  be  advisable  to 
close  shutters  to  protect  glass  from  flying  chips,  though  in  general 
the  asphalt  screen  should  be  sufficient  protection.  The  roadway 
•paving  material  should  be  piled  inside  or  outside  the  curb  as 
local  conditions  might  indicate,  while  footway  paving  material 
should  go  to  the  curb  or  against  the  house.  The  general  aim  is 
either  to  use  this  material  as  a  guard  for  the  trenching,  or  to 
remove  it  from  the  line  of  traffic. 

Where  sod  is  encountered,  it  should  be  cut  and  removed  with 
care  and  so  piled  that  it  may  be  replaced  in  its  original  position. 
Canvas  covers,  a  convenient  size  being  20  by  5  feet,  should  be 
provided  to  protect  the  lawn  from  the  excavated  material.  The 
above-mentioned  precautions,  combined  with  good  tamping  and 
sod  ramming,  will  result  in  the  slightest  possible  scar  in  the 
lawn,  one  that  the  next  rain  will  obliterate.  It  also  will  be  a 
good  advertisement  for  the  company  at  a  negligible  expense. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

TRENCHING 
GENERAL 

The  means  described  on  pages  227  to  229,  for  the  protection 
of  the  public,  of  the  workman  and  of  the  trench,  when  laying 
mains,  should  be  followed  on  service  work  whenever  necessary. 
Excavation  details  also  are  similar  for  the  two  classes  of  work. 
In  the  absence  of  rock,  service  trenching  involves  no  more 
difficult  problem  for  the  cart  foreman  than  the  obtaining  of  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  from  each  individual  digger.  As  far  as 
possible,  each  man  should  be  given  his  own  ditch,  and  in  this  way 
relative  performance  is  seen  more  easily. 

Trees  are  encountered  more  often  on  service  than  on  main 
work,  so  their  treatment  will  be  dealt  with  here.  No  attachment 
should  be  made  to  a  tree,  nor  material  piled  close  around  it. 
When  the  trench  lies  close  to  trees,  care  is  necessary  to  avoid 
injuring  important  roots. 

In  opening  under  any  gutter,  either  carrying  water  or  liable  to 
do  so  before  the  trench  is  refilled,  the  paving  of  the  gutter  should 
be  left  intact,  or  a  trough  or  pipe  installed  to  carry  the  water 
across  the  trench.  This  will  prevent  not  only  disagreeable 
working  conditions,  but  possibly  also  a  wet  cellar. 

With  only  one  man  on  each  service  trench,  the  place  to  start 
is  over  the  main,  so  that  the  tapping  can  be  done  and  the  fittings 
screwed  in  while  the  rest  of  the  excavation  is  proceeding.  The 
house  wall  is  another  point  for  early  attack.  When  an  opening 
(the  smallest  possible  for  the  purpose)  has  been  effected  at  the 
right  height,  then  the  trench  can  be  bottomed  in  a  straight  line 
between  this  hole  and  the  top  of  the  main.  Care  in  this  bottom- 
ing is  worth  while  if  the  soil  is  compact,  for  then  the  service  pipe 
can  rest  directly  on  the  earth,  receiving  continuous  support  and 
removing  any  fear  of  subsequent  settlement  with  possible 
trapping,  or  leaking  fittings  due  to  strain. 

(365) 


366  SERVICE  WORK 

The  proper  depth  for  services  has  already  been  treated  of  on 
page  97.  The  minimum  grade  should  be  1  inch  in  12  feet. 
The  ordinary  grade  will  be  three  or  four  times  as  great. 

TUNNELLING 

In  main  work,  tunnelling  is  very  incidental,  and  there  is  an 
increasing  tendency  to  prohibit  it  by  ordinance.  However, 
sometimes  in  main  work  and  often  in  service  work,  tunnelling  is 
preferable  to  open  excavation,  both  on  the  score  of  economy  and 
of  paving  preservation.  This  is  true  particularly  of  any  paving 
on  a  good  concrete  base.  Here,  for  service  laying,  the  amount 
of  excavated  material  is  often  very  small,  especially  if  driving  or 
drilling  is  possible  for  part  of  the  way.  Therefore,  refilling  can 
be,  and,  with  good  supervision,  will  be,  sufficiently  well  done  to 
prevent  the  subsequent  settlement  of  the  concrete  base.  If  the 
soil  should  be  ashes  or  other  bad  fill,  tunnelling  usually  is  not 
practicable  and  is  not  advisable,  first,  because  the  soil  will  be 
hard  to  tamp  back,  and  second,  because,  unless  using  galvanized 
pipe,  an  open  trench  is  necessary  to  enable  placing  around  the 
pipe,  the  good  earth  required  for  its  long  life. 

DRILLING  OR  DRIVING 

In  some  cases  of  service  renewals,  drilling  or  driving  is  advis- 
able, generally  to  avoid  disturbing  some  cement  footway  of 
which  the  house  owner  is  proud,  and  is  dubious  of  the  company's 
success  in  color  matching  the  broken  blocks  with  the  remaining 
paving.  When  the  new  service  can  take  the  location  and  depth 
of  the  old  one,  this  method  may  present  no  difficulties  whatever. 
The  trouble  is  that  the  old  service  usually  is  too  shallow  at  the 
house,  and  the  new  one  must  start  at  a  lower  level.  Also,  most  of 
the  cement  footways  are  underlaid  with  ashes  to  service  depth, 
so  that  a  driven  service  will  be  surrounded  by  ashes,  while  with 
an  open  trench,  this  could  be  avoided.  However,  with  galvan- 
ized pipe,  this  need  not  be  considered. 

Driving  is  accomplished  by  plugging  the  end  of  a  length  of 
pipe,  or,  preferably,  fitting  it  with  a  driving  point  (G,  Figure  13, 
page  114)  and  then  forcing  the  pipe  outward  from  the  cellar, 
by  blows  from  a  heavy  sledge  on  a  wooden  block  held  against  the 
pipe.  When  the  point  has  appeared  in  the  trench  outside  the 
curb,  pipe  and  all  are  withdrawn  into  the  cellar  and  the  service 
pipe  shoved  through  the  hole  thus  left.  In  ashes  or  other  loose 


TRENCHING  367 

soil,  the  opening  is  not  apt  to  remain,  and  this  may  force  the 
using  of  the  pipe  behind  the  point  as  the  service  pipe,  assuming 
that  it  has  not  been  hurt  in  the  driving  process. 

As  may  be  imagined,  the  pipe  does  not  always  drive  in  the 
direction  intended,  and  the  operation  must  be  repeated  until 
success  results.  Even  if  the  point  appears  where  expected, 
outside  the  curb,  it  does  not  follow  necessarily  that  there  will  not 
be  a  trap  in  the  pipe  as  driven.  The  existence  of  this  trap  can, 
of  course,  be  told  by  pouring  a  measured  amount  of  water  intc 
the  pipe  and  noting  any  lack  in  the  issuing  quantity. 

Drilling  is  a  variety  of  driving  where  a  drill  point  is  used  and 
the  pipe  revolved  as  it  advances.  It  is  of  especial  application  in 
clayey  soils.  Both  driving  and  drilling  require  care  to  avoid 
damage  to  underground  structures,  and  should  not  be  done  if 
such  structures  are  known  to  lie  across  the  path  to  be  taken  by 
the  pipe. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

LAYING 
GENERAL 

Any  services  from  a  main  extension,  or  service  work  in  connec- 
tion with  main  renewals,  usually  will  be  laid  as  part  of  the  main 
job.  This  will  save  a  second  opening  over  the  main,  often 
enable  the  tap  holes  to  be  made  before  the  main  is  gassed,  make 
the  supervision  of  all  work  easier  for  the  one  foreman,  and,  in 
general,  keep  the  force  of  street  men  employed  to  better  advan- 
tage than  if  the  work  was  done  at  separate  times. 

On  occasions,  usually  in  the  late  fall,  there  may  be  one  or 
more  locations  where,  before  it  is  possible  to  run  the  main,  cement 
footways  must  be  laid  to  avoid  cold  weather.  If  no  service 
gangs  are  available,  wooden  ducts  might  be  furnished  the 
builder  and  properly  located  for  future  service  use.  The  use  of 
these  ducts  is  more  or  less  objectionable,  because  of  the  prob- 
ability of  their  not  being  in  exactly  the  right  position,  and  the 
impossibility  of  filling  the  space  between,  pipe  and  duct,  thus 
increasing  the  chance  of  corrosion  and  also  of  a  street  leak 
entering  the  house.  Therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  make  an 
extra  effort  and  lay  the  service  from  the  house  to  the  street  for 
future  connection  to  the  main  by  means  of  a  long  screw.  Here 
it  might  be  stated  that  unions  with  washer  joints  should  never 
be  used  for  underground  work. 

PIPE  CUTTING 

As  a  general  rule,  for  sizes  2-inch  and  smaller,  all  pipe  cutting 
should  be  done  on  the  job,  by  use  of  stock  and  die,  with  pipe 
held  fast  in  the  vise  attached  to  the  service  cart.  Power  cutting 
to  measurement,  at  the  district  shop,  is  profitable  wherever, 
because  of  a  constant  distance  of  main  from  curb,  and  a  standard 
stop  cock  location,  the  length  from  main  to  stop  cock  will  be  the 
same  for  each  of  forty  or  fifty  houses  in  a  block.  Another 

(368) 


LA  YING 


369 


advantage  of  this  cutting  at  the  shop  is  that  accumulations  of 
short  pieces  of  pipe  may  be  disposed  of  by  combining  them  to 
form  one  stop  length. 

The  hindrance  to  power  cutting  of  large  service  pipe  is  that 
until  the  trench  is  opened,  it  is  not  certain  how  underground 
obstructions  may  affect  the  work,  and  usually,  cutting  at  the 
trench  side,  with  a  hand-power  machine,  is  preferable  to  taking 
the  measurements  after  excavation  and  sending  back  to  the 
shop  for  the  cut  material. 

The  tools  used  for  this  work  are  illustrated  and  'described  on 
pages  138  to  148. 

CONNECTING  TO  MAIN 

It  was  stated  before,  that  the  first  opening  should  be  made 
over  the  main.  This  is  because  service  laying  begins  at  the  main 
and  the  work  there  requires  the  largest  amount  of  time.  The 
first  operation  is  tapping  the  main.  The  size  of  opening  is 
determined  by  the  size  of  service  and  also,  on  small  mains,  by  the 
size  of  main.  Below  is  the  Philadelphia  schedule: 

SCHEDULE  OF  SERVICE  CONNECTIONS 


Size  of 
Service 

Size  of  Main 

30  -in. 

20  -in. 

Hole 
inch 

16-inch 

12-inch 

8-inch 

6-inch 

4-inch 

3-inch 

2-inch 

Hole 
inch 

1 

u 

p 

2* 
3 
4 

Hole 

inch 

Hole 
inch 

Hole 
inch 

Hole 
inch 

Hole 
inch 

Hole 
inch 

Hole 
inch 

1-inch 
il 

I       ' 

35 
4 

il 

I1 

I1 

4 

1 

H 

I1 

1* 

6  H.S. 

11 

I 

4  H.S. 

1 

n 

i1 

2 
3  S.S. 
8"x6*T 

1 
U 

3  S.S. 
3  S.S. 
6*x6'T 

2  S.S. 
2  S.S. 
2  S.S. 
4»x4'T 
4'x4'T 

US.S. 

liS.S. 

1JS.S. 

HS.S. 
4"x4'T 
4'x4'T 

IJS.S. 
1JS.S. 
1JS.S. 
1JS.S. 

T  S.S.  =  Split  Sleeve  tapped  with  1 J 
*  H.S.=     "          "       with  6' Hub  ca 


hole 
Hub  cast  on 


NOTE.  —  Any  existing  f -inch  hole  may  be  used  for  services  not 
larger  than  1  \  inches,  in  which  case  if  a  nipple  is  inserted  in  the 
main,  the  change  from  f-inch  to  service  size  should  occur  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  nipple. 

When  a  service  sleeve  is  used,  the  hole  tapped  in  the  main  may 
be  one  size  smaller  than  the  tapped  hole  of  the  sleeve. 

\Ylu-n  not  to  be  used  for  services,  f-inch  hole  in  a  2-inch  main; 
1-inch  hole  in  a  3-inch  main,  and  1  J-inch  hole  in  a  4-inch  main,  is 
permissible. 


370  SERVICE  WORK 

•  Adherence  to  this  schedule  will  tend  to  prevent  mains  breaking 
by  reason  of  weakness  at  the  service  tap.  Such  breaks  are  not 
surprising  when  cases  are  known  of  2-inch  holes  tapped  in  3-inch 
mains.  The  only  reason  for  using  split  sleeves  tapped  for  a 
different  size  than  the  service  being  laid,  is  to  decrease  the 
variety  required  for  stock.  The  reduction,  in  some  cases,  of  the 
tap  hole  diameter  to  below  that  of  the  service,  is  simply  taking 
advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  smaller  opening  will,  because  of 
the  short  length,  deliver  gas  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  longer  pipe. 
The  use  of  the  4  by  4-inch  tee  for  2\  and  3-inch  services  on  3-inch 
mains  results  from  not  buying  any  3-inch  tees.  If  any  were  on 
hand,  recovered  from  old  mains,  they  would  be  used.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  the  use  of  the  8  by  6-inch  tee  for  a  4-inch 
service  to  an  8-inch  main. 

As  a  further  insurance  against  weakening  the  main,  there 
should  be  at  least  9  inches  between  each  tap  hole. 

The  method  of  inserting  branches  and  split  sleeves  is  described 
on  pages  238  and  241.  The  use  of  a  service  sleeve  is  shown  in 
Figure  96. 

Two  types  of  tapping  machines  are  illustrated  and  explained 
on  pages  144  and  145.  Detailed  instructions  for  operating  the 
machines  are  furnished  by  the  makers.  When  working  against 
gas,  the  rubber  saddle  (A,  Figure  32,  page  147)  should  be  used. 

Ordinarily,  the  use  of  a  tapping  machine  involves  an  excava- 
tion to  the  bottom  of  and  all  around  a  main.  On  mains  20-inch 
and  larger,  this  entails  considerable  and  often  particularly 
difficult  work,  which  may  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  chain 
shown  in  Figure  31,  page  145,  as  after  excavating  to  the  centre 
of  the  main,  the  chain,  with  attached  hook,  may  be  forced 
around  under  it. 

The  normal  location  for  the  tap  hole  is  on  the  top  of  the  main, 
as  shown  in  Figure  97.  However,  any  location  within  90  degrees 
either  way  from  this  point  is  acceptable,  if  needed  to  afford 
sufficient  service  depth,  avoid  obstructions,  or  prevent  a  service 
drip.  Figure  98  shows  a  connection  on  the  side. 

Any  workman  tapping  a  main  or  entering  service  fittings 
against  gas,  should  never  be  out  of  sight  of  another  workman. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  special  applications  of  the 
two-workman  precaution  mentioned  on  page  338,  and  to  its 
nonobseryance  has  been  due  many  unnecessary  fatalities. 
With  mains  supplying  no  consumers,  and  many  holes  to  be  made, 


LA  YING 


371 


it  will  pay  to  bag  off  the  stretch  requiring  tapping,  and  thus  save 
the  workman  from  any  effect  of  escaping  gas. 

The  hole,  having  been  tapped,  is  ready  for  the  insertion  of  the 
first  fitting.     This  is  the  service  tee,  B,  Figure  99.     When  the 


Figure  96.— Service  Sleeve  on  3-inch  Main,  page  370. 

hole  is  tapped  in  the  side  of  the  main,  the  outlet  of  the  tee  should 
be  to  your  right  as  you  face  the  main.  This  will  cause  any 
bearing  down  strain  on  the  service  to  tighten  the  tee,  and  thus 
prevent  the  elbow  from  getting  below  the  tee  and  forming  a  trap. 
When  the  hole  is  smaller  than  the  service,  the  reduction  is  made 


372 


SERVICE  WORK 


in  the  tee  entailing  a  minimum  amount  of  restriction.  For 
instance  with  a  1 1-inch  service  from  a  4-inch  main,  the  service 
tee  would  be  1  by  H  by  1|  inches.  The  great  advantage  of  the 


Figure  97.— Top  Connection  with  Two  Services  in 
One  Ditch,  page  370. 

tee  over  an  ell  for  this  first  fitting,  is  the  ability  to  stop  the  gas 
flow  during  service  laying,  by  the  insertion  of  the  rubber  plug 
(B,  Figure  24,  page  132),  shown  in  dotted  line  in  A,  Figure  99. 
This  effectively  protects  the  workman  from  any  gas,  and  should 
be  placed  in  the  tee  before  it  is  screwed  in  the  main,  and  thus 


LA  YING  373 

avoid  the  opening  of  the  main  to  the  outside  air  that  would 
be  necessary  to  insert  the  rubber  plug,  after  the  tee,  closed  by 
an  iron  plug,  was  screwed  into  the  main.  The  general  advis- 


Figure  98.  —Service  Connection  from  Side  of  Main, 
page  370. 

ability  of  avoiding  such  openings  has  been  treated  of  on  page 
267.  Another  advantage  of  the  tee,  but  one  seldom  needed,  is 
the  possibility  of  access  to  the  service  interior  without  cutting. 

The  second  fitting  is  a  service  ell,  C,  Figure  99.     The  combi- 
nation of  the  two  fittings  secures  a  swing  joint  at  the  main,  thus 


374 


SERVICE   WORK 


allowing  the  easy  adjustment  of  the  service  pipe  to  any  grade, 
without  bringing  strain  on  pipe  or  mam,  and  ensuring  that  any 
future  strains  on  the  pipe  will  reach  the  mam,  if  at  all,  in  greatly 
diminished  extent.  The  only  valid  objection  to  the  substitution 
of  this  connection  for  the  straight  pipe  in  the  side  of  the  main  or 
the  single  ell  connection,  viz.,  the  increased  chance  of  naphtha- 


M  AIH 


Figure  99.—  Service  Fittings  at  Main,  page  371. 

lene  or  frost  stoppage  at  the  additional  turns,  disappeared  with 
the  overcoming  of  naphthalene  troubles  and  the  laying  of  larger 
services. 

Both  of  these  fittings  should  be  of  galvanized  malleable  iron. 
Galvanizing  not  only  adds  to  the  length  of  life,  but  also  fills  up 
sand  holes,  decreasing  the  chance  of  service  leaks.  Also,  the 


LA  YING  375 

fittings,  as  well  as  any  service  cock,  should  be  provided  with 
recessed  shoulders  long  enough  to  cover  completely  any  male 
threads  joining  with  them  and  not  engaging  with  the  female 
threads  back  of  the  shoulders.  In  this  way,  these  threads  may 
be  protected  thoroughly  from  corrosion. 

PIPE  LAYING 

Before  laying,  each  length  should  be  looked  through  to  detect 
any  internal  blister  or  other  obstruction,  and  necessary  cleaning 
effected  by  rodding  or  jarring.  It  should  be  examined  also  for 
any  defective  weld,  though  all  coated  pipe  has  been  so  examined 
prior  to  coating.  The  threads  on  coated  pipe  often  are  clogged 
by  the  coating  or  by  dirt,  and  should  be  cleaned  by  running  a  die 
or  fitting  over  them.  The  factory  coupling  should  be  backed  off, 
reversed  and  then  screwed  tight. 

Both  service  tee  and  ell  being  in  approximately  the  right 
position,  the  first  length  of  pipe  is  screwed  into  the  ell.  In 
making  this,  as  all  other  joints,  some  jointing  material  is  used. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  these  to  suit  all  tastes.  Possibly 
white  lead  and  red  lead  are  the  favorites.  Philadelphia,  with 
coated  pipe,  used  cement  and  linseed  oil.  This  had  the  merits 
of  original  cheapness  and  small  waste  because  of  nonhardening 
tendency.  With  the  adoption  of  galvanized  pipe,  red  lead  was 
substituted.  Whatever  "dope"  is  used  should  be  applied  to 
male  threads  only,  and  evenly  spread. 

After  laying  the  stop  length  in  the  case  of  a  main  on  the  near 
side  of  the  street,  or  a  full  length  and  cut  piece  when  the  main 
is  across  the  way,  the  next  step  is  the  installation  of  the  stop 
cock,  if  any.  Stop  cock  design  is  covered  on  page  91,  and  we 
are  interested  here  only  in  the  placing  of  the  type  selected. 
Before  any  stop  cock  is  screwed  on  a  service,  the  cart  foreman 
should  see  that  the  plug  turns  with  just  the  right  amount  of 
effort.  If  it  is  too  tight  or  too  loose,  it  generally  is  wise  to  send 
it  back  to  the  shop  for  adjustment.  The  disadvantage  of 
making  these  adjustments  on  the  street  is  that  there  will  be  as 
many  standards  as  there  are  cart  foremen. 

In  screwing  up  the  cock,  the  wrench  should  grip  the  end 
engaging  the  pipe.  This  avoids  the  strain  that  would  come  upon 
the  barrel  if  the  wrench  were  placed  on  the  other  end. 

The  house  end  of  the  service  should  project  between  2  and  3 
inches  beyond  the  inside  of  the  cellar  wall.  If  after  the  comple- 


376 


SERVICE   WORK 


tion  of  the  service,  no  meter  is  to  be  set,  the  house  end  is  capped 
and  the  stop  cock  left  shut.  At  the  time  of  meter  set, -a  tee  is 
screwed  on  the  service  end.  Thus,  by  removing  a  plug,  there  is 
always  an  opening  in  the  head  of  the  service  available  for  wiring 
or  any  other  method  of  removing  obstructions. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  service  should  be  laid  in  a  straight  line,  at 
right  angles  to  the  curb.  Occasionally,  the  angle  is  oblique,  and 
more  rarely,  being  perpendicular,  offsets  may  be  required  in 
either  horizontal  or  vertical  plane.  Forty-five  degree  ells  should 


less  f/7c?r?  A3' 

/&/-"  /&  ^o  fo  /y 
c/  or? ^s/'c^/s  o/- 


Figure  100.  — Service  Encircling  Conduit,  page  376. 

be  preferred  for  offset  work,  the  requirement  for  which  in  a 
vertical  plane,  usually  is  due  to  the  location  of  houses  on  ground 
well  above  the  street  level. 

Very  rarely,  indeed,  when  obstructions  interfere  with  a  straight 
line  in  the  vertical  plane,  and  a  service  drip  is  inadvisable,  a 
double  line  of  pipe,  Figure  100,  may  be  laid  around  the  obstruc- 
tion, the  lower  leg  draining  away  the  condensation,  and  the  upper 
leg  conveying  the  gas. 

Conduits  containing  cables  carrying  high  tension  current, 
should  be  given  as  wide  a  berth  as  possible,  and  when  forced  to 


LA  YING  377 

cross  under  or  over  them,  the  pipe  should  be  blocked  carefully  to 
prevent  future  contact  and  possible  burnout.  When  crossing 
between  them,  there  should  be  sufficient  clearance  space  to 
enable  future  withdrawal  of  the  pipe.  Earth  should  fill  this 
space  and  also  any  space  between  the  pipe  and  any  sleeve  that 
may  protect  the  former  from  contact  with  the  conduit. 

When  the  pipe  passes  through  a  vault  separated  from,  or  not  a 
part  of,  the  premises  supplied  by  the  service,  the  use  of  an 
enclosing  sleeve  generally  is  advisable.  Such  a  sleeve  may  serve 
a  threefold  purpose:  to  prevent  theft  of  gas;  to  protect  the 
service  from  injury,  or  from  extreme  cold.  The  protection  of  an 
exposed  service  pipe  from  the  effects  of  long  continued  low 
temperature  is  very  important  in  the  northern  part  of  this 
country,  and  is  effected  by  either  enlarging  the  exposed  portion 
or  covering  it  with  heat  insulating  material,  or  by  both  methods 
in  conjunction.  Of  course,  in  cold  climates,  exposed  piping 
should  be  a  last  resort. 

Figure  101  shows,  in  elevation,  a  typical  service. 

BLOCKING 

To  prevent  joint  strains  and  trapped  pipe,  the  service  should 
be  supported  properly.  The  best  support  is  that  furnished  by 
undisturbed  earth.  Where  this  is  not  advisable,  blocking  of 
standard  size  is  advocated,  in  place  of  the  practice  of  using  any 
handy  brickbat  or  rock.  A  good  size  is  8  by  8  by  1  inch,  and 
the  blocks  should  be  creosoted,  because  it  has  been  found  that 
an  untreated  block  holds  enough  moisture,  especially  in  a  clayey 
soil,  to  produce  a  marked  increase  in  corrosion  in  the  pipe  next  the 
blocking.  The  natural  blocking  places  are  at  the  main,  the  stop 
cock,  and  under  each  joint.  The  pipe  should  be  supported  by 
the  trench  bottom  or  by  blocking  at  least  every  six  feet. 

FILLING  AND  TESTING 

The  service  having  been  laid  and  supported,  is  ready  for  gas. 
The  removal  of  the  rubber  plug  has  allowed  gas  to  reach  the 
stop  cock,  and  the  latter  is  now  opened,  so  that  the  whole  service 
is  under  gas  pressure.  Soap  suds  are  then  applied,  with  a 
brush,  to  all  joints  and  to  the  cock  barrel.  The  pipe  surface 
is  examined  by  smelling.  The  very  fact  that  leaks  in  new 
service  work  are  so  seldom  found,  has  a  tendency  to  make  these 
tests  very  perfunctory  ones.  So  the  service  foreman  should  be 


378 


SERVICE  WORK 


LA  YING  379 

on  his  guard  in  this  connection  to  prevent  any  workman  covering 
over  a  leak  that  should  have  been  caught  by  the  tests.  After 
completing  the  tests,  the  curb  cock  is  shut. 

When  services  are  laid  in  advance  of  main  work,  it  is  safe,  with 
good  workmen,  to  omit  any  test.  At  the  time  the  connection  to 
the  main  is  made,  an  examination  by  smell  should  be  made  at  all 
stop  cocks  and  house  ends. 

If  the  service  has  been  made  by  drilling  or  driving,  a  test 
with  air  under  pressure  is  advisable,  and  for  this  purpose  a 
"service  tester",  which  combines,  in  one  tool,  a  rubber  plug  for 
stopping  the  male  outlet  of  the  service  tee,  a  thread  and  washer 
for  making  a  tight  joint  at  the  top  of  the  tee,  a  pressure  gauge, 
and  an  attachment  for  a  bicycle  pump,  has  proven  very  useful. 

PLACING  STOP  Box 

The  stop  box  is  described  on  page  91.  In  placing  it  over  the 
stop  cock,  the  flange  bottom  should  rest  firmly  on  earth,  blocking 
or  bricks,  at  a  height  allowing  two  inches  clearance  of  box  over 
pipe.  The  barrel  of  the  box  should  be  carefully  centred  over  the 
stop  cock,  and  earth  tamped  firmly  around  to  hold  it  in  this 
position.  The  top  extension  piece  should  be  adjusted  to  the 
probable  height  of  the  footway  paving. 

PIPE  PROTECTION 

What  follows  refers  to  the  use  of  black  material.  The  applica, 
tion  of  a  preservative  coating  on  the  pipe  is  described  on  page  87. 
Because  of  the  handling  experienced  from  the  coating  shed  to 
the  trench  bottom,  the  coating  is  never  entirely  intact  on  any 
pipe  after  laying.  Also,  the  fittings  are  still  uncoated.  There- 
fore, the  application,  with  a  brush,  of  a  second  coat  to  the  entire 
service  as  it  lies  in  the  trench,  is  well  worth  while.  As  an  addi- 
tional precaution,  muslin  is  wrapped  upon  this  second  coat,  and 
a  third  coat  then  applied.  No  reliable  data  exists  as  to  whether 
the  muslin  protection  is  warranted.  Probably  in  bad  soils  it 
would  be  of  little  avail,  and  in  good  soils  it  is  not  required. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH 

REFILLING 

In  general,  the  remarks  made  under  this  same  head  in  describ- 
ing main  work,  on  pages  278  to  287  inclusive,  apply  equally  to 
services,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  Unless  the  expense  is 
prohibitory,  good  soil  should  be  placed  next  to  any  pipe  not 
galvanized,  in  a  layer  at  least  6  inches  thick. 

The  majority  of  service  trenches  for  new  houses  are  refilled 
loosely,  as  sufficient  time  usually  elapses  before  paving  or  sodding 
to  admit  of  proper  settlement.  For  services  to  occupied  houses 
(usually  renewal  work),  tamping — and  of  the  most  thorough 
kind — generally  is  required,  for  paving  or  sod  must  be  replaced 
immediately,  and  puddling  is  not  desirable  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  water  getting  into  the  house,  and  also  of  making  the 
trench  too  soft  for  immediate  topping  with  paving  or  grass. 

The  hole  through  which  the  service  entered  the  house  wall 
should  be  closed  in  carefully,  and  the  wall  on  both  inside  and 
outside  face,  cemented  thoroughly  around  the  opening.  Any 
joint  or  space  between  two  lengths  of  curbing,  and  showing  in 
the  trench,  also  should  be  made  water-tight  by  cementing. 
These  are  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  a  water  leak  through 
a  service  opening  —  annoying  to  the  consumer  and  reflecting  on 
the  company.  (See  page  283.) 

As  service  work  involves  the  footway  as  well  as  the  roadway, 
the  resultant  muss  is  more  under  the  consumer's  feet  than  is  true 
of  main  work.  Therefore,  all  the  more  reason  to  clean  up  thor- 
oughly and  promptly  when  completed  houses  are  involved.  Any 
material  that  cannot  be  taken  away  by  the  service  gang  should 
be  piled  in  the  least  objectionable  place,  pending  its  final  removal. 

REPAYING 

What  has  been  written  for  main  work  should  be  read  for  its 
application  to  service  work.  Ordinarily,  the  service  gang  will  do 

(380) 


REFILLING  AND  REPAYING  TRENCH  381 

no  permanent  repaying,  either  leaving  the  trench  mounded  over 
and  guarded  by  danger  signals,  or  flush  with  the  neighboring 
surface,  with  or  without  temporary  repaving.  Of  roadway 
paving,  belgian  block  or  cobble  lend  themselves  to  temporary 
repaving,  with  the  consequent  avoidance  of  lamping  expense  and 
street  obstruction  pending  permanent  repaving.  Of  footway 
paving,  no  temporary  restoration  is  usually  made.  The  paving 
material  should  be  piled  neatly;  if  footway,  close  to  the  house, 
and  if  roadway,  at  the  curb  line  or  house  line,  as  indicated  by 
local  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XL 

RECORDING 
REASONS  FOR  RECORDS 

Service  records  are  not  as  essential  as  main  records.  For 
valuation  purposes,  if  each  house  supplied  is  charged  with  a 
service  of  average  size,  most  of  the  service  investment  will  be 
accounted  for.  Also,  in  the  absence  of  a  record,  a  service  is  more 
easily  found  than  a  main,  as  its  location  at  the  house  is  always 
known.  When  there  is  a  stop  cock  surmounted  by  a  stop  box, 
this  in  itself  is  sufficient  location  record,  except  in  unpaved 
streets  or  footways  and  under  a  snow  or  ice  cover.  The  above 
is  not  meant  as  an  argument  against  service  records,  but  merely 
as  a  statement  of  the  relative  importance  of  main  and  service 
records. 

In  Philadelphia,  service  records  are  used: 

(1)  When  digging  for  a  leak  in  front  of  a  closed  house,  with 

the  stop  box  hidden  under  paving  or  dirt. 

(2)  To  locate  a  hidden  stop  box. 

(3)  To  obtain  data  concerning  old  mains. 

(4)  To  obtain  age  of  service. 

(5)  To  decide  responsibility  for  bad  paving  conditions. 

(6)  To  explain  and  locate  partly  completed  services. 

(7)  To  prevent  service  duplication  in  cases  of  building 

alteration. 

(8)  To  furnish  information  about  service  valves. 

(9)  To   furnish   information   as   to   gas  supply   either   to 

inquirers  or  when  a  "new  set"  order  is  received. 

(10)  To  determine  the  advisability  of  service  renewal  in 

advance  of  repaving. 

SYSTEM  OF  RECORDS 

LOCATION 

A  card  suitable  for  filing  has  proven  to  be  the  most  economical 
location  record.  The  3  by  5-inch  form  used  in  Philadelphia 

(382) 


RECORDING 


383 


is  shown  in  Figure  102.  It  is  in  duplicate,  the  two  cards  being 
fastened  along  the  bottom  edge  and  separated  when  the  record  is 
complete,  one  card  going  to  the  district  and  the  other  to  the 


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SERVICE  RECORD 

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Records  Division.  The  back  o*f  the  original  is  blank,  while  that 
of  the  duplicate  contains  printed  matter,  as  shown.  The  first 
four  lines  of  the  back,  and  the  address  on  the  front  of  the  original 
card,  is  filled  in  before  it  is  handed  to  the  general  service  fore- 
man. This  serves  as  his  order  to  lay  the  service. 


384  SERVICE  WORK 

Of  the  other  information  on  the  front  of  the  card,  the  "  Name  " 
as  a  rule  is  not  necessary,  and  is  omitted.  The  "Size"  and 
"  Length  "  are  important,  but  the  "Size  Tap  "  hardly  is  necessary, 
as  the  few  cases  where  it  differs  from  the  service  are  regulated  by 
rule  and  can  be  told  by  the  information  as  to  service  sleeve. 

The  location  with  reference  to  lot  line  and  the  cock  location  are 
needed  only  with  covered  up  or  no  stop  box.  The  main  data  are 
not  required  when  the  main  is  one  for  which  complete  records 
exist,  but,  of  course,  it  is  very  valuable  for  old  mains  whose 
whereabouts  are  known  principally  from  these  service  records. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  in  the  case  of  most  new 
services,  much  of  the  information  shown  on  the  card  is  unneces- 
sary. However,  it  requires  but  little  time  to  write  for  the  few 
services  installed  by  a  gang  each  day,  and  an  attempt  to  omit 
certain  items  in  certain  cases,  might,  with  the  class  of  man  who 
often  fills  out  these  records,  lead  to  a  confusion  which  would 
involve  omissions  where  not  desired. 

When  the  service  is  completed,  the  card  is  filed  geographically. 

AGE 

Very  few  companies  know  the  age  of  their  old  services.  Those 
laid  in  recent  years  have  the  date  of  installation  on  the  location 
record,  but  if  this  is  the  only  age  record,  much  work  would  be 
involved  in  listing  services  laid  in  the  same  year.  Such  knowledge 
may  be  of  much  importance  if  in  any  city  the  critical  age  of  many 
services  falls  within  the  limits  of  several  years.  In  that  case, 
there  will  be  many  service  failures  in  the  winters  of  the  critical 
period,  involving  some  more  or  less  serious  asphyxiations  and 
service  repairs  under  very  expensive  conditions.  With  a  proper 
age  record,  it  would  be  a  simple  matter  to  investigate  each 
summer  a  number  of  services  of  the  critical  age,  and  be  guided 
by  the  conditions  found  in  determining  upon  necessary  renewals. 

The  age  record,  as  shown  in  Figure  103,  also  gives  necessary 
information  for  obtaining  unit  costs,  and,  therefore,  the  expense 
of  the  record  is  slight  compared  with  its  value.  The  illustration 
shows  how,  with  a  few  entries,  a  record  of  age,  length  and 
class  is  obtained.  „ 

COST 

The  record  of  material  used  for  a  service  may  be  kept  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  When  there  is  a  good  reason  for  knowing  the 
exact  cost  of  each  service,  the  back  of  the  service  card  may  be 


RECORDING 


385 


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386  SERVICE   WORK 

used  for  this  purpose.  In  general,  the  obtainment  of  individual 
service  costs  is  expensive  and  not  warranted,  as  a  unit  cost  per 
foot  of  each  class  of  service  suffices  not  only  for  estimate  purposes, 
but  also  as  an  incentive  to  economical  operation.  Such  unit  cost 
is  obtained  cheaply  by  using  as  a  divisor  the  length  totals  of  the 
age  record  book,  and  as  a  dividend,  the  labor  and  material  costs 
charged  to  the  proper  service  account.  The  labor  is  reported  on 
payroll  vouchers,  and  the  material  on  material  sheets,  one  of 
which,  for  convenience,  may  include  many  services.  As  the 
proportion  of  large  and  small  services  laid  by  various  districts  or 
foremen  is  about  the  same,  no  subdivision  of  cost  by  size  is 
required  for  incentive  reasons.  For  estimate  purposes,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  cost  of  a  few  individual  services  of 
various  sizes,  in  order  to  get  a  per  foot  cost  for  each  size.  Further 
cost  details  are  given  in  Chapter  IX. 


SECTION  II 

MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER  XLI 

ORGANIZATION  AND  INSPECTION 
ORGANIZATION 

As  service  maintenance  involves  principally  the  replacing  of 
existing  services,  the  same  force  is  used  for  maintenance  as  for 
new  installations,  and  the  remarks  in  Chapter  XXXV  apply  to 
maintenance  also.  Equally  applicable  to  service  work  are  the 
arguments  given  in  Chapter  XXIX  for  maintaining  a  competent 
force  of  street  men  during  winter  weather. 

INSPECTION 

GENERAL 

The  "  linewalking  "  described  in  Chapter  XXX  covers  services 
as  well  as  mains,  especially  with  reference  to  openings.  There 
are,  however,  certain  features  connected  with  curb  or  stop  cocks 
that  render  advisable  especial  inspection  of  services  provided 
with  these  cocks. 

OTOP  BOXES 

If  all  stop  boxes  could  be  located  in  a  cement  footway  properly 
laid,  there  would  be  little  or  no  reason  for  stop-box  inspection,  as 
the  boxes  would  not  be  raised  by  frost  or  lowered  by  settlement. 
In  the  box  used  in  Philadelphia,  shown  in  A,  Figure  5,  page  84, 
settlement  is  made  difficult  because  of  the  broad  base  flanges,  and 
another  hazard  incident  to  stop  boxes,  etc., — the  accidental 
displacing  of  the  cover, — is  entirely  removed  by  having  the 
latter  heavy  and  deeply  set  into  the  box. 

(387) 


388  SERVICE   WORK 

In  many  localities,  however,  the  footways  are  unpaved,  or  of 
brick  or  'flag,  and  all  these  conditions  contribute  to  boxes 
becoming  high  or  low  with  reference  to  surrounding  surfaces. 
Therefore,  a  more  or  less  systematic  inspection  of  stop  boxes  is 
advisable  perhaps  once  a  year,  preferably  in  the  spring. 

If  besides  reporting  conditions  not  remedied,  the  inspector  is 
expected  to  correct  slight  discrepancies  in  box  or  paving  height, 
he  should  be  provided  with  a  pick,  shovel,  stone  bar,  trowel  and 
a  little  cement.  Any  work  not  done  by  the  inspector  should  be 
completed  by  a  man  with  more  extensive  equipment.  If  the 
inspection  includes  work  inside  the  box,  it  concerns  the  stop  cock 
or  the  valve,  which  are  spoken  of  further  along. 

As  a  final  result  of  this  box  inspection,  the  box  and  surrounding 
paving  should  be  at  the  same  level,  the  lid  and  any  inscription 
thereon  in  good  condition,  and  the  box  accessible,  not  being 
covered  by  paving,  by  material,  or  in  any  other  manner. 

STOP  COCKS 

The  design  of  stop  cocks  and  the  precautions  necessary  to 
ensure  proper  manufacturing  and  assembling  are  discussed  on 
page  91.  With  the  best  of  care  it  still  will  be  advisable  to 
inspect  any  2-inch  stop  cocks  annually,  to  be  sure  that  the  plugs 
are  not  stuck  fast  in  the  barrels.  This  inspection  could,  if 
desired,  embrace  that  of  the  stop  boxes,  as  before  explained. 
The  equipment  for  the  combined  inspection  should  include  also 
a  3-pound  caulking  hammer,  a  heavy  stop  key  (B,  Figure  45, 
page  168),  a  stop  box  lifter,  a  stop  box  cleaner  (A,  Figure  45), 
a  14-inch  pipe  wrench,  and  a  large  flat  file.  To  this  list  may 
be  added  two  18-inch  lengths  of  pipe  large  enough  to  fit  over 
the  stop-key  handles. 

In  making. the  inspection,  the  man  should  remove  the  box  lid, 
using  the  hammer  to  loosen  it  if  stuck,  and  should  file  off  any 
roughness  or  projection  on  the  lid  or  the  box  that  was  the  cause 
of  the  sticking.  He  should  next  remove  the  dirt  and  obstructions 
from  the  box,  and  placing  the  key  on  the  stop  head,  should,  if  the 
cock  is  open,  move  it  the  fraction  of  a  turn  and  then  move  it 
back  again.  This  movement  should  be  so  small  as  to  preclude 
the  possibility  of  the  gas  supply  being  interfered  with.  If  the 
cock  is  closed,  the  inspector  should  enter  the  building  and  make 
sure  that  no  gas  can  escape  inside,  before  turning  the  cock  open. 
If  he  cannot  get  in,  it  should  not  be  turned  open.  If  the  cock 
moves  easily,  it  is  assumed  to  be  in  good  condition;  if  hard  to 


ORGANIZATION  AND  INSPECTION  389 

move,  the  gas,  if  on,  should  be  shut  off  at  the  meter,  and  the 
stop  turned  around  and  around,  using  the  pipe  handles  and  the 
wrench  for  extra  leverage,  either  until  it  is  sufficiently  eased, 
or  until  it  is  certain  that  the  fault  cannot  be  remedied  by  this 
means.  If  the  latter,  orders  should  be  given  to  dig  up  and 
grease,  or  to  renew. 

VALVES 

The  equipment  for  and  the  detail  of  the  inspection  of  service 
valves  are  almost  exactly  similar  to  that  for  service  cocks,  just 
described.  The  inspector  should  examine  carefully  the  valve 
stem  for  corrosion,  and  the  stem  head  for  tightness  and  strength 
of  fit.  With  valves,  a  few  full  turns  toward  shut,  and  back 
again,  should  be  made,  as  this  will  not  interfere  with  the  gas 
supply.  It  is  important  to  know  in  which  direction  the  valve 
turns  to  open,  and  not  to  open  a  shut  valve  unless  it  is  known 
that  no  gas  will  escape  inside  the  building. 

EXPOSED  PIPE 

Where  service  pipe  is  exposed  in  places  likely  to  be  infre- 
quently or  never  visited,  such  as  manholes  not  belonging  to 
the  company,  or  ducts,  or  vaults,  a  periodical  inspection  of 
conditions  should  be  made  at  least  once  a  year.  This  inspection 
should  consist  of  an  examination  of  the  pipe  and,  wherever 
necessary,  a  cleaning  and  protecting  by  painting  or  covering. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

RENEWAL 

SYSTEMATIC  OVERHAULING 
DETAILS  OF  WORK 

The  description  given  in  Chapter  XXXI  of  the  conditions 
under  which  systematic  overhauling  of  mains  is  called  for, 
applies  equally  well  to  services.  Usually,  the  investigation  of 
mains  and  services  would  proceed  at  the  same  time.  If  the 
service  has  a  stop  cock  and  box,  its  location  is  determined 
easily,  and  bar  holes  may  be  made  accordingly.  Otherwise,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  enter  each  house  and  thus  ascertain  the 
location  of  the  house  end,  and  also  whether  the  service  seems  to 
lie  at  right  angles  to  the  main.  Ordinarily,  a  leaky  service  under 
grass  can  be  detected  by  dead  or  dying  patches;  but  the  use  of  a 
"pipe  locator"  is  recommended  where  there  are  many  long 
services,  with  no  location  records,  and  a  knowledge  of  their 
exact  line  is  desired ;  and,  in  general,  to  remedy  the  inconvenience 
caused  by  incomplete  or  inaccurate  records  of  underground 
structures,  and  to  reduce  the  expense  necessary  to  correct  these 
records  by  digging  test  holes.  This  instrument  consists  of  a  coil 
frame,  Figure  104,  a  receiver,  A,  Figure  105,  and  a  battery  box 
and  vibrator,  B,  Figure  105.  Through  suitable  connecting  wires, 
a  current  from  a  number  of  dry  cells  in  box  B,  is  sent  through  the 
main  or  service  whose  exact  location  through  its  entire  length 
is  desired.  Two  receivers  like  A,  one  without  the  headgear,  are 
connected  to  the  coil  frame,  Figure  104.  The  operator  keeps  a 
receiver  at  each  ear,  and,  holding  the  coil  frame  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  walks  around  and  "explores  "  the  ground  near  the  location 
of  the  supposed  pipe.  The  current  which  is  going  into  the  pipe 
so  affects  the  coil  that  a  distinct  buzz  is  heard  in  the  receivers, 
until  the  middle  bar  of  the  coil  frame  is  parallel  to,  and  vertically 
above,  the  pipe  through  which  the  current  is  being  sent,  when 
the  buzz  ceases.  Each  point  so  found  is  staked,  and  the  search 

(390) 


RENEWAL 


391 


continued  until  enough  points  are  located  to  locate  definitely  the 
structure  under  investigation.  No  true  indication  of  the  depth 
is  given,  but  the  horizontal  location  is  learned,  within  a  very  few 
inches  at  most.  The  results  thus  obtained  may  be  incorrect  if 
some  other  underground  structure  is  in  contact  with  the  one 
being  investigated,  because  the  current  is  thus  led  astray,  and 


Figure  104.  —  Coil  Frame  of  Pipe  Locator,  page  390. 

so  a  water  main  may  be  followed  instead  of  a  gas  main.  Accuracy 
is  impossible  also  when  there  are  many  external  noises,  which 
would  confuse  the  operator's  clear  hearing.  The  instrument  will 
not  locate  dead  ends. 

The  repairing  of  a  service  after  the  leak  has  been  found,  gen- 
erally involves  renewing  in  whole  or  in  part.     A  renewed  sen-ice 


392 


SERVICE  WORK 


Figure  105.— Pipe  Locator:    A,  Receiver,  page  390; 
B,  Vibrator  and  Battery  Box,  page  390. 


RENEWAL  393 

should  be  located  preferably  in  the  same  line  as  the  old  one. 
This,  in  a  footway  of  flagstone  or  of  cement  which  need  not  be 
broken,  enables  the  use  of  the  previous  stop  box  hole,  the  stand- 
ard location  being  disregarded  in  this  case. 

Renewal  generally  has  to  do  with  an  existing  gas  supply.  If 
the  work  must  be  done  on  account  of  leak  or  paving,  but  the 
house  is  shut  up,  the  new  service  should  be  run  from  the  main  to 
inside  the  curb.  The  old  service  should  be  cut  off  at  the  main, 
and  a  notice  left  under  the  front  door  explaining  why  the  gas 
supply  was  discontinued,  and  that  as  soon  as  entry  may  be  had 
to  the  house,  the  new  service  will  be  completed  and  gas 
again  turned  on. 

An  abandoned  service  should  be  cut  off  at  the  main  unless  the 
latter  also  is  to  be  abandoned.  Unless  abandonment  is  forced 
by  the  condition  just  described,  any  connected  meter  should  be 
removed  previously.  Any  pipe  end  remaining  underground 
should  be  cemented  up.  The  house  end  should  be  cut  off  flush 
with  the  inside  of  the  cellar  wall  and  filled  with  cement. 

To  AVOID  BREAKS  AND  LEAKS 

While  extensive  main  renewal  may  be  brought  about  because 
of  excavations  undermining  small  pipe,  as  described  on  page  327, 
such  excavations  seldom  are  the  determining  cause  for  service 
renewal.  This  would  be  the  case  only  where  the  service  con- 
cerned was  of  sufficient  size,  and  corrosion  had  progressed  to 
such  a  point  that,  while  the  pipe  was  strong  enough  for  use  under 
undisturbed  soil  conditions,  it  wras  not  considered  able  to  resist 
the  strains  that  might  come  upon  it  by  reason  of  ground  settle- 
ment, even  though  supported  as  well  as  possible. 

REQUIRED  BY  PAVING 

One  of  the  major  causes  for  service  renewal  is  the  paving,  or 
repaving,  of  footways  and  roadways.  It  is  a  duty  that  every 
company  owes  to  itself  and  to  the  community  to  see  that  no 
service  of  insufficient  size  or  poor  condition  is  allowed  to  be 
covered  by  a  cement  footway  or  an  expensive  roadway  paving. 
In  renewing  these  services,  the  governing  principles  should  be 
those  laid  down  in  Chapter  XV. 

RENEWAL  FOR  AGE 

In  general,  the  renewal  of  a  service  primarily  for  age  is 
brought  about  by  a  leak  complaint,  resulting  in  the  discovery 
that  the  pipe  is  corroded  badly,  and  should  be  renewed.  As, 


394  SERVICE  WORK 

however,  such  leaks  are  very  apt  to  occur  in  winter,  due  to  the 
frost  strain  proving  too  much  for  the  weakened  pipe,  it  always 
is  possible,  in  a  large  city,  if  every  service  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  use  until  it  so  fails,  to  have  an  overwhelming  number  of  such 
service  failures  in  a  severe  winter.  This  is  increasingly  apt  to 
be  true  in  the  future  in  locations  where  extensive  repaving  has 
caused  many  service  renewals  over  a  few  years.  In  connection 
with  such  renewals,  main  work  probably  has  been  done,  so  that 
when  the  next  repaving  occurs,  nothing  will  be  needed  in  the 
way  of  main  repairs.  It  easily  may  happen  that  there  will  be 
no  reason  for  either  main  or  service  repairs  until  such  a  time  as 
the  services  begin  to  fail  through  corrosion.  Under  such  condi- 
tions, the  advisability  of  renewing  services  before  failure,  under 
favorable  conditions,  as  explained  on  page  384,  is  beyond 
question. 

RENEWAL  FOR  SIZE 

Another  frequent  reason  for  service  renewal  has  been  insuf- 
ficient size,  which  often  means  a  combination  of  a  small  service 
and  a  partial,  or  complete,  stoppage  impossible  to  blow  out. 
The  material  within  the  pipe  is  the  result  of  improper  manufac- 
turing methods  in  the  past.  The  installation  of  proper  size 
services  soon  will  reduce  renewals  for  size  to  locations  where 
greatly  increased  use  of  gas  has  occurred. 

RESULTS  OF  OVERHAULING 

To  show  the  effect  of  a  systematic  renewal  of  services  in 
reducing  service  leaks,  the  record  in  Philadelphia,  for  January 
and  February,  1912,  is  offered.  While  it  is  true  that  these  two 
months  were  abnormally  cold,  the  records  for  ordinary  winters 
show  that  the  relative  performance  of  the  old  services  was 
worse  than  in  1912. 

RECORD  OF  SERVICE  LEAKS 


Ne^ 
Total 

Per  Thousand 
Services 

Old 
Total 

Services 

Per  Thousand 
Services 

22b 

0.8 

445 

5.3 

ISOLATED  LEAKS 
INVESTIGATION 

The   method    of   investigating   isolated    leaks    in    services   is 
described  on  pages  329  to  338,  inclusive. 


RENEWAL  395 

REPAIR 

Temporary  repairs  are  made  as  follows:  When  a  fitting  is 
broken  at  the  main,  clean  around  the  break  and  stuff  the  crack 
with  soap,  clear  a  small  space  around  the  main  at  the  fitting, 
then  wrap  the  soaped  fitting  and  secure  it  to  the  main  by  using 
a  strip  of  tallowed  muslin  about  three  inches  wide.  Use  twine 
to  fasten  the  wrapping.  When  a  fitting  or  pipe  is  split,  clean 
around  it  and  work  soap  carefully  into  the  crack,  then  wrap  with 
tallowed  muslin  and  secure  with  twine.  When  pipe  is  broken 
at  thread,  follow  a  similar  procedure,  and,  in  addition,  block 
the  pipe  on  each  side  of  the  break  to  prevent  any  movement. 
When  a  service  is  rusted  out  so  badly  that  it  cannot  be 
successfully  soaped,  the  best  temporary  repair  demands  the 
insertion  of  a  piece  of  new  pipe,  making  the  joints  with  the 
old  service  with  soap  and  muslin.  When,  for  any  reason, 
this  cannot  be  done,  tallowed  muslin  should  first  be  wrapped 
over  the  rust  holes,  then  a  thick  coating  of  soap  applied,  and 
then  another  wrapping  made  of  muslin  and  twine.  Such  a 
repair  should  be  followed  by  quick  permanent  renewal  of  the 
pipe. 

The  permanent  repairing  of  a  service  rusted  out,  or  in  doubt- 
ful condition,  at  several  points  along  its  length,  should  consist 
of  a  complete  renewal  of  the  service.  If  the  defect  occurs  at 
one  point  only,  the  rest  of  the  pipe  being  good,  or  if  the  defect 
has  been  caused  by  external  violence,  such  as  a  stop  box 
"riding,"  or  by  a  digging  tool,  the  repair  should  be  made  by 
cutting  out  the  defective  section  and  inserting  a  new  piece 
of  pipe.  A  leaking  thread  should  be  releaded  or  replaced  as 
necessary.  A  leaking  valve  or  stop  cock  should  be  replaced, 
the  gas  flow  being  stopped  by  bags  or  plugs,  on  services  2\ 
inches  or  larger. 

GENERAL 

Occasions  sometimes  arise  when  it  is  desired  to  put  again  into 
use  a  previously  abandoned  service.  Unless  this  service  is 
exposed  throughout  its  entire  length,  or  it  is  known  to  be  of 
recent  installation,  a  pressure  test  should  be  made  prior  to  reuse. 


PART  VI 

STREET  LIGHTING 

Under  this  heading  will  be  considered  the  installation  and 
maintenance  of  lamp  services  (as  distinguished  from  house 
services),  risers  and  posts,  also  a  method  of  recording  posts  and 
some  remarks  on  the  inspection  necessary  to  insure  a  high 
standard  of  burner  efficiency.  Nothing  is  said  about  the  types 
of  lights  in  use,  their  proper  spacing,  or  any  other  conditions 
affecting  street  illumination,  as  these  things  have  to  do  with 
gas  utilization,  and  not  its  distribution. 


CHAPTER  XLHI 

INSTALLATION 

SERVICE 

As  service  matters  in  general  are  covered  on  pages  86  to  100 
and  357  to  395,  inclusive,  this  chapter  is  limited  to  the  con- 
ditions peculiar  to  lamp  services  only. 

Figure  106  shows  a  standard  method  of  service  and  post  in- 
stallation. At  times  a  riser  from  the  main  will  be  advisable  to 
prevent,  in  the  case  of  a  deep  main  on  the  same  side  of  the  street 
as  the  lamp,  too  great  a  slope  of  service.  The  lamp  end  of  the 
service  will  have  to  be  bent  slightly  in  order  that  the  upper 
face  of  the  reducing  ell  be  in  a  horizontal  plane. 

RISER 

The  lamp  riser  shown  in  Figure  106  consists  of  enough  f-inch 
pipe  to  place  the  lamp  cock  at  a  proper  height,  a  1£  by  f-inch  re- 
ducing socket,  and  its  especial  feature,  the  anti-freezer,  or  bottom 
section  of  1^-inch  pipe,  2  feet  6  inches  long.  During  extreme 
weather,  there  is  much  condensation  from  the  gas  as  it  comes 
from  the  relatively  warm  ground  temperature  to  the  air  tem- 
perature of  the  riser  top,  and  before  this  liquid  can  flow  back 
into  the  main,  it  changes  to  frost.  Experience  has  shown,  in 
thousands  of  cases,  that  with  the  ordinary  northern  winter,  a 
riser  entirely  of  f-inch  pipe  will  be  closed  completely  one  or 
more  times  during  cold  weather,  while  with  the  1^-inch  base 
sufficient  room  is  provided  for  an  accumulation  of  frost 
adequate  to  tide  over  the  usual  cold  spell.  Therefore,  the  lamp 
with  an  anti-freezer  seldom  has  a  stopped  riser. 

The  riser  should  be  assembled  at  the  shop. 

POST 

Figure  107  illustrates  a  post  used  since  1900.  Its  design  was 
influenced  by  a  previous  record  kept  of  broken  posts  to  ascertain 

(399) 


400 


STREET  LIGHTING 


Figure  106.— Street  Lamp  Post  Section  with  Riser  and  Service, 
page  399. 


INSTALLATION 


Figure  107.— Street  Lamp  Post,  page  399. 


402  STREET  LIGHTING 

where  existing  designs  failed.  Especial  attention  is  called  to 
the  width  of  the  bottom  flange,  as  shown  in  Figure  1 06 .  Previous 
designs  had  very  inadequate  flanges,  rendering  the  post  quite 
liable  to  settlement.  With  a  wide  flange  and  a  well  rammed 
refill,  the  post,  if  resting  on  firm  ground,  should  stay  as  put. 

Another  feature  of  the  post  are  the  two  elliptical  openings, 
whose  dimensions  are  the  smallest  compatible  with  proper 
access  to  the  post  interior  and  which  are  adequately  closed  by 
the  cover  plates. 

POST    ERECTION 

In  erecting  a  lamp  post,  two  men  only  are  needed.  The 
riser  is  inserted  into  the  post  before  the  latter  is  placed  over  the 
service  end.  Then,  with  a  wrench  put  through  the  large  opening, 
the  riser  is  screwed  into  the  1£  by  1-inch  reducing  ell  on  the 
service.  One  cover  plate  closes  the  large  opening,  and  two,  if 
necessary,  the  small  opening,  meeting  at  the  service  pipe  and 
making  a  close  junction  by  reason  of  the  semicircular  notches 
which  fit  around  the  pipe.  The  three  plates  are  wired  tightly 
to  the  post.  Of  course,  care  is  exercised  to  place  the  post  on  a 
firm  and  level  foundation,  so  that  it  will  be,  and  stay,  vertical 
in  all  directions. 

In  most  cities  the  post  is  set  at  a  standard  distance  inside  the 
curb,  sufficient  to  prevent  damage  from  roadway  traffic. 

RECORDS 

It  is  advisable  to  assign  a  number  to  every  post  in  service. 
Whether,  when  a  post  is  removed,  its  number  should  be  consider- 
ed as  available  for  another  post,  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
numbering  scheme  adopted,  but,  in  general,  numbers  should 
be  used  over  again.  Where  the  lamps  are  divided  into  inspection 
districts,  each  with  its  lighting  routes,  it  may  be  an  advantage 
to  number  accordingly.  Thus  3-A-101  would  be  the  one 
hundred  and  first  lamp  in  the  third  lighting  route  of  the  A  dis- 
trict. Where  there  are  many  changes  in  lamp  locations,  with 
consequent  re-routing  of  the  lighters'  work,  this  composite 
numbering  may  not  be  as  satisfactory  as  a  single  number. 

In  Philadelphia,  as  orders  for  lamp  erection  are  received  by 
the  Street  Lighting  Division,  they  are  entered  in  a  book.  The 
order  to  do  the  work  is  made  out  in  triplicate,  two  copies  being 
sent  to  the  proper  district,  on  the  card  shown  in  Figure  108. 
This  order  includes  authority  to  run  any  necessary  service. 


INSTALLATION  403 

The  duplicate  stays  in  the  district  shop  until  the  original  card 
comes  back  from  the  street,  when  it  is  forwarded  to  the  Store 
Room  containing  a  list  of  material  used.  The  triplicate  is  kept 
at  the  Street  Lighting  Division  until  the  return  of  the  original 
on  the  completion  of  the  work.  Then  the  book  record  is  checked 


STREET  LAMP 
ERECTION  ORDER 


IN   FRONT  OF_ 


SERVICE    INSTALLED    BY 
POST    ERECTED    BY 


POST    PAINTED    BY DATE 

LAMP  PLACED  BY DATE 

CHARGE    POST    WORK   TO 


CHARGE  SERVICE  WORK  TO ACCOUNT 


Figure  108.— Street  Lamp  Erection  Order,  page  402. 

against  the  card,  the  location  is  posted  on  a  map,  proper  notice 
to  light  the  lamp  is  given,  and  any  other  records  made  that  may 
be  called  for  by  local  conditions. 

The  routine  by  which  a  post  is  renewed  is  similar  to  the  process 
of  erection.  In  both  cases,  the  completed  work  orders  are  so 
filed  at  the  Street  Lighting  Division  as  to  be  available  instantly 
at  any  subsequent  time. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 

MAINTENANCE 

CANDLEPOWER 

Where  the  lamps  are  operating  under  candlepower  require- 
ments very  close  to  their  best  performance,  a  high-class  organiza- 
tion will  be  necessary  to  obtain  satisfactory  results.  This  will 
require,  in  addition  to  the  usual  inspectors  or  supervisors  ^ of 
lighters,  one  or  more  special  men  to  make  frequent  general  in- 
spections, both  with  and  without  photometric  tests.  However, 
by  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  the  trombone  photometer,  the 
ordinary  inspectors  can  be  taught  how  to  keep  their  sections 
in  such  a  high  standard  of  efficiency  that  the  special  inspectors 
will  seldom  find  much  to  correct. 

PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT 

Burner  replacements  will  be  made  because  of  candleppwer 
requirements  or  damaged  condition.  Such  damaged  condition 
and  injury  to  all  other  lamp  and  post  equipment  usually  is  re- 
ported by  the  lighter,  who  sees  each  post  twice  a  day.  Some 
replacements  he  makes  himself,  and  the  remainder  are  reported 
to  the  Street  Lighting  Division,  by  postal  or  telephone,  for 
transmission  to  the  proper  district,  following  the  same  routine 
as  for  lamp  erection,  and  using  the  telephone  where  a  quick 
repair  is  needed.  The  district  makes,  without  order  from  the 
Lighting  Division,  any  repairs  brought  to  its  attention  through 
other  sources. 

In  a  situation  of  over  20,000  lamps,  each  inspector  worked 
six  days  a  week.  Each  night  he  inspected  every  lamp  in  one 
lighter's  section  for  condition  of  burners  and  cleanliness  of 
glassware.  This  was  followed  by  an  early  morning  trip  through 
two  sections  to  check  time  of  extinguishing.  A  chief  inspector 
made  general  inspections  five  nights  in  each  week.  Reports 
from  all  these  inspections  were  entered  in  such  a  way  that  it 
easily  was  seen  how  often  every  lamp  and  every  section  was  being 
inspected. 

(404) 


PART  VII 

METER  WORK 

Under  this  heading  will  be  given  a  history  and  description  of 
the  consumer's  dry  meter;  the  considerations  controlling,  and 
the  methods  of,  meter  installation ;  the  organization  of  and  the 
rules  for  meter  fitters;  the  tests  required  for  proper  meter  main- 
tenance; and  the  records  necessary  for  a  life  history  of  each 
meter,  including  the  gas  passed  in  each  location  in  which  it  is 
used. 


SECTION  I 

METERS 

CHAPTER  XLV 

HISTORY 

Before  the  invention  of  a  measuring  device,  illuminating  gas 
was  sold  to  the  public  by  contract.  The  quantity  and  price 
were  estimated  according  to  the  hours  of  consumption,  through 
burners  of  a  stated  kind.  Inspectors  were  employed  to  visit 
the  houses  of  the  consumers  to  see  that  all  lights  were  extin- 
guished at  a  certain  time,  and,  in  case  of  failure  to  put  out 
the  lights,  the  inspectors  were  authorized  to  shut  off  the  gas 
supply  from  the  street.  As  might  be  expected,  this  contract 
system  was  fruitful  of  complaints  and  disagreements,  and  result- 
ed in  great  loss  to  the  gas  companies,  due  to  unscrupulous  and 
dishonest  consumers.  Under  these  conditions,  the  early  gas 
companies  were  not  successful  financially,  and  an  accurate  and 
inexpensive  device  for  measuring  the  gas  became  a  matter  of  vital 
importance.  The  necessity  for  a  meter  being  apparent  from  the 
earliest  days  of  the  introduction  of  coal  gas  as  an  illuminant, 
we  naturally  find  that  the  efforts  of  the  most  skilled  men  in  the 
science  were  turned  strongly  in  that  direction. 

The  first  meter  was  made  in  England  by  Samuel  Clegg  in 
1815,  twenty-three  years  after  the  first  use  of  coal  gas.  It  was 
of  the  wet  type,  consisting  of  a  measuring  wheel,  or  drum, 
divided  into  a  number  of  compartments  and  revolving  on  a 
horizontal  axle,  being  driven  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas.  This 
drum  was  enclosed  in  a  stationary  case,  and  both  case  and 
drum  were  filled  with  water  to  a  specified  height.  This  meter 
was  improved  by  John  Malam  in  1817.  Samuel  Crossley  still 
further  improved  it  in  1820,  greatly  reducing  the  loss  in  gas 
pressure  by  so  placing  the  partitions  of  the  measuring  drums  that 

(407) 


408  METER  WORK 

they  would  enter  and  leave  the  water  at  an  angle  with  its  surface, 
and  by  providing  means  for  the  water  easily  to  enter  and  escape 
from  the  revolving  compartments.  To  these  three  men  the 
gratitude  of  the  gas  engineers  of  all  times  should  be  accorded, 
for  the  reason  that  through  their  efforts,  the  meter  was  developed 
as  a  practical  registering  machine,  enabling  the  growth  of  the 
gas  business  from  a  condition  of  almost  complete  failure  to  its 
present  enormous  development. 

The  first  dry  meter  was  invented  by  John  Malam  in  1820, 
but  it  was  never  actually  used.  It  consisted  of  six  diaphragms, 
radiating  from  a  hollow  shaft  inside  of  a  tin  case,  and  controlled 
by  a  valve  resembling  the  rotary  valve  sometimes  used  in  meters 
of  the  present  day.  The  action  of  this  meter  was  due  to  gravity, 
and  not  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas.  Not  till  1833  was  the  subject 
again  given  attention,  in  which  year  a  one-diaphragm  meter  was 
invented  by  Mr.  Bogardus.  He  also  invented  a  two-diaphragm 
meter  in  1836,  but  after  expending  large  sums  in  the  attempt  to 
perfect  its  action,  he  laid  it  aside. 

A  practical  dry  meter,  which  was  accurate  in  registration  and 
regular  in  its  action,  was  invented  by  Messrs.  Croll  and  Richards 
in  1844,  and  put  into  general  use.  This  meter  is  the  most  simple 
in  design  of  any  of  the  meters  invented,  and  is,  in  principle, 
the  two-diaphragm,  double  slide-valve  meter  largely  employed 
at  the  present  time.  Changes  in  the  construction  of  the  various 
parts  of  this  meter  have  been  attempted  from  time  to  time, 
but,  as  a  general  rule,  have  been  discarded  after  more  or  less 
lengthy  trials.  The  essential  construction  of  this  original  dry 
gas  meter  has  remained  unchanged,  and  meters  of  this  type  are 
in  active  operation  in  every  civilized  country  in  the  world. 

Meters  of  the  wet  type  were  first  manufactured  in  this  country 
in  Baltimore  in  1832  and  in  New  York  City  and  Philadelphia 
about  1835,  but  most  of  the  meters  needed  were  imported  free 
of  duty  from  England  prior  to  1864.  Then  a  prohibitive  import 
duty  of  40  per  cent  was  imposed,  to  the  great  advantage  of  the 
home  manufacturer  and,  finally,  to  the  user,  as  the  cost  of  meters 
prior  to  1864  was  about  twice  the  cost  at  the  present  time. 

The  prepayment  meter  was  first  made  and  used  in  England 
about  1889.  In  1894,  the  first  prepayment  meter  in  this  country 
was  made,  in  New  York  City.  It  was  constructed  along  the  same 
lines  as  the  Parkinson  meter  then  made  in  England,  the  exception 
being  that  the  mechanism  was  so  changed  that  a  5-cent  piece, 
instead  of  the  English  penny,  could  be  used  in  buying  gas. 


HISTORY  409 

Shortly  after  the  introduction  of  this  meter,  it  was  changed  to 
enable  the  use  of  a  25-cent  piece,  but  did  not  prove  a  success. 
In  1896,  a  meter  was  made  in  Philadelphia  having  the  cut-off 
valve  and  cut-off  mechanism  placed  in  the  gallery  of  the  meter, 
and  the  coin  cylinder,  or  slot  part,  and  cash  box  placed  on  the 
inlet  side  of  the  meter.  The  coin-driven  mechanism  was  design- 
ed for  the  purchase  of  gas  by  means  of  a  25-cent  piece.  This 
meter  was  a  decided  improvement  over  the  other  types  in  use, 
and  quickly  met  with  the  approval  of  the  gas  companies.  A 
number  of  different  styles  of  prepayment  mechanisms  were 
introduced  by  different  makers  about  this  time,  some  being 
duplicates  of  English  mechanisms,  others  being  improved  or 
original  mechanisms. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

DESIGN 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES 
ORDINARY  METER 

Both  wet  and  dry  gas  meters  are  used  as  consumers'  meters, 
but  the  advantages  of  the  latter  type,  in  the  two-diaphragm  form, 
have  been  so  proven  that  it  has  become  the  predominant  type. 
In  a  general  way,  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  types  are  as 
follows:  A  wet  meter  will  measure,  with  great  accuracy,  the 
gas  delivered  through  it,  and  as  there  are  no  slide  valves  to  get 
out  of  order,  or  diaphragms  to  become  hard  or  porous,  it  does 
not  require  the  periodical  testing  which  is  necessary  to  ensure 
the  correct  registration  of  a  dry  meter.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  requires  frequent  visits  to  maintain  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water  and  a  proper  meter  level.  The  great  advantages  of  the 
dry  meter  are  freedom  from  danger  of  freezing,  reduced  danger 
of  collection  of  water  in  any  trapped  places  in  the  housepiping, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  water  in  the  meter,  reduced  first  cost, 
greater  ease  in  setting  and  in  handling,  and  fewer  maintenance 
visits. 

PREPAYMENT  METER 

Prepayment  meters  are  employed  extensively,  though  a  few 
of  the  larger  companies  have  given  them  up  after  a  more  or  less 
extended  trial.  The  principal  objections  are:  the  extra  first 
cost;  the  extra  stock  required;  the  increased  expense  of  testing 
and  maintenance,  and  of  changing  from  one  type  to  another 
to  suit  the  consumer;  the  numerous  cases  of  robbed  and  damag- 
ed meters  where  the  consumer  usually  is  required  to  make  good 
the  loss  sustained,  and,  therefore,  becomes  disgruntled;  and 
the  danger  incurred  from  the  escape  of  gas  through  unlighted 
burners  when,  by  means  of  a  coin,  the  valve  is  opened  after  it 
has  been  allowed  to  close  down,  and  proper  care  has  not  been 
exercised  to  see  that  all  burners  are  lighted  again,  or  the  burner 
cocks  shut  off. 

(410) 


DESIGN  411 

On  the  other  hand,  by  the  use  of  the  prepayment  meter, 
bad  bills  become  things  of  the  past,  and  this  more  than  com- 
pensates for  the  expense  of  the  frequent  visits  of  the  collectors 
to  empty  the  cash  boxes.  Gas  stoves  and  lighting  fixtures  are 
sold,  and  the  consumption  of  gas  is  increased  in  numerous 
ways,  due  largely  to  this  "pay  as  you  use"  type  of  meter. 
Consumers  are  obtained  and  held  who  would  not  use  gas  if 
delivered  through  an  ordinary  meter.  However,  a  large  percent- 
age of  such  consumers  are  apt  to  be  unprofitable  and  the  com- 
pany would  be  better  off  without  them,  except  in  those  situations 
where  there  is  a  "readiness  to  serve"  charge. 

In  one  large  city,  under  a  contractual  obligation  to  render 
quarterly  bills,  the  prepayment  meter  was  welcomed  as  a  means 
of  avoiding  a  large  credit  to  many  small  consumers  purchasing 
appliances  on  the  instalment  plan.  However,  an  unexpected 
demand  came  from  the  general  body  of  consumers,  and  now 
60  per  cent  of  all  the  meters  are  of  the  prepayment  type.  As 
this  type  is  not  adapted  to  a  sliding  scale  of  prices,  and  such 
a  scale  will  form  the  future  gas  vending  standard,  prudence 
counsels  conservatism  in  the  purchase  of  prepayment  meters 
for  any  situation. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  above  that  a  prepayment  meter  should 
not  be  set  where  an  uninterrupted  gas  supply  is  important.  This 
applies  in  general  to  all  situations  where  there  are  pilot  lights, 
and  with  special  force  where  there  are  large  gas-consuming  appli- 
ances, such  as  automatic  instantaneous  water  heaters  equipped 
with  pilot  lights.  Neither  are  they  suitable  for  connection  in 
parallel,  as  this  would  be  apt  to  involve,  from  time  to  time,  the 
entire  supply  of  gas  being  delivered  through  one  meter,  resulting 
in  its  detriment  through  overload,  and  in  poor  service. 

OTHER  TYPES 

In  addition  to  the  wet  and  dry  tin  meters  in  general  use, 
there  are  several  cast  iron  designs  used  more  or  less  extensively. 
Various  kinds  of  valves  and  valve  motions  and  compensating 
indices  for  registering  high  pressure  gas  are  employed  with 
varying  degrees  of  success.  The  open-top  meter  is  being  tried 
again  on  a  rather  extensive  scale  by  a  few  companies.  In  it, 
the  gas  from  the  inlet  column  passes  directly  under  the  top  of 
the  meter  to  the  valves  placed  on  the  table,  but  not  inclosed 
in  a  small  valve  chamber,  as  in  the  ordinary  dry  type.  The 
advantage  claimed  is  reduced  cost  of  repairs,  due  to  the  ease 


412  METER  WORK 

with  which  the  valves  may  be  cleaned  or  reground.  With  a  gas 
of  good  quality,  however,  this  should  not  be  a  frequent  necessity 
in  any  meter. 

NOMENCLATURE 

In  the  early  stages,  a  5-light  meter,  for  example,  was  designed 
to  measure  only  enough  gas  per  hour  to  supply  five  burners 
consuming  6  cubic  feet  each,  or  a  total  consumption  of  30  cubic 
feet.  Inasmuch  as  this  original  working  capacity  has  been  in- 
creased from  time  to  time  to  140,  or  more,  cubic  feet  per  hour, 
equivalent  to  twenty-three  6-foot  burners,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
the  term  "light"  does  not  now  afford  any  exact  indication 
of  the  capacity  of  this  meter. 

The  value  of  a  "light"  is  not  the  same  in  small  meters  as  in 
large  meters.  For  example,  a  3-lt.  meter  can  supply  easily  per 
hour  50  cubic  feet,  while  a  100-lt.  meter  should  not  be  required 
to  pass  more  than  600  cubic  feet,  which  makes  the  value  of  a 
"light",  in  the  first  case,  nearly  17  cubic  feet,  and  in  the  second 
case,  only  6  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Marked  differences  exist  in  actual  capacities,  as  compared 
with  nominal  sizes,  due  to  the  fact  that  increases  in  capacity 
have  been  made  by  some  manufacturers  and  not  by  others; 
therefore,  when  more  than  one  make  is  included  in  a  stock  of 
meters,  it  becomes  necessary,  in  drawing  up  a  table  of  capacities, 
to  rate  each  nominal  size  at,  or  slightly  above,  the  smallest 
capacity  of  that  size.  This  also  may  be  true  with  but  one  make 
of  meter  in  use,  for  if  made  in  different  years,  their  capacity 
sometimes  may  vary  as  much  as  100  per  cent. 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  SIZE 
ADVISABILITY 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  many  meters  have  been  put  on  the 
market,  with  intention  to  displace  the  two-diaphragm,  plain 
"D",  slide-valve,  dry  gas  meter,  this  good,  but  badly  abused, 
friend  of  the  gas  man  still  continues  preeminent  as  arbiter 
between  the  company  and  the  consumer.  There  is  every  in- 
dication that  this  will  be  true  for  a  time  long  enough  to  warrant 
an  earnest  effort  to  replace  the  obsolete  and,  as  we  have  shown, 
more  or  less  hazy  classification  by  "  light, "  by  a  definite  capacity 
designation  for  each  size. 

The  volume  of  gas  which  will  pass  through  a  meter  in  a  given 
time  depends,  among  other  things,  on  the  pressure  thereby 


DESIGN  413 

absorbed.  There  are  three  causes  for  this  pressure  loss:  me- 
chanical friction  of  the  working  parts,  which  increases  pro- 
portionally to  the  working  speed;  straight  fluid  friction,  which 
increases  as  the  square  of  the  volume  of  flowing  gas;  and  fluid 
friction,  due  to  the  numerous  changes  in  flow  direction.  There 
is  no  general  agreement  as  to  what  drop  in  pressure  between 
the  meter  inlet  and  outlet  it  is  safe  to  allow  without  interfering 
with  safe  working  conditions.  Some  gas  engineers  set  the  limit 
at  0.3  inch  water  column,  while  others  maintain  that  a  0.5  inch 
differential  is  not  too  great.  The  safe  differential  is,  no  doubt, 
slightly  lower  than  that  at  which  the  supply  to  the  burners 
shows,  by  its  fluctuation,  that  the  meter  is  being  overworked. 
Numerous  tests  of  a  large  number  of  different  makes  of  meters 
have  proven  that  not  until  0.7  inch  loss  in  pressure  is  reached 
is  there  a  decided  fluctuation  in  pressure. 

Where  capacities  vary  for  the  same  nominal  size,  it  has  been 
noted  already  that  a  table  of  capacities,  to  be  safe,  must  be  based 
on  the  smallest  capacity  for  each  size.  Such  a  table  has  its 
principal  application  in  determining  a  meter-setting  schedule, 
and  in  this  connection,  the  advantage  of  a  uniform  relation 
between  actual  capacity  and  nominal  size  is,  indeed,  very  great. 

Again,  in  order  that  meter  work  in  consumers'  houses  may  be 
done  quickly,  properly  and  cheaply,  it  is  necessary  that  the  lead- 
ing dimensions,  viz,  height  from  bottom  of  meter  to  top  of  meter 
screws,  distance  from  center  to  center  of  meter  screws,  and  size 
of  meter  screws,  should  be  the  same  for  all  makes  of  each  nominal 
size  of  meter.  This  is  especially  true  when  all-iron  connections 
are  used,  as  when  the  distance  between  the  center  of  screws 
is  not  the  same,  there  is  a  great  temptation,  when  changing 
meters  or  when  setting  a  meter  on  existing  connections,  not 
to  change  the  piping,  but  rather  to  make  the  old  piping  do  for 
the  new  meter.  The  meter  when  thus  connected  is  apt  to  be 
subject  to  strained  screws  and  column  seam  leaks. 

SUGGESTED  STANDARD 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  to  be  gained,  as  above 
explained,  by  a  meter  standard  based  on  a  uniform  capacity 
under  a  given  differential  pressure  and  size  of  case,  there  has 
been  no  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  gas  companies  and  the  meter 
makers  to  arrive  at  such  a  standard,  though  the  subject  has 
been  discussed  in  meetings  of  various  gas  associations,  and  the 
desirability  of  definite  action  widely  recognized.  At  the  1907 


414  METER  WORK 

meeting  of  the  Arrerican  Gas  Institute,  a  standard  was  sug- 
gested as  follows: 

Size  c"p°aclty  tHeight  JWidth  Screw 

(Cubic  Feet)  (Inches)  (Inches) 

5-lt.  °100  16  HI        x 

5-A  175  16  H|  5-lt. 

10-A  375  17*  10-}t. 

30-A  875  25  18f  30- 1. 

60-A  °1800  33J  60- 1. 

150-A  3400  42f  32 

*With  0.5  inch  differential  pressure  and  a  gas  with  specific  gravity 
of  .55. 

fFrom  bottom  of  meter  to  top  of  meter  screw. 
JFrom  center  to  center  of  meter  screws. 

°The  capacity  of  the  5-lt.  ordinary  meter  has  since  been  changed  to 
140  cu.  ft.,  the  5-lt.  prepayment  meter  to  125  cu.  ft.,  the  60-A  to  1500 
cu.  ft.,  and  the  new  meters  badged  accordingly. 

It  also  was  urged  that  in  adopting  a  standard,  no  additional 
details  were  advisable,  as  the  manufacturers  should  not  be  ex- 
pected to  construct  meters  on  exactly  the  same  lines,  but  should 
be  allowed  to  follow  their  own  designs,  and,  in  the  long  run, 
the  best  make,  or  makes,  of  meter  would  win  out. 

The  above  standard  has  been  in  use  in  Philadelphia  for  more 
than  ten  years,  and  has  proven  satisfactory.  It  also  has  been 
accepted  by  many  other  companies.  The  arguments  in  its  favor 
are  as  follows: 

Nomenclature:  The  shortest  method  of  designating  the  sizes 
and  capacities  is  obtained;  as,  for  instance,  a  5-A  suggests 
immediately  a  meter  of  the  same  general  dimensions  as  the 
ordinary  5-lt.  meter,  and  a  known  working  capacity  of  175  cubic 
feet  per  hour. 

Range  of  Sizes:  In  any  standard,  the  5-lt.  meter  is  necessary, 
as  it  is  now  the  size  in  most  general  use  and  will  care  for  the  needs 
of  80  to  90  per  cent  of  consumers,  and  is  slightly  cheaper  to  make 
than  the  5-A.  The  5-lt.,  however,  is  the  only  old  size  that  should 
find  place  in  a  new  standard.  With  the  5-A  more  than  equal 
in  capacity  to  the  10-lt.,  the  10-A  to  the  20,  30  and  45-lt.,  etc., 
the  economy  involved  in  the  use  of  the  smaller  sized  case  is  too 
pronounced  to  justify  any  other  course.  For  instance,  the  pur- 
chase price  of  a  10-A  is  about  35  per  cent  of  that  of  a  45-lt. 
Also,  with  the  decreased  size  of  case  for  the  same  capacity, 
comes  economy  in  connection  cost.  The  abolition  of  flanged 


DESIGN  415 

connections,  made  possible  by  the  proposed  schedule,  is  a  very 
important  item  along  this  line. 

The  old-time  meter  schedule,  ranging  from  3-  to  500-lt.,  con- 
tained at  least  twelve  sizes.  Cutting  this  number  in  half  effects 
an  appreciable  reduction  in  idle  stock  and  in  maintenance  costs, 
while  still  affording  a  range  of  capacities  whose  differentiation 
is  fully  as  close  as  is  the  accuracy  with  which  it  is  possible  to  de- 
termine the  maximum  requirements  of  a  prospective  consumer. 

Capacities  and  Dimensions:  The  capacities  and  the  two  im- 
portant case  dimensions  are  given.  In  ordering  and  in  using 
meters,  a  knowledge  of  these  dimensions  is  almost  as  important 
as  that  of  capacities.  The  dimensions  of  the  "  A  "  meters  corres- 
pond closely  to  those  of  the  same  nominal  size  of  the  old  standard, 
and  with  the  adoption  of  a  meter  screw  of  the  same  nominal 
size,  a  perfect  interchangeability  between  the  "A"  and  "light" 
meter  of  the  same  number  is  obtained.  The  meter  screw,  as 
part  of  the  meter  union,  is  at  present  the  only  appurtenance 
of  a  meter  that  is  standard  for  all  makes. 

ALTERNATIVE  SCHEDULE 

Another  departure  from  the  long-accepted  capacity  standard 
is  embodied  in  the  "B"  meters,  in  wide  use  and  with  sizes  and 
capacities,  at  0.5  inch  loss,  as  below: 

Size  Hourly  Capacity 

(Cubic  Feet) 

3-B  104 

5-B  158 

10-B  280 

20-B  400 

30-B  609 

60-B  1303 

100-B  1864 

200-B  3150 

300-B  Under  development 

In  these  meters,  and  some  other  makes  as  will,  the  excellent 
practice  is  followed  of  soldering  on  a  brass  badge  to  show  the 
capacity  under  a  0.5  inch  loss  in  pressure  through  the  meter. 


CHAPTER  XLVH 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 
GENERAL 

The  meter  is  such  an  important  factor  in  distribution  that  a 
thorough  explanation  of  its  construction  and  operation  is  desir- 
able, and  to  that  end  much  thought  has  been  given  to  the  il- 
lustrations of  the  two-diaphragm,  "D"  slide-valve  type  that 
accompany  this  chapter.  Figures  112  to  118  inclusive  are 
photographs.  Figures  112  to  114  show  what  may  be  considered 
the  "bones"  of  a  meter.  Figures  115  to  118  contain  all  of  the 
working  parts,  though  it  will  be  noted  that  one  side  of  each  valve 
has  been  cut  away  to  disclose  the  relation  between  valve  and 
seat.  Figures  119  to  122  are  drawings, with  each  part  plainly 
numbered,  and  accompanied  by  tables  of  names.  From  the 
knowledge  thus  obtained  of  each  part,  the  identification  of 
most  of  them  in  the  preceding  photographs  will  be  fairly  easy, 
especially  after  reading  the  text  and  the  explanation  of  how  a 
meter  operates.  This  explanation  is  facilitated  greatly  by 
Figures  123  to  126,  diagrammatically  illustrating  the  four 
points  of  cut-off. 

So  far  the  reference  has  been  to  the  ordinary  meter.  A  pre- 
payment mechanism  is  shown  by  two  photographs,  Figures 
127  and  128,  and  a  drawing,  Figure  129. 

In  the  text,  the  principal  parts  usually  will,  when  first  spoken 
of,  be  connected  with  one  or  more  of  the  illustrations  in  which 
they  are  shown.  This  does  not  seem  necessary  in  the  case  of 
most  of  the  small  parts,  as  they  may  be  found  easily  on  the 
drawings.  Where  letters  are  used  to  designate  parts  of  which 
there  are  two,  one  in  the  front  half  and  the  other  in  the  back 
half  of  the  meter,  a  capital  letter  will  be  used  for  the  former, 
and  a  small  letter  for  the  latter. 

PRINCIPLE  OF  MEASUREMENT 

Before  giving  the  detailed  construction  and  operation,  the 
principle  by  which  the  dry  meter  measures  gas  will  be  described. 

(416) 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  417 

This  principle  is  the  same  as  the  one  by  which  the  quantity  of 
liquid  drawn  from  a  cask  may  be  measured  by  drawing  the  con- 
tents through  a  spigot  into  a  quart  measure  located  under  the 
spigot,  emptying  the  quart  measure  each  time  it  is  filled,  through 
a  cock-controlled  opening  in  its  bottom,  and  then  counting  the 
number  of  measures  thus  emptied.  To  ensure  the  accuracy 
of  this  method,  the  following  conditions  must  be  fulfilled:  (a) 
The  measure  must  contain  accurately  one  quart.  If  it  is  too 
large  or  too  small,  manifestly  the  total  volume  drawn  will  be 
inaccurately  measured;  (b)  while  the  measure  is  being  filled 
at  the  spigot,  no  liquid  must  be  allowed  to  escape  into  the  re- 
ceptacle for  the  measured  liquid.  If  there  is  a  small  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  quart  measure,  or  a  leak  at  the  cock,  it  is  evident 
that  the  total  measurement  will  be  vitiated;  (c)  after  the 
quart  measure  has  been  filled,  the  spigot  must  be  completely 
closed  before  the  measure  starts  to  empty.  If,  during  the  process 
of  emptying,  some  additional  liquid  should  escape  into  the  empty- 
ing measure,  it  is  evident  that  the  total  measurement  will  be 
incorrect;  (d)  an  accurate  count  must  be  kept  of  the  number  of 
measures  so  f.lled  and  emptied.  It  is  evident  that  a  wrong  total 
volume  will  be  reached  if  this  count  is  not  accurate. 

The  process  then  consists  in  (1)  filling  a  measure  of  standard 
volume,  (2)  then  completely  shutting  off  the  supply,  (3)  then 
completely  emptying  the  measure  before  again  opening  the 
supply,  and  (4)  keeping  an  accurate  count  of  the  number  of 
measures  so  filled  and  emptied. 

Now,  the  meter  measures,  by  this  same  method,  the  volume 
of  gas  delivered.  Instead  of  one  measure  being  alternately 
filled  and  emptied,  in  the  meter  there  are  four  of  these  standard 
measures  in  operation  simultaneously,  some  filling  while  others 
are  emptying.  This  ensures  a  uniform  delivery  of  the  gas, 
instead  of  the  intermittent  delivery  which  would  be  necessitated 
by  the  operation  of  one  measure. 

Each  of  these  measures  is,  irf  the  meter,  the  volume  displaced 
by  a  piston  (diaphragm  disc)  in  making  a  stroke.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  meter  is  such  that  this  displaced  volume  is  capable 
of  accurate  and  delicate  adjustment.  By  altering  the  length 
of  the  stroke,  the  volume  displaced  may  be  increased  or  de- 
creased, and  when  the  correct  volume  is  reached,  the  mechanism 
may  be  clamped  so  that  this  correct  stroke  is  maintained.  This 
process  of  changing  the  volume  displaced  by  the  stroke  of  the 


418  METER  WORK 

diaphragm  disc  and  fixing  it  in  the  correct  position,  is  called 
"adjusting  the  meter";  it  will  be  described  in  detail  later. 

When  the  diaphragm  disc  is  making  a  stroke,  the  space  behind 
it  is  filling  with  gas;  it  is,  therefore,  open  to  the  incoming  supply 
of  gas,  and  shut  tight  to  the  outlet  pipe  from  the  meter.  At  the 
same  time,  the  space  in  front  of  the  disc  is  delivering  gas;  it  is, 
therefore,  shut  tight  against  the  incoming  supply  of  gas,  and  open 
to  the  meter  outlet.  At  the  moment  the  disc  reaches  the  end 
of  its  stroke,  the  space  behind  it,  which  has  been  filling  with 
gas,  is  automatically  shut  off  from  the  source  of  supply,  and  almost 
immediately  afterward,  this  space  is  automatically  opened  to 
the  meter  outlet.  During  the  brief  period  in  which  this  space 
is  thus  shut  off  from  both  inlet  and  outlet,  the  measurement  of 
this  measureful  of  gas  is  made.  The  same  thing  is  happening 
on  the  other  side  of  the  disc, — when  the  space  on  one  side  is 
emptying,  the  space  on  the  other  side  is  filling. 

This  automatic  closing  and  opening  of  these  compartments  is 
accomplished  by  an  ordinary  slide  valve.  In  the  meter,  there 
are  two  separate  chambers  (or  cylinders) ,  each  with  its  own  piston 
(or  diaphragm  disc),  and  consequently,  there  are  two  slide  valves. 

Having  adjusted  the  meter  so  that  each  stroke  of  either  one 
of  the  diaphragm  discs  displaces  accurately  the  desired  volume 
of  gas  (our  standard  measure),  and  having  set  the  slide  valves 
so  that  when  each  measure  is  full,  it  is  shut  off  from  the  inlet 
before  it  is  opened  to  the  outlet,  we  must  now  arrange  to  ensure 
an  accurate  count  of  the  number  of  measures  thus  filled  and 
emptied.  This  is  accomplished  by  mechanically  gearing  the 
two  diaphragm  discs  to  a  dial,  so  that  each  stroke  of  the  discs 
is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  movement  of  the  hand  on 
the  dial.  Now,  if  this  dial  was  divided  so  as  to  show  the  number 
of  strokes  made,  then  by  taking  this  number  and  multiplying 
it  by  the  standard  fraction  of  a  cubic  foot  that  the  two  discs  are 
known  to  displace  in  a  stroke,  the  volume  of  gas  passed  may  be 
obtained.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  making  this  multiplication 
each  time  the  meter  is  read,  the  mechanism  of  the  dial  is  made 
so  that  it  automatically  makes  the  multiplication,  and  enables 
one  to  read  the  result  direct  in  cubic  feet.  This  is  as  if,  in  the 
first  illustration  of  measuring  a  liquid  in  quart  measures,  a 
lever  were  arranged  so  as  to  mark,  not  every  quart  measure 
emptied,  but  only  once  for  each  four  measures  emptied,  and  the 
number  of  marks  so  made  would  be  counted  as  so  many  gallons. 
In  other  words,  while  the  number  of  fillings  and  emptyings  is 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION        .         419 

what  is  really  being  counted,  the  result  on  the  dial  is  shown  in 
terms  of  gallons.  So  in  the  meter,  while  the  dial  really  counts 
the  number  of  strokes  made  by  the  two  diaphragm  discs,  the 
result  is  shown  in  cubic  feet, —  a  practice  entirely  justified, 
because,  as  already  explained,  it  is  known  that  so  many  strokes 
must  mean  the  delivery  of  a  definite  and  accurately  known 
volume  of  gas. 

In  practice,  the  speed  at  which  a  meter  works,  or  the  rate  at 
which  gas  passes  through  it,  depends  upon  the  demand  on  its 
outlet,  i.  e.,  on  the  number  and  size  of  the  burners  or  appliances 
the  consumer  may  have  in  use  at  one  time.  It  is  important  that 
the  meter  should  register  the  gas  with  equal  accuracy,  whether 
the  rate  of  gas  passage  is  slow  or  rapid.  It  is  evident  that  if  the 
valves  are  not  set  correctly,  so  as  to  open  and  close  the  inlets 
and  outlets  of  the  measuring  chambers  at  the  proper  times, 
while  it  might  be  possible,  by  adjusting  the  strokes  of  the  dia- 
phragm discs,  to  obtain  a  correct  measurement  at  any  one  speed 
of  the  meter,  yet  the  measurement  would  be  incorrect  at  all 
other  speeds.  When  the  valves  are  set  symmetrically,  a  correct 
measurement  at  one  speed  will  be  correct  at  all  others.  New 
meters  and  old  meters  in  wrhich  some  derangement  of  the  mechan- 
ism may  have  occurred,  should  be  tested  to  show  their  standing 
as  to  this  point.  In  case  a  meter  does  not  pass  this  test  satis- 
factorily, the  process  by  which  it  may  be  corrected  so  as  to  measure 
correctly  at  both  low  and  high  speeds,  is  known  as  "setting  the 
valve";  it  will  be  described  in  detail  later. 

It  should  be  explained  that  any  absorption  of  the  pressures 
of  gas  in  operating  the  meter,  or  in  the  passage  of  gas  through 
the  meter,  has  no  appreciable  effect  on  its  volume.  Gas  pres- 
sures are  stated  in  terms  of  a  water  column  sustained  above 
the  pressures  of  the  atmospheres.  As  this  is  about  14.7  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  as  ordinary  gas  pressures,  say,  2  to  4  inches 
water  column,  are  less  than  one-sixth  of  a  pound  per  square  inch 
above  the  atmospheric  pressure,  it  is  evident  that  a  change  of 
several  inches  in  the  water  column  pressure  of  the  gas  will  make 
exceedingly  slight  changes  in  its  volume  or  density.  It  follows 
that  for  all  ordinary  ranges  of  pressure,  the  meter  is  equally 
accurate  in  its  registration. 

Ordinary  dry  meters  are  constructed  so  that  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  in  them  should  not  be  higher  than  one  pound,  or  27  inches 
of  water  column. 


METER  WORK 


Figure  109.— Consumer's  Meter,  page  420:  S,  Screw;  U,  Side  Pipe. 

CONSTRUCTION 

The  meter  case,  Figure  109,  is  made  up  of  tinned  iron  plates, 
soldered  together  in  the  form  of  a  rectangular  box.  A  long  tin 
column  or  side  pipe,  U,  is  soldered  to  each  side.  The  one  on  the 
reader's  left  is  the  inlet  column,  and  the  one  on  the  right,  the 
outlet  column.  In  the  top  of  each  is  placed  a  brass  spud  or 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 
STANDARD   METER   UNION 


421 


CAP      AND       TAIL   PIECE    MAY      BE      EITHER       BCA3S     OR       MALLEABLE       IRON 


CAP 


FINHW    3UQTACES    WHtBE     MASKED  .f• 

Bl83  ON  TAIL  piece.    SHOULD  BE  AT   LEAST   V  WIDE.    SPACED    »o*  APAQT 

ND  SHOULD  NOT   PROJECT   BEYOND   3MOULOCO.   '  C'  . 


Figure  110.—  Meter  Union,  page  422. 


422  METER  WORK 

meter  screw  S,  by  which  the  inlet  column  is  connected  to  the  ser- 
vice and  the  outlet  column  to  the  house  piping. 

The  old  method  of  sweating  the  screw,  Figure  110,  into  the 
columns,  did  not  produce  sufficiently  strong  joints  to  withstand 
the  strains  caused  by  all-iron  connections,  or  by  one  lead  and 
one  iron  connection.  One  modern  improvement  is  to  lengthen 
the  shank  of  the  screw  to  secure  a  longer  solder  joint  between 
screw  and  side  of  meter.  Another,  and  still  better,  device  is 
to  make  the  shank  still  longer,  and  cast  lugs  on  each  side,  by 
which  the  screw  is  riveted  to  the  meter.  The  riveted  screw- 
affords  a  very  secure  method  of  attachment,  and  is  the  type 
now  generally  employed,  though  greater  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  renewing  these  screws  when  damaged. 

A  simple  and  effective  means  of  strengthening  the  sweated 
joint  of  the  old  standard  straight  shank  screw,  is  to  anchor  the 
screw  to  the  top  of  the  column  by  a  single  rivet.  This  rivet 
is  put  in  easily  at  the  time  of  sweating  the  screw  into  the  column, 
and  is  removed  easily  when  replacing  a  damaged  screw. 

The  standard  meter  cap,  Figure  110,  is  of  octagonal  shape, 
but  in  the  report  of  the  American  Gas  Institute's  Committee 
on  Consumers'  Meters,  as  printed  on  page  861  of  the  1916 
Proceedings,  there  is  a  drawing  of  a  round  cap  and  some 
arguments  for  its  use.  As  yet,  however,  it  has  been  tried  by 
one  company  only,  and  no  reliable  data  are  now  available. 

The  tailpiece,  Figure  110,  as  well  as  the  entire  meter  union, 
always  was  made  of  brass,  until  in  recent  years  it  has  been  found 
that  for  the  tailpiece  and  the  cap,  malleable  iron,  black  or  galvan- 
ized, is  cheaper  and  equally  satisfactory. 

Figure  111  gives  the  standard  dimensions  of  all  sizes  of  meter 
unions,  the  letters  in  the  table  being  those  shown  in  Figure  110. 
The  inside  of  the  meter  is  divided,  Figure  112,  into  three  com- 
partments by  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical  partition.  The  space 
in  the  upper  part,  above  the  horizontal  partition,  or  table,  is 
called  the  gallery  G.  The  space  below  the  table  is  divided  into 
two  equal  compartments,  Z  and  z,  by  the  vertical  partition, 
placed  midway  between  the  front  and  back  of  the  meter.  A 
small  gas-tight  compartment,  called  the  valve  chamber,  Y,  is 
constructed  in  the  gallery,  and  contains  the  valves  which  control 
the  passage  of  the  gas  in  and  out  of  the  compartments  below 
the  table. 

The  measuring  apparatus  below  the  table  in  each  of  the  two 
compartments  formed  by  the  vertical  partition,  consists  of  a 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


423 


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424 


METER   WORK 


flexible  diaphragm,  D  and  d,  Figure  115,  mounted  in  a  central 
position  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  so  that  no  portion  of  the 


Figure  112.-Consumer's  Meter,  Side  View— Outlet  Side  and 
Working  Parts  Removed,  page  112:  G,  Gallery; 
Y,  Valve  Chamber;  Z,  z,  Compartments 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION          .       425 

diaphragm  when  deflated,  or  inflated,  will  touch  the  metal  of 
case  or  partitions.  There  are  thus  formed  four  distinct  measur- 
ing chambers,  viz.,  the  two  interiors  of  the  diaphragms  them- 
selves, and  the  two  spaces  outside,  known  as  diaphragm  chambers, 


C,  c,  Figure  115. 


Figure  113. — Consumer's  Meter.  Front  View  -Front  and 
Working  Parts  Removed  p:ige4V):  G,  Gallery; 
Y,  Valve  Chamber;  Z,  Compartment. 


426 


METER  WORK 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  weight  of  the  diaphragm  is  supported 
by  an  arm,  or  flag,  F,  Figure  117,  attached  to  the  diaphragm 
disc  X  by  means  of  a  diaphragm  carriage  W.  This  flag  is  in 
turn  soldered  to  a  vertical  flag  rod  R,  which  rests  in  a  step  mount- 


I 


Figure  114.— Consumer's  Meter.     Top  View— Top  and  Work- 
ing Parts  Removed. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


427 


Figure  115.— Consumer's  Meter.  Front  and  Side  View- 
Valves  Cut  Away,  page  424:  C,  c,  Diaphragm 
Chambers;  D,  d,  Diaphragms;  I,  Index;  J,  j, 
Valve  Arms;  V,  v,  Valves. 


428 


METER  WORK 


B         A 


Figure  116.— Consumer's  Meter.  Back  and  Side  View— Valves 
Cut  Away,  page  430:  A,  Spiral  Gear;  B,  Hori- 
zontal Axle;  H,  Center  Stuffing  Box;  K,  Crank. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


429 


ed  on  the  bottom  of  the  meter,  the  rod  passing  upward  throueh 
a  stuffing  box  into  the  gallery.  By  means  of  this  arrangement 
the  diaphragm  disc  is  compelled  to  move  in  and  out  always  in  the 


Figure  117.— Consumer's  Meter.  Front  View,  page  426: 
E,  Tangent  Click;  F,  Flag;  R,  Flag  Rod;  W, 
Diaphragm  Carriage;  X,  Disc. 


430  METER  WORK 

same  plane.  The  disc  is  still  further  guided  by  means  of  a  guide 
wire,  which  keeps  the  two  guide  points  of  the  disc  moving  at 
the  same  speed. 

Attached  to  the  upper  end  of  each  flag  rod  is  one  end  of  a  pair 
of  arms,  called  the  flag  arms.  The  short  flag  arm,  N,  Figure 
1 18,  is  attached  loosely  to  the  long  flag  arm  M  and  to  the  tangent 
post  L,  mounted  on  the  tangent,  or  tangent  arm  T.  The  tangent 
is  rigidly  attached  at  right  angles  to  the  top  of  a  vertical  shaft, 
or  crank,  K,  Figure  116,  passing  through  the  bridge  and  center 
stuffing  box  H  into  the  valve  chamber. 

Attached,  by  means  of  short  valve  arms,  J,  j,  Figure  115,  to 
the  single  throw  of  this  crank,  are  two  slide  valves,  V,  v,  set  at 
an  angle  of  90°  to  each  other,  and  which  control  the  flow  of  gas 
into  and  out  of  the  diaphragms  and  compartments.  In  each 
valve  seat  are  three  openings  or  ports.  The  case  port,  Q, 
Figure  118,  communicates  with  the  diaphragm  compartment 
or  chamber;  the  outlet  port  O  with  the  fork  channel  leading 
to  the  outlet  column ;  and  the  diaphragm  port  P  with  the  interior 
of  the  diaphragm  through  the  pocket  channel. 

In  Figure  118,  the  port  openings  show  clearly  wrhere  the  valve 
side  has  been  cut  away,  but  the  relation  between  the  valves, 
ports  and  channels  is  shown  more  clearly  in  the  drawing,  Figure 
121.  Following  the  gas  flow,  wre  have:  1,  inlet  column;  2,  long 
channel;  4,  long  channel  outlet;  9,  case  port,  or  10,  diaphragm 
port;  13,  diaphragm  channel;  8,  outlet  port;  7,  fork  channel; 
5,  outlet  column.  The  opening  of  the  fork  channel  into  the  out- 
let column  is  seen  very  clearly  in  Figure  115,  as  is  also  the  long 
channel  outlet  into  the  valve  chamber.  The  diaphragm  channel 
is  seen  best  in  Figure  113.  The  present  tendency  is  to  increase 
the  size  of  channels  and  ports  within  the  meter,  and  thus  obtain 
greater  delivery  capacity  without  increasing  outside  dimensions. 
The  "  A  "  meters  are  examples  of  what  is  possible  in  this  direction. 

The  recording  mechanism,  or  index,  I,  Figure  115.  is  mounted 
in  the  front  part  of  the  gallery,  and  its  face,  or  dial,  is  viewed 
through  a  glazed  index  box.  The  gearing  communicates  through 
the  horizontal  axle,  B,  Figure  116,  and  its  gear  wheel  with  the 
spiral  gear  A  on  the  crank  K. 

ACTION 
MOTIVE  POWER 

A  meter  is  in  communication,  through  its  inlet  column,  with 
gas  under  pressure  from  the  gas  holder  through  the  mains  and 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  431 


Figure  118.— Consumer's  Meter.  Top  View— Valves  Cut 
Away,  page  430:  L,  Tangent  Post;  M,  m. 
Long  Flag  Arms;  N,  n,  Short  Flag  Arms;  O, 
Outlet  Port;  P,  Diaphragm  Port;  0,  Case 
T,  Port;  Tangent. 


432  METER  WORK 

the  service  pipe,  and  through  its  outlet  column,  it  connects  with 
piping  supplying  appliances,  which,  by  the  opening  of  a  cock, 
will  allow  the  escape  of  gas  into  the  atmosphere.  This  escape 
lowers  the  pressure  at  the  meter  outlet,  and  immediately  the 
gas  on  the  inlet  side  starts  to  flow  toward  the  outlet,  just  as 
water  flows  when  given  a  chance  to  seek  a  lower  level.  In  its 
path  the  gas  has  to  pass  through  the  chambers  and  channels 
already  alluded  to,  and  in  so  doing  operates  the  measuring 
mechanism,  as  will  now  be  described  in  detail.  First,  however, 
it  might  be  well,  in  view  of  the  great  ignorance  on  this  subject, 
to  emphasize  the  fact  that  no  movement  of  the  meter,  and  there- 
fore no  registration  of  the  index,  is  possible  without  the  establish- 
ment of  a  pressure  difference  through  the  meter,  and  as,  in  turn, 
such  pressure  difference  will  result  only  from  the  escape  of  gas 
beyond  the  meter,  the  latter  always  is  a  measure  of  gas  'con- 
sumption. 

The  working  limits  of  such  pressure  difference,  and  the  varia- 
tion of  volume  passed  with  pressure  absorbed,  have  been 
discussed. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  GAS  FLOW 

The  inlet  column  connects  through  the  long  channel  with  the 
valve  chamber.  There  are  just  four  positions  of  the  valves  in 
which  but  one  measuring  chamber  is  taking  gas,  and  but  one 
emptying  through  the  outlet  port  to  the  consumer,  all  flow 
having  ceased  on  one  side  of  the  vertical  partition.  These  four 
positions  are  called  points  of  cut-off.  At  any  other  time,  the 
gas  in  the  valve  chamber  always  has  two  available  paths  of  travel, 
and  these  two  paths  lead,  according  to  the  positions  of  the 
valves,  into  (1)  two  diaphragms,  (2)  two  chambers,  or  (3)  a 
diaphragm  and  a  chamber.  Figures  123  to  126  show,  dia- 
grammatically,  the  conditions  at  the  points  of  cut-off,  the  arrows 
indicating  the  direction  of  motion  during  the  cycle  just  beginning. 
With  the  aid  of  these  diagrams,  an  explanation  will  be  given  of 
how  the  valves,  in  moving  over  their  respective  ports,  direct 
the  gas  flow. 

To  begin  with,  let  us  assume  that  the  front  diaphragm  port 
P  is  just  being  uncovered  by  its  valve  V.  Figure  123  shows  the 
position  of  the  two  valves  and  diaphragms  just  before  this  front 
diaphragm  port  starts  to  open.  While  the  valve  V  moves  to 
the  front,  the  gas  passes  through  the  continually  widening  port 
P  to  inflate  the  d'aphragm  D.  The  latter  is  half  full,  as  shown 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  433 

in  Figure  124,  when  the  valve  V  has  reached  the  extremity  of 
its  frontward  motion  and  the  diaphragm  port  P  is  wide  open. 

As  the  valve  V  travels  backward  closing  the  port  P,  the  dia- 
phragm D  continues  to  fill  and  is  completely  expanded,  as 
shown  in  Figure  125,  at  the  exact  moment  the  port  P  is  closed. 
The  next  instant,  the  continual  backward  travel  of  V  opens  a 
communication  through  the  port  P  between  the  diaphragm 
D  and  the  outlet  port  O,  through  which  the  gas  in  the  diaphragm 
passes  out  into  the  fork  channel  and  from  there  to  the  outlet 
column.  When  V  has  reached  the  end  of  its  backward  stroke, 
its  position  is  shown  in  Figure  126.  The  port  P  is  entirely 
open  and  the  diaphragm  D  half  deflated.  As  V  travels 
forward,  the  diaphragm  continues  to  empty  through  the  closing 
port  P  until  V  reaches  the  position  shown  in  Figure  123,  where 
the  diaphragm  D  is  entirely  empty,  and  is  again  ready  to  fill 
when  V  uncovers  the  port  P  in  repeating  the  journey  already 
described  and  beginning  a  new  cycle. 

So  far  we  have  considered  only  one  of  the  four  measuring 
chambers,  viz.,  the  front  diaphragm.  An  inspection  of  the  four 
diagrams  shows  that  in  any  one  compartment  the  conditions 
are  as  follows:  Diaphragm  (interior)  empty  and  (diaphragm) 
chamber  full;  -  diaphragm  half  full  and  chamber  half  empty; 
diaphragm  full  and  chamber  empty;  diaphragm  half  empty 
and  chamber  half  full.  This  statement,  with  the  explanation 
that  has  been  given  of  the  passage  of  the  gas  through  the  front 
diaphragm,  and  a  study  of  the  diaphragms,  will  make  clear  how 
each  valve  controls  the  flow  of  gas  through  its  two  measuring 
chambers.  As  has  been  said  before,  the  valves  are  set  at  90° 
apart,  so  that  the  relative  diaphragm  conditions  are  as  follows: 
Diaphragm  D  empty,  and  diaphragm  d  half  full;  D  half  full, 
and  d  full;  D  full,  and  d  half  empty;  D  half  empty,  and  d 
empty. 

Combining  now  the  two  compartments,  for  the  four  measuring 
chambers,  we  have  these  simultaneous  conditions,  as  illustrated 
in  the  figures  given: 

Figure  Front  Compartment  Back  Compartment 

Diaphragm  Chamber  Diaphragm  Chamber 

123  Empty  Full  Half  Full  Half  Empty 

124  Half  Full  Half  Empty  Full  Empty 

125  Full  Empty  Half  Empty       Half  Full 

126  Half  Empty       Half  Full  Empty  Full 
From  the  above  table  and  description,  it  is  clear  that  there  is 

no  dead   center  to  be  overcome,  for  one  diaphragm  always  is 


434  METER  WORK 

at  mid-stroke  when  the  other  is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  and  there 
is  a  continuous  delivery  of  gas. 

Looking  back  over  the  pathway  we  have  followed,  we  can  note 
the  following  traps  or  pockets  in  which,  if  condensation  ac- 
cumulates in  sufficient  quantity,  it  will  seal  off  the  gas  supply: 
the  inlet  column  and  long  channel,  and  the  outlet  column.  The 
latter  is  most  likely  to  give  trouble,  as  into  it  the  condensation 
from  cold  house  piping  is  very  apt  to  drain.  In  some  new  types, 
the  long  channel  is  placed  above  the  table  top,  thus  removing 
the  trap  here. 

Before  concluding  this  account  of  the  passage  of  gas  through 
a  .meter,  it  is  advisable  to  investigate  the  effect  of  any  deviation 
of  flow  from  the  appointed  channels.  Such  deviation  may  be  in 
the  nature  of  by-passing  within  the  meter  case  itself,  or  of  leaks 
through  the  case  into  the  outer  air.  In  the  latter  instance,  the 
consumer  often  imagines  that  necessarily  he  must  be  paying 
for  this  gas.  In  reality,  the  only  meter  leaks  that  always  in- 
volve gas  which  has  been  measured,  and  therefore  recorded  for 
future  charge,  are  those  in  the  outlet  column.  Other  escapes 
through  the  case  will  be  of  unmeasured  gas,  except  when  the 
meter  is  in  operation,  and  then  only  half  of  the  escape  will  be 
measured. 

Interior  by-passing,  which  oftenest  occurs  through  holes  in 
diaphragms  or  metal  partitions,  or  under  badly  seating  valves, 
usually  involves  only  unmeasured  gas,  but  any  escape  into  the 
gallery,  which,  normally,  does  not  contain  any  gas,  may  or  may 
not  have  been  previously  measured.  From  the  gallery  there 
will  be  a  leak  into  the  room  through  cracks  around  the  dial 
glass,  unless  the  latter  is  tightly  puttied  in  place.  Gas  in  the 
gallery  usually  is  indicated  by  a  discolored  (brown)  dial  face, 
but  should  not  lead  to  the  removal  of  the  meter  unless  there 
is  a  leak  too  large  to  warrant  a  repair  in  place,  or  the  discolora- 
tion interferes  with  meter  reading. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  GAS  FLOW 

Having  traced  the  direction  of  gas  flow,  the  next  step  will  be 
to  show  how  the  inward  and  outward  movement  of  the  diaphragm 
is  transmitted  to  recording  mechanism.  The  order  of  transmis- 
sion is  (Figure  122)  through  7,  diaphragm  carriage;  6,  flag; 
8,  flag  rod  (13,  Figure  120);  12,  long  flag  arm;  29,  short  flag 
arm,  to  9,  tangent  post.  At  this  point,  the  conversion  from 
reciprocating  to  circular  motion  is  complete;  and  in  the  meter 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  435 

illustrated,  the  tangent  post  revolves  in  a  clockwise  direction, 
as  experience  has  proved  that  this  direction  is  the  best  practice, 
though  not  yet  universally  adopted.  In  such  a  meter,  the  back 
valve  always  is  ahead  of  the  front  valve,  which  also  is  clear  from 
a  study  of  the  table  of  measuring  chamber  conditions. 

As  the  tangent  post  revolves,  it  carries  with  it  the  tangent  arm 
11,  Figure  120.  This,  in  turn,  revolves  30,  the  crank,  or  vertical 
shaft,  which  serves  two  functions.  Through  a  single-throw  crank 
on  its  lower  end,  the  travel  of  17,  the  valve,  is  properly  timed. 
The  second  is  the  measuring  function,  and  the  one  in  which  we 
are  now  especially  interested.  A  worm  or  spiral,  5,  is  mounted 
on  the  shaft  just  below  6,  the  bridge.  This  engages  with  a 
toothed  wheel  3,  soldered  on  2,  the  horizontal  axle.  Each  re- 
volution of  the  shaft  and  worm  advances  the  toothed  wheel  one 
tooth. 

To  the  front  end  of  the  horizontal  axle  is  fastened  25,  the  pinion 
axle,  which  drives  the  index  mechanism  and  on  which  is  mounted 
34,  a  proving  head  pointer  or  "test  hand",  traveling  over  the 
face  of  a  graduated  circle,  known  as  33,  the  proving  head.  The 
number  of  cubic  feet  corresponding  to  a  complete  revolution 
of  the  pointer  increases  with  the  meter  size,  and  varies  from 
two  to  one  hundred.  In  a  5 -It.  meter  it  is  two  cubic  feet.  As 
in  this  meter  the  displacement  capacity  of  each  measuring 
chamber  is  one  thirty-second  of  a  cubic  foot,  and  each  revolution 
of  the  vertical  shaft  corresponds  to  the  complete  emptying  of 
all  four  measuring  chambers,  or  to  one-eighth  of  a  cubic  foot,  and 
this  quantity  is  one-sixteenth  of  two,  it  follows  that  for  every 
revolution  of  the  vertical  shaft,  the  horizontal  axle  must  be  turned 
one-sixteenth  of  its  circumference.  This  will  require,  with  a  worm 
of  single  pitch,  16  teeth  on  the  toothed  wheel. 

The  above  example  illustrates  how,  by  a  proper  relation  be- 
tween worm  and  toothed  wheel,  the  gas  passing  through  the  meter 
may  be  measured  and  recorded  accurately.  Through  suitable 
gearing,  driven  from  the  pinion  axle,  other  pointers  are  set  in 
motion.  These  move  over  circles  on  the  index  face.  Ordinarily 
there  are  three  such  circles.  The  circumference  of  each  is  sub- 
divided into  ten  equal  spaces,  numbered  from  0  to  9  inclusive. 
As  a  complete  revolution  of  each  pointer  indicates,  respectively, 
1000,  10,000  and  100,000  cubic  feet,  it  is  easy  to  record,  to  the 
nearest  hundred  feet,  the  consumption  of  gas  shown.  On 
larger  meters,  an  additional  dial  is  provided,  whose  complete 
revolution  corresponds  to  1 ,000,000  cubic  feet.  As  will  be  better 


436 


METER  WORK 


Figure  119.— General  View  of  an  Ordinary  Meter. 

1.  Top  4.  Side  7.  Index  Box. 

2.  Front  Gallery  Plate  5.  Bottom  8.  Company's  Badge 

3.  Front  6.  Index  Box  Cover  9.  Partition 

10.  Three  Cornered  Plate     11.  Back  Plate 

I.  Gallery        II.  Valve  Chamber         III.  Diaphragm  Chamber 

(Plain  figures  show  surfaces;  roman  figures  spaces.) 

understood  later,  each  consumer  requires  a  meter  of  sufficient 
dial  capacity  to  ensure  that  between  two  meter  readings,  the 
gas  consumption  will  be  less  than  the  capacity  of  the  largest 
circle. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  437 

It  probably  is  clear  now  that  if  the  meter  connections  were 
reversed  so  that  gas  entered  at  the  outlet  and  left  at  the  inlet, 
the  recording  mechanism  would  register  backward,  which  would 
make  it  possible  for  a  dishonest  consumer  to  use  gas  that  would 
not  be  charged  against  him.  Fortunately,  the  tangent  click, 
E,  Figure  117,  affords  a  simple  and  effective  protection  against 
such  a  practice.  The  tangent  arm,  when  revolving  in  the  proper 
direction,  comes  in  contact,  on  the  side  shown  by  the  arrowhead, 
with  the  click,  which  is  so  mounted  on  a  horizontal  pivot  that 
its  upper  end  is  depressed  below  the  plane  of  the  tangent  arm. 
Should,  however,  the  direction  of  the  tangent  be  reversed  and 
it  approach  the  click  from  the  other  side,  the  latter  would  change 
to  a  vertical  position,  in  which  it  would  hold,  by  reason  of  the 
bridge  acting  as  a  stop  to  its  bottom  edge.  Thus,  the  tangent 
arm  would  be  halted  and  no  more  gas  supplied. 

It  is  evident  that  with  the  above  arrangement,  the  tangent 
arm  could  never  make  more  than  one  backward  revolution, 
and  if  its  forward  movement  had  ceased  just  after  the  click  had 
been  passed,  then  the  possible  backward  movement  would  be 
very  small,  indeed.  Now,  it  occasionally  happens  that  the 
pressure  on  the  outlet  of  a  meter  will  exceed  that  on  the  inlet. 
Most  frequently  such  a  condition  is  due  to  an  actual  increase 
in  outlet  pressure,  caused  by  a  rise  in  temperature  of  the  gas 
enclosed  in  a  tight  system  of  house  piping,  and,  more  rarely,  to 
a  failure  of  supply  to  one  meter  or  to  a  whole  region,  resulting 
in  an  entire  absence  of  inlet  pressure.  Whatever  the  cause, 
the  effect  is  to  start  a  backward  meter  movement  to  equalize 
pressures.  If  the  tangent,  in  moving  backward,  hits  the  click 
before  such  equalization  takes  place,  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
in  the  measuring  chambers  in  communication  with  the  outlet 
column,  will  result  in  a  strain  on  the  solder  joints  at  the 
flag  rod  top  and  at  the  base  of  the  bridge.  These  strains  may 
be  relieved  by  the  lifting  of  the  valves  off  their  seats,  such  lifting 
immediately  equalizing  pressures  by  opening  connections 
between  inlet  and  outlet  columns.  However,  where  the  valves 
are  dirty,  the  force  required  to  lift  them,  often  is  greater  than 
the  resistance  of  some  of  the  soldered  joints,  and,  therefore,  the 
pressure  strain  may  result  in  one  or  more  broken  joints.  The 
meters  damaged  in  this  way  are  numerous  enough  to  make  well 
worth  while  the  use  of  a  double-action  click,  which  allows  a 
tangent  to  pass  over  it  once  and  stops  all  backward  movement 
only  on  the  second  round,  thus  insuring  at  least  one  complete 


METER  WORK 


Figure  120.— Parts  Above  the  Table  in  an  Ordinary  Meter,  page  435. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


439 


1.  Index 

2.  Horizontal  Axle 

3.  Horizontal  Axle  Wheel 

4.  Horizontal  Axle  Rest 

5.  Crank  Spiral 

6.  Bridge 

7.  Tangent  Click 

8.  Tangent  Jamb  Nut 

9.  Tangent  Post 

10.  Tangent  Post  Pin 

11.  Tangent  Arm 

12.  Long  Flag  Arm 

13.  Flag  Rod 

14.  Flag  Rod  Stuffing  Box  Cap 

15.  Flag  Rod  Stuffing  Box 

16.  Flag  Rod  and  Flag  Arm  Solder 

Joint 

34.  Proving 


17.  Valve 

18.  Valve  Wire 

19.  Valve  Guide 

20.  Valve  Wrist  Pin 

21.  Valve  Wrist 

22.  Valve  Arm 

23.  Valve  Seat 

24.  Long  Channel  Outlet 

25.  Pinion  Axle 

26.  Outlet  Column 

27.  Meter  Screw 

28.  Inlet  Column 

29.  Short  Flag  Arm 

30.  Crank- 

31.  Flag  Arm  Rivet  Joint 

32.  Crank  (or  Centre)  Stuffing  Box 

33.  Proving  Head 
Head  Pointer 


440 


METER  WORK 


Figure  121. — Consumer's  Meter.     Valve  Seats  and  Channels. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  441 


1.  Inlet  Column  5.  Outlet  Column  9.  Case  Port 

2.  Long  Channel  6.  Fork  Channel  Outlet    10.  Diaphragm  Port 

3.  Partition  7.  Fork  Channel  11.  Valve  Seat 

4.  Long  Channel  Outlet  8.  Outlet  Port  12.  Clam  Shell 

13.  Diaphragm  (or  Pocket)  Channel 


442  METER  WORK 

revolution,  and,  therefore,  enabling  the  backward  passage  of 
a  volume  of  gas  sufficient  to  equalize  pressures  in  practically  all 
cases  of  this  kind. 

Returning  now  to  the  proving  head  circle.  It  has  two  uses: 
the  first,  as  will  be  described  in  greater  detail  later,  is  to  enable 
the  testing  of  the  meter  for  accurate  registration;  the  second  use, 
which  also  will  be  referred  to  again,  is  to  enable  the  measurement 
of  small  rates  of  flow.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the  pointer 
of  a  2-ft.  proving  head  sometimes  moves  at  an  inconveniently 
slow  pace.  To  remedy  this  condition,  meters  may  be  obtained 
now  with  an  extra  proving  head.  In  some  designs,  its  pointer 
moves  ten  times  as  fast  as  the  pointer  of  the  regular  proving 
head,  which  means,  in  a  5-A  meter,  that  the  passage  of  two- 
tenths  of  a  cubic  foot  will  cause  a  complete  revolution  of  this 
extra  pointer,  from  which  it  easily  is  seen  how  the  use  of  this 
extra  proving  head  facilitates  the  measurement  of  a  small  volume 
of  gas,  or,  for  a  given  rate  of  flow,  shortens  the  time  requisite  for 
a  given  travel  of  the  pointer. 

To  save  the  expense  of  equipping  existing  meters  with  a  new 
dial  and  new  gear  wheels,  and  yet  obtain  a  better  method  of 
determining  the  passage  of  small  volumes  than  is  afforded  by  the 
ordinary  proving  head,  it  is  recommended  that  3-  or  5-lt.  meters 
under  repair  be  provided  with  a  small  pointer  attached  by  a 
hinged  joint  to  the  front  flag  rod  and  extending  to  and  slightly 
beyond  the  top  edge  of  the  dial.  Any  motion  of  the  diaphragm 
will  cause  the  pointer  to  move  along  the  dial  edge. 

PREPAYMENT  ATTACHMENT 

Prepayment  mechanisms  are  constructed  on  the  principle 
that  when  a  quarter's  worth  of  credit  has  been  made  in  the  meter 
by  inserting  a  quarter  and  turning  the  handle  by  the  fingers, 
the  subsequent  passage  of  a  quarter's  worth  of  gas  through 
the  meter  will  exactly  reverse  the  motion  in  the  mechanism,  so 
that  it  is  in  precisely  the  same  position  as  it  was  before  the  quarter 
was  inserted.  This  is  accomplished  in  some  designs  by  a  nut 
traveling  on  a  worm.  The  turning  by  the  fingers  of  the  handle, 
alter  the  insertion  of  the  quarter,  revolves  the  worm,  and  as  the 
nut  is  prevented  from  turning,  it  is  forced  to  travel  forward  a 
definite  distance  on  the  worm.  Subsequently,  when  the  gas 
begins  to  pass  through  the  meter,  it  revolves  the  nut  in  the  reverse 
direction  to  that  in  which  the  worm  revolved  before,  and  as  the 
worm  is  kept  from  turning,  the  nut  is  forced  to  travel  back  on  the 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


443 


worm,  and  when  it  reaches  the  point  from  which  it  first  started, 
exactly  a  quarter's  worth  of  gas  has  passed. 

Of  course,  several  quarters  may  be  inserted,  one  after  the  other, 
the  handle  being  turned  after  each  insertion,  and  this  results  in 


Figure  122.— Consumer's  Meter.    Diaphragm  Chamber. 

l.Disc  5.  Disc  Wire  Boot 

2.  Disc  Guide  6.  Flag 

3.  Leather  Diaphragm  7.  Diaphragm  Carriage 

4.  Disc  Guide  Wire  8.  Flag  Rod 

9.  Flag  Rod  Step 

the  nut  being  advanced  by  equal  increments  further  and  further 
along  the  worm.  The  subsequent  passage  of  gas  results  in 
the  backward  travel  of  the  nut  by  equal  increments  for  each 
quarter's  worth  of  gas.  When  the  nut  is  at  the  starting  end  of 
the  worm,  it  is  so  connected  with  a  valve  in  the  meter  that 


444 


METER  WORK 


this  valve  is  shut,  so  that  no  gas  may  enter  the  measuring  portions 
of  the  meter,  and,  consequently,  the  meter  cannot  work.     The 


Figure  123.— Consumer's  Meter— Point  of  Cut-off.  Front 
Compartment:  Diaphragm  empty,  chamber 
full.  Back  Compartment:  Diaphragm  half 
full,  chamber  half  empty. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


445 


turning  of  the  handle  after  inserting  the  first  quarter,  causes 
the  nut  to  travel  on  the  worm  so  as  to  open  the  valve.     Con- 


Figure  124.— Consumer's  Meter— Point  of  Cut-off.  Front 
Compartment:  Diaphragm  half  full,  chamber 
half  empty.  Back  Compartment:  Diaphragm 
full,  chamber  empty. 


446 


METER  WORK 


versely,  when  the  last  quarter's  worth  of  gas  has  been  consumed, 
the  nut  has  returned  to  its  home  position,  and  this  results  in 
closing  the  valve,  thus  shutting  off  the  passage  of  any  gas. 


r 


Figure  125.— Consumer's  Meter— Point  of  Cut-off.  Front 
Compartment:  Diaphragm  full,  chamber 
empty.  Back  Compartment:  Diaphragm  half 
empty,  chamber  half  full. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


447 


In  another  design  of  prepayment  mechanism,  instead  of  a  nut 
and  worm,  what  is  known  as  a  planetary  gear  is  utilized.    A 


Figure  126.— Consumer's  Meter— Point  of  Cut-off.  Front 
Compartment:  Diaphragm  half  empty,  cham- 
ber half  full.  Back  Compartment:  Diaphragm 
empty,  chamber  full. 


448 


METER  WORK 


large  wheel,  with   teeth   on  the  inner  face  of  its  rim,  is  turned 
in  the  operation  of  buying  gas.     Meshed  with  these  inner  teeth 


Figure  127. — Slot  Part  of  Prepayment  Meter,  page  449. 

1.   Handle.     2.  Cylinder  or  Slot  Part.     3.  50-tooth  Wheel.     4.  Buffer  Plate. 

are  two  small  gear  wheels,    mounted  on  each  end  of   an   arm 
centrally  attached  to  a  worm,  which,  in  turn,  operates  the  pre- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  449 

payment  valve.  Each  of  these  small  gear  wheels  mesh  with  a 
larger  gear  wheel  located  centrally  between  them.  This  central 
gear  wheel  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  shaft,  which  is  caused 
to  revolve  by  the  passage  of  gas  through  the  meter.  When  the 
handle  is  turned  in  the  operation  of  buying  gas,  the  small  wheels 
revolve  around  the  central  wheel,  which  is  prevented  from  turn- 
ing at  this  time.  As  gas  passes  through  the  meter,  the  central 
wheel  revolves,  while  the  large  wheel  is  prevented  from  so  doing. 
The  direction  of  rotation  of  the  central  wheel  is  such  as  to  cause 
a  reverse  direction  of  rotation  of  the  small  wheels  on  the  arm, 
so  that  the  passage  of  a  quarter's  worth  of  gas  through  the  meter 
causes  them  to  return  to  their  home  position,  closing  the  pre- 
payment valve. 

The  above  design  is  free  from  a  number  of  mechanical  defects 
inherent  to  older  types,  and  will,  it  is  believed,  prove  its  value 
wherever  tried. 

In  all  types  of  prepayment  meters,  there  is,  of  course,  a  pro- 
vision for  changing  the  price  of  gas,  or  what  is  a  quarter's  worth 
of  gas. 

Figures  127,  128  and  129  illustrate  a  prepayment  mechanism 
in  general  use.  It  is  of  the  worm  and  nut  type,  and  its  action 
in  a  5-lt.  meter  is  briefly  as  follows:  A  quarter  is  inserted 
in  the  slot  of  the  cylinder  or  slot  part,  2,  Figure  127,  and  turned 
through  180°  by  means  of  the  handle  1,  then  dropping  into  a 
cash  box  below.  During  this  half-revolution,  the  coin  serves 
as  a  connecting  shaft  between  the  buying  handle  and  a  50-tooth 
gear  wheel  3,  mounted  on  the  inside  end  of  the  slot  part,  and  causes 
this  wheel  also  to  make  a  half-revolution.  The  50-tooth  wheel 
meshes  through  an  intermediary  wheel,  or  idler,  4,  Figure  128, 
with  a  20-tooth  wheel,  2,  (for  gas  sold  at  $1.00  per  thousand)  on 
the  end  of  a  threaded  axle,  3,  Figure  129,  known  as  the  carriage 
worm,  and,  therefore,  this  axle  revolves  fifty-twentieths  of  one 
half -revolution,  or  one  and  one-quarter  revolutions.  On  the 
worm  is  mounted  a  25-tooth  gearwheel,  5, which  is  driven  forward 
one  and  one-fourth  threads;  this  wheel,  known  as  the  carriage 
wheel,  being  prevented  from  revolving  with  the  carriage  worm 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  teeth  on  its  periphery  engage  with 
the  teeth  of  a  pinion  axle,  1,  which  is  prevented  from  revolving 
at  this  time.  As  the  carriage  wheel  is  jacked  forward,  a  frame, 


450 


METER  WORK 


Figure  128.— Gear  Box  of  Prepayment  Meter,  page  449. 

1.  Gear  Box  3.  Click 

2.  Price  Wheel  and  Set  Screw  4.  Intermediary  Wheel 

5.  Brass  Swing 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION  451 

partly  surrounding  it  and  known  as  the  carriage,  is  also  moved 
forward;  a  projecting  arm,  13,  on  the  back  end  of  the  carriage 
lifting  the  prepayment  valve  2  off  its  seat,  and  another  arm, 
4,  on  the  front  end  moving  the  credit  pointer  forward.  This 
completes  the  operation  of  buying  gas  by  allowing  it  to  enter 
the  long  channel  through  the  opened  prepayment  valve  and 
then  to  pass  on  through  the  meter  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  second  purpose  of  the  prepayment  mechanism  is  to  cut 
off  the  gas  supply  after  the  passage  of  a  predetermined  volume. 
With  gas  at  $1.00  per  thousand  cubic  feet,  the  predetermined 
volume  is  250  cubic  feet  for  each  quarter  used  to  operate 
the  buying  mechanism.  The  cutting  off  is  accomplished  as 
follows:  The  horizontal  axle  operating  the  index  makes  one 
revolution  upon  the  passage  of  two  cubic  feet  of  gas.  A  spiral 
8,  mounted  on  this  axle,  engages  the  teeth  of  a  24-tooth  gear 
wheel  9,  secured  to  a  long  pinion  axle,  1,  having  six  teeth.  One 
revolution  of  this  pinion  axle  is  made  upon  twenty-four  revolutions 
of  the  horizontal  axle  and  spiral,  corresponding  to  the  passage 
of  48  cubic  feet  through  the  meter.  The  teeth  of  the  long  pinion 
axle  engage  those  of  the  25-tooth  carriage  wheel  5,  previously 
referred  to,  and  cause  it  to  revolve,  and,  in  so  doing,  move  back 
on  the  threaded  axle  on  which  it  is  mounted,  the  axle  being  pre- 
vented from  turning  at  this  time  by  means  of  a  buffer  or 
friction  brake.  Each  tooth  of  the  pinion  axle  has  a  value  of  48 
divided  by  6,  or  8  cubic  feet.  Each  tooth  of  the  carriage  wheel 
will  have  the  same  value,  so  a  complete  revolution  will  correspond 
to  the  passage  of  200  cubic  feet.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic 
feet  will  mean  one  and  one-fourth  revolutions,  or  a  motion  of 
one  and  one-fourth  threads  on  the  threaded  axle,  with  a  corre- 
sponding movement  of  the  carriage  and  a  return  of  the  prepay- 
ment valve  and  credit  pointer  to  the  original  position  from 
which  they  moved  on  the  purchase  of  250  cubic  feet  of  gas. 

A  small  dial  on  the  meter  front,  called  the  credit  dial,  enables 
the  consumer  to  know  at  all  times  how  nearly  used  up  is  the 
supply  of  gas  already  paid  for.  A  pointer,  mounted  on  credit 
pointer  shaft,  4,  Figure  129,  moves  to  the  right  from  a  starting 


452 


METER  WORK 


point  as  gas  is  bought,  and  backward  as  gas  is  used,  so  that 
proximity  to  the  starting  point  indicates  that  the  prepayment 
valve  is  preparing  to  close. 


Figure  129.-Top  View  of  Prepayment  Meter,  page  449. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ACTION 


453 


1.  Pinion  Axle 

2.  Cut-off  Valve 

3.  Carriage  Worm 

4.  Credit  Pointer  Shaft 

5.  Carriage  Wheel 

6.  Cut-off  Valve  Stuffing  Box  Cap 

7.  Horizontal  Axle  WTheel 

8.  Horizontal  Spiral 

9.  Pinion  Axle  Wheel 

10.  Pinion  Axle  Rest 

11.  Horizontal  Axle  Rest 

12.  Stop  on  Carriage  Worm 


13.  Carriage  Pin 

14.  Outside  Cut-off  Valve  Arm 

15.  Inside  Cut-off  Arm  Brace 

16.  Inside  Cut-off  Arm 

17.  Cut-off  Valve  Seat 

18.  Carriage  Bracket 

19.  Outside  Stuffing  Box 

20.  Stem  for  Price  Wheel 

21.  Cut-off  Valve  Shaft 

22.  Left  Hand  Carriage  Rest 

23.  Right  Hand  Carriage  Rest 

24.  Carriage  Bracket  Guide 


25.  Cut-off  Valve  Stuffing  Box 


454  METER  WORK 

The  gearing  values  of  the  different  parts  in  the  cutting-off 
mechanism,  as  above  described,  may  be  illustrated  as  follows: 

A    x     B     x     D    x    F 

—  =     cubic  feet  per  quarter  s  worth. 


C     x     E     x     G 

2     x     24     x     25     x     50 


=      250 


6  x  20     x     2 

A  =  cubic  feet  per  revolution  of  horizontal  axle. 

B  =  number  of  teeth  in  pinion  axle  wheel. 

D  =  "  carriage   wheel. 

E  =  '           '     "     "  price 

F  =  "  50  wheel. 

G  =  '           '  coins  required  to   produce  one  revolution  of 

the  50  wheel. 


SECTION  II 

INSTALLATION  AND  MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER  XL VIII 

SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 
CAPACITIES  AND  DIMENSIONS 

Owing  to  the  great  difference  at  present  existing  in  the  capaci- 
ties of  meters  of  the  same  nominal  size,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
gas  engineer  to  provide  a  table  of  capacities  based  on  a  fair 
average  of  the  meters  of  the  same  size  owned  by  his  company. 
As  the  result  of  exhaustive  tests  of  the  meters  in  use  in  Philadel- 
phia, the  average  capacities  shown  in  the  table  following  have 
been  adopted. 

A  comparison  between  this  table  and  the  standard  advocated 
on  page  414  will  illustrate  the  truth  that,  advisable  as  is  the  pro- 
posed standard  as  a  guide  to  the  purchase  of  all  new  meters, 
economy  enforces  the  use  of  the  great  variety  of  sizes  purchased 
in  former  years  and  still  in  stock. 

The  letters  "S"  and  "L"  denote  respectively  "Small"  and 
"Large".  This  division  is  required  by  the  fact  that,  as  shown, 
the  capacities  of  the  larger  size  meters  vary  greatly  as  between 
the  different  makes;  so  much  so  that  the  range  of  capacities 
of  a  given  size  sometimes  overlaps  into  the  range  of  the  next 
size.  By  experiment,  however,  it  has  been  found  feasible  to 
divide  all  of  the  meters  for  each  size  100-lt.  and  over  into  the 
two  classes  mentioned.  These  meters  have  been  badged  corres- 
pondingly. Capacity  badges  have  been  placed  by  the  manu- 
facturers on  the  "A"  meters,  the  large  capacity  5-lt.  and  the 
5-A  meters  purchased  in  recent  years. 

There  are  many  instances  in  which  a  knowledge  of  outside 
dimensions  is  valuable  in  installation  work,  and,  therefore,  these 
dimensions  are  included  in  the  following  table. 

(455) 


456 


METER  WORK 


CAPACITIES  AND  MAXIMUM  OUTSIDE  DIMENSIONS 


Size 
of  Meter 

Capacity 
(Cu.  ft. 
per  hr.) 

Heght 
(Bottom  to 
Top  of  Screws) 

Width 
(Outside  of 
Screws) 

Depth 
(Front  to 
Back) 

3 

65 

14  f 

" 

11  tV 

8 

5 

90 

16  i 

" 

12  &' 

9 

" 

5A 

175 

16  i 

" 

12  ^' 

9 

" 

10 

140 

17  \ 

5  // 

14  &' 

11 

" 

10A 

375 

17  \ 

5  // 

14  &' 

11 

" 

20 

200 

21  } 

5  " 

17  I" 

12 

" 

30 

280 

25  i 

20  f  " 

15 

" 

30A 

875 

25  i 

" 

20  f" 

15 

lf 

45 

315 

28  J 

" 

23  B" 

20" 

60 

475 

33  , 

26  f" 

20  I" 

60A 

1500 

33  j 

26  £" 

20  f  " 

S-100 

600 

36  \ 

31  i" 

24  f" 

L-100 

875 

36  \ 

" 

31  i" 

24  i" 

S-150 

1015 

43  { 

" 

36  |" 

29' 

L-150 

1350 

43  { 

" 

36  I' 

29' 

150  A 

3400 

43  i 

" 

36  |  ' 

29' 

S-200 

1380 

43  ] 

" 

42  I' 

29' 

L-200 

1845 

43  i 

" 

42  }' 

29' 

S-300 

1635 

57  i 

" 

54  i' 

43  i" 

L-300 

2270 

57  1 

" 

54  1  '                    43  1" 

Capacities  are  obtained  with  five-tenths  loss  of  pressure  through 
meter,  and  represent  maximum  work  which  the  meter  should  be 
required  to  perform. 

SCHEDULES  FOR  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS 

After  having  established  a  schedule  of  average  capacities, 
it  is  evident  that  another  schedule  must  be  worked  out  to  show 
the  safe  size  of  meter  to  supply  gas  for  an  estimated  consumption, 
as  based  upon  the  number  of  burners  or  appliances  on,  and  the 
nature  of,  the  premises  to  be  supplied.  Gas  companies  ordinarily 
are  not  in  a  position  to  determine,  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
the  maximum  rates  of  consumption  of  various  consumers; 
consequently,  the  determination  of  the  size  of  meter  .to  be  set 
in  a  specific  case,  is  not  usually  an  exact  science.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  the  actual  maximum  demand  is  a  small  percentage 
of  the  total  possible  demand  in  all  dwellings  having  no  fuel 
appliances,  and  that  there  is  a  closer  approximation  of  actual 
maximum  demand  to  possible  demand  where  fuel  appliances 
are  installed.  (By  possible  demand  is  meant  the  demand  that 
would  result  if  each  lighting  burner  and  appliance  connected 
to  a  meter  were  used  to  its  fullest  extent  at  the  same  time.) 
From  this  knowledge  the  following  schedule  was  determined. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 


457 


METERS  FOR  FUEL  AND  ILLUMINATION 


Number  of 
Burners 

No  Fuel 
Appliance 

Ordinary 
Fuel  Appliance 

Size  of  Meter 

Size  of  Meter 

Lt. 

"A" 

Lt. 

"A" 

1-10 

*3 

*3 

11-20 

*3 

5 

21-30 

5 

5 

31-40 

10 

5 

10 

5 

41-50 

10 

5 

10 

5 

51-60 

20 

5 

20 

5 

61-70 

20 

5 

30 

10 

71-85 

30 

10 

45 

10 

86-100 

45 

10 

60 

30 

101-140 

60 

30 

S-100 

30 

141-180 

60 

30 

L-100 

30 

181-250 

L-100 

30 

150 

60 

251-350 

200 

60 

200 

60 

351-500 

S-300 

150 

L-300 

150 

501-700 

150 

150 

To  determine  a  required  meter  size,  the  number  of  illuminating 
burners  should  be  counted,  and  to  this  figure  should  be  added  the 
equivalent,  in  burners,  of  any  fuel  appliances  or  engines  to  be  sup- 
plied. The  total  thus  obtained  should  be  compared  with  the 
"Number  of  Burners"  column,  and  opposite  the  corresponding  item 
will  be  found  the  meter  size  in  its  proper  column. 

*Only  on  existing  connections;    use  5-lt.  for  new  sets. 

Most  companies  still  own  too  many  3-lt.  meters  to  allow  of 
a  wholesale  condemnation  of  this  size,  and  the  above  schedule, 
temporarily  changed  as  stock  conditions  demanded  to  require 
use  of  3-lt.  for  new  sets  in  small  dwellings,  has  kept  in  service 
in  one  large  situation,  all  3-lt.  meters  owned  and  still  amounting 
to  5  per  cent  of  the  total  meter  stock. 

When  the  demand  in  a  dwelling  exceeds  the  capacity  of  a 
45-lt.,  and  there  is  no  surplus  stock  of  old  meters  60-lt.  and  larger, 
it  is  good  practice  to  set  an  "A"  meter,  and  thus  obtain  a  large 
hourly  capacity  without  the  large  case  dimensions  so  often 
objected  to  by  householders. 

For  convenience,  the  demand  in  the  schedule  is  expressed  as 
so  many  5-ft.  burners.  This  involves  the  valuation,  in  burners, 
of  the  consumption  of  various  appliances.  Some  valuations 
belonging  in  such  a  table  are  given  below: 

*Equivalent 
in  Burners 

Broilers  (per  compartment) 

Cake  Griddles  (per  burner) 


458  METER  WORK 


•Equivalent 
in  Burners 


Cigar  Lighters  .................................       J 

Confectioners'  Stoves  ...............................     •»" 

Curling  Iron  Heaters  ............................... 

Gas  Engines  (per  h.  p.)  ....... 

GasGrate...  ......................................      }" 

Gas  Log  ....................  .  ....... 

Heating  Stoves,  Round  ..........  -  -  •  ................       ^ 

Heating  Stoves,  Radiators  (per  tube)  .  . 

Reflectors  ......................... 

Hot  plates,  1-burner  .............. 

'     2-burner    .  .  . 


3-burner 


Laundry  Hot  Plates  ............. 

Laundry  Iron  Stove  (per  mixer)  ....................        I 

Ovster  Cookers,  15-inch  ............................      12 

"  "        30-inch  .............................      24 

45-inch  .............................      36 

Ranges,  Ordinary,  cabinet  or  elevated  oven  (1  set  oven 

burners)  ........................      18 

"         Cabinet  or  elevated  oven  (2  sets  oven  burners)  .  .      24 
Hotel  (per  section)  ..........................      50 

"         Large  Cabinet  ..............................      35 

Sad  Irons,  Domestic  ..........  ................... 

1     Pressing    ...............................        2 

Soldering  Furnaces  (per  mixer)  .......  ... 

Water  Heaters,  Circulatirg,  ......................... 

*One  burner  equals  five  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Thus  far  the  discussion  has  concerned  locations  where  the 
meter  would  supply  gas  for  a  variety  of  uses,  and  with  an  im- 
perfectly known  load  factor.  With  the  increasing  demand  for 
gas  in  engines  and  industrial  work  generally,  there  are  now 
many  instances  where  a  meter  supplies  only  one  appliance  or 
a  group  of  similar  appliances.  This  enables  a  direct  determination 
of  the  meter  capacity  for  each  location,  and  avoids  the  generaliza- 
tions involved  in  any  schedule.  The  meter  chosen  should  be 
never  smaller  than  one  able,  with  a  0.5  inch  loss,  to  supply 
the  maximum  possible  demand.  If  the  use  of  gas  at  the  maximum 
rate  will  be  continuous  throughout  the  working  day,  one  authority 
believes  that  a  50  per  cent  excess  meter  capacity  should  be  pro- 
vided to  prevent  the  excessive  wear  that  would  result  from  a 
continuous  delivery  at  maximum  capacity. 

Gas  engines  are  so  frequently  met  with,  and  their  gas  require- 
ments are  so  strictly  proportional  to  size,  that  it  is  both  feasible 
and  convenient  to  devise  a  meter  schedule  applicable  to  most 
installations.  Such  a  one,  applying  only  when  the  engine  is 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 


459 


supplied  through  a  separate  meter,  is  given  below.  It  is  based 
on  the  assumption  that  the  usual  storage  governing  device 
forming  part  of  the  engine  supply  line,  will  so  equalize  the  pull 
on  the  meter  that  the  intermittent  and  almost  instantaneous 
demand  for  gas  when  the  intake  valve  is  open,  will  never  in- 
volve a  delivery  by  the  meter  for  any  length  of  time  at  a  rate 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  average  hourly  demand  of  20  cubic 
feet  per  horsepower  hour;  also,  that  no  gas  engine  is  working 
at  full  load  continuously. 

•METERS  FOR  GAS  ENGINES 


Engine 

Size  of  Meter 

H.P. 

Lt. 

"A" 

1-3 

5 

4-5 

10 

5 

6-7 

20 

5 

8-11 

30 

10 

12-14 

45 

10 

15-20 

60 

30 

21-25 

S-100 

30 

26-40 

L-100 

30 

41-50 

S-150 

60 

CONNECTIONS 
PIPING 

The  piping  between  the  house  end  of  the  service  and  the  meter 
inlet,  and  from  the  meter  outlet  to  the  house  piping  generally  is 
known  as  "connection  piping"  or  "meter  connection  piping." 
It  now  is,  invariably,  of  iron  pipe,  excepting  for  "meter  con- 
nection" proper  as  noted  hereafter.  It  generally  is  installed 
when  the  first  meter  is  set.  The  size  of  the  pipe  is  based  upon 
the  probable  demand  for  gas  and,  therefore,  upon  the  size  of 
the  service  and  of  the  meter,  but  the  expense  of  changing  this 
pipe  is  so  slight,  as  compared  to  a  service  renewal,  that  the  mini- 
mum size  may  well  be  1  inch  instead  of  1^-inch  as  for  services. 
Also,  the  length  of  this  piping  being  so  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  meter  screws  and  tailpieces,  its  diameter  must  be  cor- 
respondingly larger  in  order  not  to  restrict  unduly  a  flow  of  gas 
within  the  meter  capacity.  The  schedule  on  page  460  results 
from  an  observance  of  the  above  principles. 

No  mention  is  made  of  the  piping  between  the  meter  outlet 
and  the  house  piping.  This  always  is  short,  never  is  smaller 
than  the  piping  from  the  service,  and  often  is  the  size  of  the  house 
piping  to  which  it  joins. 


460 


METER  WORK 


METER  CONNECTIONS 


Meter 

Iron  Pipe 
between 
Service   and 

Meter 
Cock 

Tailpiece 
of 
Meter 

Meter   Cock 

Union 

Lt. 

"A" 

Lt. 

"A" 

3 

" 

i" 

1" 

5 

" 

\" 

i" 

10 

5 

" 

\" 

f" 

' 

20 

5 

\' 

1" 

1" 

' 

30 

10 

±' 

1J" 

H  ' 

' 

45 

10 

i' 

li" 

i^  ' 

" 

60 

30 

U' 

1J" 

li  ' 

1 

" 

100 

30 

2" 

2" 

2" 

1 

" 

150 

60 

2^' 

*2$" 

1\  ' 

1 

" 

200 

60 

2^' 

*2£" 

2J  ' 

1 

" 

3CO 

150 

4" 

*4" 

o4// 

2 

" 

*Double  gate  valve  with 
"Flanged  connections. 


/heel  handles  and  screw  ends. 


All  of  the  above  piping  should  be  secured,  where  necessary, 
to  vertical  walls,  and  suspended  from  ceilings  at  sufficient 
points  to  take  all  strains  from  the  meter. 


Figure  130.— Three  to  Five-light  Adapter,  page  461. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  461 

Many  companies,  in  order  to  utilize  their  existing  meter  stock, 
set,  at  times,  meters  larger  or  smaller  than  called  for  by  their 
standard  schedule.  The  most  frequent  case  of  this  kind  is  the  use 
of  3-lt.  meters  in  place  of  5-lt.  As  the  usual  expectation  is 
that  at  some  future  date  all  the  3-lt.  meters  will  have  been  con- 
demned, the  adapter,  Figure  130,  is  recommended,  for,  by 
enabling  the  use  of  5-lt.  connections  with  a  3-lt.  meter,  it  makes 
possible  the  gradual  substitution  of  5-lt.  meters  without  a  double 
cost  for  connections.  The  length  of  the  adapter  is  equal  to  the 
excess  in  height  of  a  5-lt.  over  a  3-lt.,  so  there  need  be  no  change 
in  the  position  of  the  meter  shelf. 

Other  more  or  less  temporary  use  of  nonstandard  sizes  should 
be  governed  by  the  same  general  thought  of  using  the  connections 
that  are  considered  to  be  permanent,  and  making  a  temporary 
size  change  at  the  meter  screw. 

LEAD 

Gas  meters  came  into  use  before  there  was  a  plentiful  or  cheap 
supply  of  small  iron  pipe  and  fittings.  Lead  pipe  consequently 
reigned  supreme  for  gas  as  well  as  water  work,  being  used  not 
only  for  connecting  the  meter  to  hoilse  piping  and  to  service 
pipe,  but  also  for  the  service  pipe  itself. 

In  many  ways,  lead  is  admirably  adapted  to  furnish  the  junc- 
tion between  rigid  iron  piping  and  the  box,  made  up  of  tinned 
iron  plates  soldered  together,  that  forms  the  meter.  As,  even 
today,  with  more  thought  given  to  meter  screw  design  and  with 
the  iron  connections  carefully  arranged  to  afford  all  requisite 
play,  there  are  many  leaks  resulting  from  strained  screws,  it 
is  clear  that  the  early  use  of  the  ductile  lead  removed  many  dif- 
ficulties that  otherwise  would  have  confronted  the  meter  setter 
of  those  days. 

The  same  softness  and  readiness  to  assume  a  new  shape  which 
made  lead  advantageous-  as  a  material  for  connecting  meters, 
proved  also  one  of  its  disadvantages.  Undesirable  kinks, 
interfering  more  or  less  completely  with  gas  flow,  were  far  too 
frequent  with  lead.  One  particularly  bad  feature  was  that 
often  the  stoppage  was  not  sufficient  to  make  the  consumer 
attribute  to  any  such  cause,  the  poor  light  he  was  getting.  The 
tendency  to  kinking  was  often  aggravated  (unnecessarily  so,  after 
iron  pipe  became  common  except  for  "meter  connections") 
by  an  undue  length  of  lead  connection,  especially  if  this  was 
true,  not  only  absolutely,  but  also  relatively  to  the  space  to 


462 


METER  WORK 


be  bridged.  Two  causes  that  tended  to  this  lavish  and  un- 
fortunate use  of  lead  were,  first,  lack  of  planning  in  relating 
the  service  to  the  house  piping,  and,  second,  the  fact  that  as  the 
meter  connection  was  usually  installed  by  a  plumber  and  paid 
for  by  the  consumer,  there  was  no  incentive  to  economy  of 
material. 

The  assumption  by  the  company  of  the  cost  and  work  of  meter 
connection  assured  in  the  end  a  proper  and  economical  design. 
The  over-all  length  of  lead  pipe  for  connections  10-lt.  and  under 
was  limited  to  12  inches,  and  to  15  inches  for  20  to  60-lt.  Such 
connections,  for  a  5-lt.  meter,  are  illustrated  in  Figure  131,  the 
over-all  length  of  lead  used  being  the  same  in  each  case.  That 
some  form  of  iron  connection  is  to  be  preferred  even  to  this  cor- 
rect design,  is  due  to  the  greater  resulting  economy  and  con- 
venience, rather  than  to  any  inherent  objection  to  lead  from  a 
physical  standpoint,  for  no  such  objection  exists,  aside  from  the 
very  small  chance  that  its  low  melting  point  might,  in  some  fires, 
be  the  determining  cause  of  an  early  escape  of  gas  from  a  lead 
connection  and  thus  produce  damage  otherwise  avoidable. 

The  thickness  of  the  lead  pipe  never  has  been  standardized. 
A  few  companies  followed  the  practice  of  supporting  the  meters 
from  the  connections,  and,  therefore,  generally  used  a  heavy 
pipe.  This  likely  was  true  also  of  the  plumbers.  Probably 
the  majority  of  the  connections  were  of  "extra  light"  pipe. 
The  table  below  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Meter  Connections  in  the  1915  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Gas  Institute,  in  which  will  be  found  much  detail  about  modern 
connection  practice: 

WEIGHTS  PER  FOOT  OF  LEAD  PIPE 


Size 

Weight  of  Pipe 

Meter 
It. 

Lead 
Pipe 

Cock 

Medium 
Ib.    oz.  . 

Light 
Ib.    oz. 

Extra  Light 
Ib.    oz. 

3 

5 

!» 

1" 

2  - 
2     8 

1    12 

2  - 

1      4 

1     8 

10 

i" 

i" 

3     4 

2     8 

2    - 

20 
30 
45  to  60 

11 

i  r 

i  1" 

3   12 

5  - 
5     8 

3  - 
4  - 
4     8 

2     8 
3     8 
3  12 

When  using  two  lead  connections,  the  piping  is  run  both  ways 
to  the  meter,  measurements  being  taken  carefully  enough,  so 
that  the  final  adjustment  necessary  to  make  the  lower  end  of 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 


463 


the  tailpiece  face  truly  with  the  top  of  the  meter  screw,  can  be 
effected  by  a  slight  bend  in  one  or  both  of  the  connections. 

IRON  AND  LEAD 

One  of  the  first  steps  in  the  evolution  from  lead  to  iron,  was 
the  use  of  an  iron  inlet  and  a  lead  outlet  connection.  Such 
an  inlet  connection  for  a  5-lt.  meter  is  shown  in  Figure  132. 
The  outlet  connection  would  be  the  one  in  Figure  131.  This 
combination  of  iron  and  lead  furnishes  a  very  satisfactory 
connection  for  meters  10-lt.  and  smaller,  has  been  used  by  the 
thousands,  and,  until  recent  years,  could  be  considered  best 
practice.  In  joining  it  to  the  connection  piping,  which  is  run 


Figure  131. — Lead  Meter  Connections,  page  463:  A,  Inlet 
Connection;  B,  Outlet  Connection;  C,  Cap;  D, 
Tailpiece;  E,  Lead  Pipe;  F,  Meter Cock;G, Coupling. 

in  the  same  way  as  for  two  lead  connections,  the  swing  joints 
give  the  adjustments  necessary  on  the  inlet  side,  and  the  lead 
pipe  those  on  the  outlet  side. 

ALL- I  RON 

For  a  long  time,  iron  piping  generally  has  been  used  on  meters 
larger  than  10-lt.,  for  both  inlet  and  outlet  connections,  and 
by  some  companies,  for  all  sizes.  The  inlet  connection  might 
be  as  shown  in  Figure  132,  and  the  outlet  connection  of  varying 
combinations  of  pipe  and  fittings.  The  objection  to  all-iron 
for  the  smaller  meters  was  that  the  lack  of  care  used  by  the  aver- 


464 


METER  WORK 


age  meter  setter  was  sufficient,  in  the  absence  of  at  least  one  lead 
connection,  to  cause  too  many  strained  meter  screws  and  column 


Figure  132. — Iron  Inlet  Connections,  page  463:  A,  Cap; 
B,  Tailpiece;  C,  i"  Ell;  D,  \"  x  i"  Service  Ell; 
E,  |"  Nipple;  F,  \"  Brass  Meter  Cock;  G,  1"  x  f" 
Service  Ell;  H,  1"  Nipple. 

For  the  larger  meters,  however,  accepted  practice  involves 
all-iron  connections.  For  meters  without  flanges,  Figure  133 
illustrates,  in  a  single  line  sketch,  the  fittings  used  for  a  10-lt. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  465 

meter,  and  Figure  134  shows  two  views  of  the  inlet  piping  of  a 
flanged  connection. 

In  all  of  the  iron  connections  shown,  it  will  be  noted  that  there 
are  a  number  of  swing  joints.  This  is  to  enable  movement  in 
various  directions  and  thus  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  bringing 
any  strain  on  the  meter  screws.  There  is  room  for  much 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  just  how  many  swing  joints  really  are 
called  for  in  each  form  of  connection.  They  are  of  especial  use 
with  a  flanged  connection,  as  to  avoid  any  strain  on  the  meter, 
each  pair  of  flanges  should  face  up  accurately,  with  perfect  reg- 
istration of  corresponding  bolt  holes.  The  difficulty  is  increased 
by  the  fact  of  the  large  pipe — 4-inch  or  greater — required.  The 
inlet  connection  usually  is  made  first.  On  page  414,  it  already 
has  been  noted  how  the  use  of  the  "A"  meter  enables  the  avoid- 
ance of  any  flanged  connections. 

COUPLED  OR  TIE-!N 

While  the  iron  inlet  and  lead  outlet,  as  used  for  the  smaller 
meters,  formed  an  advance  on  previous  practice,  nevertheless 
the  leaks  that  could  be  traced  to  connection  strains  were  numer- 
ous enough  to  warrant  further  experiments,  and,  as  a  result, 
various  forms  of  connections  have  been  developed,  based  on 
coupling  together  or  tying  in  the  two  connection  sides.  These 
connections  fall  into  two  classes,  according  to  whether  the 
crossbar  is  in  one  piece  and  therefore  rigid,  or  in  two  or  more 
pieces  and  therefore  capable  of  adjustment.  The  rigid  type 
has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  always  in  conjunction 
with  offset  tailpieces,  but  does  not  afford  the  necessary  adjust- 
ments to  insure  the  absence  of  strains  on  the  meter  screws  under 
all  conditions.  A  satisfactory  form  of  the  adjustable  type 
is  shown  in  Figure  135.  The  curved  washers,  or  rocker  plates, 
sliding  in  the  beveled  grooves,  permit  adjustment  of  the  two 
malleable  iron  members  in  every  direction,  making  the  connec- 
tion a  universal  joint,  so  that  no  strain  need  be  thrown  on  the 
meter  screws.  Figure  136  shows  the  connection  in  place  on  a 
5-lt.  prepayment  meter.  It  will  be  seen  how  positive,  and  yet 
readily  adjustable,  is  the  support  given  the  meter  by  the  hanger 
rods  and  the  board  strip.  The  relation  of  the  connection  to  the 
inlet  and  outlet  piping  is  shown  in  Figure  137. 

In  setting  a  meter  on  this  connection,  first  the  tailpieces  are 
screwed  into  the  connection;  then  the  bolts  are  loosened,  the 
tailpieces  placed  on  the  meter  screws,  and  the  caps  made  up 


466 


METER  WORK 


WIRE    SUPPORT - 

(WHERt     NECESSARY) 


HOUSE     RISER- 


TEE  OR 
(LEAVE     l"  OUTLET     FOR    STOVE     LINE) 


I 

I 
I 

WIRE    SUPPORT ~l 


THROW    BACK 
AGAINST    WALL 


— I'COCK 


^SERVICE 

Figure  133.— All-Iron  Connections,  page  464. 


SIZES  AND   CONNECTIONS 


467 


hand  tight.  (See  Figure  136.)  Thus  tight  joints,  with  no 
strains,  are  assured,  and  the  two  parts  of  the  connection  assume 
the  correct  position  for  bolting  together.  When  this  bolting  is 
completed,  the  connection  is  unscrewed  from  the  meter  and  then 
joined  to  the  inlet  piping.  The  outlet  piping  is  built  up  from  the 
house  piping  to  the  union  on  the  connection.  The  connection 
being  thus  joined  to  the  piping,  and  the  latter  prevented  by  wire 
supports  from  sagging,  the  meter  can  once  more  be  connected 
to  the  tailpieces,  with  full  assurance  that  its  screws  and  columns 
are  under  no  strains.  The  last  operation  is  to  place  the  hangers 


STANDARD      CONNECTIONS 

FOR         ALL 

FLANGED     METERS 


Figure  134. — All-Iron  Connections  with  Flanges  at  Meter,  page  465. 

and  shelf  in  position  and  screw  up  the  hanger  nuts  until  the 
weight  is  taken  by  the  shelf. 

A  variation  of  the  coupling  idea  is  shown  in  Figure  138,  which 
illustrates  a  method  of  tying  together  the  vertical  inlet  and  out- 
let piping.  Only  one  special  fitting,  A,  is  required.  The  especial 
advantage  it  offers  is  that  it  can  be  adjusted  in  place  for  any 
meter  size.  It  also  supports  the  house  riser  directly  on  the  ser- 
vice. The  sliding  shelf  will  be  noted  as  extending  from  the  inlet 
piping. 

Figure  139  is  a  still  more  recent  adjustable  connection,  based 
on  the  same  principle  of  rigidly  joining  the  inlet  and  outlet 
connection  piping.  After  thorough  consideration,  it  has  been 


468 


METER  WORK 


approved  for  trial  on  a  large  scale,  both  for  single  meters  and 
for  header  work,  as  being  superior  to  any  other  connection  now 
available.  Its  advantage  may  be  thus  summarized:  Univer- 
sal ad j  ustment ;  convenient  location  of  meter  cock ;  availability 
for  large  meters;  substantial  support  for  meter  in  position 


Figure  135. — Adjustable  Tie-in  Connections,  page  465:  A,  Inlet 
Member;  B,  Outlet  Member;  C,  Rocker  Plates. 

away  from  wall;  only  one  special  fitting  (the  service  tee  with 
solid  male  end);  ability  of  installation  by  relatively  unskilled 
labor,  for  all  of  it,  except  the  ells,  cocks  and  tailpieces,  may  be 
run  at  any  time  after  the  service  and  house  piping  are  completed. 
The  wires  from  which  the  shelf  rods  are  supported,  are  bought 
with  the  eye  already  made,  and  are  twisted  in  place  around  the 
ells  after  the  connection  is  finished.  This  connection  will  be 
used  on  meters  up  to  60-lt.  or  60-A  inclusive,  and,  therefore, 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 


469 


Figure  136.- Adjustable  Tie-in  Connections  on  Five-light  Pre- 
payment Meter,  page  465. 


470 


METER  WORK 


WIRE      SUPPORT  - 


HOUSE    RISER 


TEE    OR  CROSS 


L.NE) 


I 
WIRE      SUPPORT -| 


|"»J"SER 


THROW     BACK 
AGAINST  WALL 


JO 


ADJUSTABLE 
TIE-IN     CONNECTION 


^SERVICE 


Figure  137.— Adjustable  Tie-in  Connections  with  Adjacent 
Piping,  page  465. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  471 

will  care  for  all  sizes  ordinarily  supported  by  shelves  attached  to 
walls. 

WELDED 

The  perfection  of  welding  methods  has  made  comparatively 
easy  the  welding  into  one  piece  of  any  meter  connection,  no  matter 
how  complicated.  The  advocates  of  this  new  departure  for  con- 
nection work  are  enthusiastic  about  it,  but  so  far,  impartial 
opinion  is  not  willing  to  consider  welding  except  where  large 
piping  is  used,  or  there  is  intricate  "header"  work  involving 
many  joints. 

Before  closing  this  account  of  the  various  methods  which  have 
been  used  for  connecting  meters,  it  perhaps  should  be  said  that 
at  any  one  time,  the  average  company  would  have  in  use,  under 
the  same  conditions,  two  or  more  types,  each  representing  an 
improvement,  real  or  supposed,  over  the  preceding  type,  but  no 
one  of  them  possessing  sufficient  advantages  to  warrant  a  whole- 
sale change  of  existing  connections. 

HEADERS 

So  far  our  descriptions  have  referred  to  the  installation  of  one 
meter  only.  Where  there  are  many  apartment  houses,  especially 
if  the  company  requires  that  all  meters  be  near  the  head  of  the 
service,  batteries  of  closely  assembled  meters  will  be  required. 
Space  always  is  at  a  premium,  and,  therefore,  the  best  connection 
design  embodies  the  minimum  of  piping  compatible  with  as- 
cessibility  and  absence  of  strain.  Figure  140  illustrates  the  use 
of  an  adjustable  tie-in  connection  on  header  work.  Figure  141 
shows  the  practice  for  larger  meters  with  no  tie-in  connection. 
Lead  should  never  be  used  for  header  work. 

Except  where  piping  larger  than  2-inch  is  involved,  and  the 
ultimate  demand  for  gas  is  known  at  the  time  of  header  installa- 
tion, it  is  advisable  to  maintain  the  size  of  the  common  inlet 
pipe  uniform  through  its  entire  length.  In  some  sizes,  economy 
will  prescribe  the  connection  of  the  gas  supply  to  the  mid- 
point of  this  inlet  pipe 

COCKS 
LOCATION  AND  NUMBER 

The  illustrations  show  a  cock  on  the  inlet  connection,  and 
the  schedule  of  meter  connections  on  page  460  includes  cock 
sizes  also.  The  usual  location  is,  as  shown,  near  the  meter,  and  in 
the  smaller  sizes,  this  allows  the  use,  almost  to  the  meter  itself, 
of  the  large  piping, — large  in  comparison  with  the  meter  screws, — 


472 


METER  WORK 


Figure  138.— Connection  Joining  Inlet  and  Outlet  Piping- 
Meter  Support  on  Inlet  Piping,  page  467. 


SIZES  AND   CONNECTIONS 


473 


Figure  139.— Five-light  Connection  Joining  Inlet  and  Outlet 
Piping— Meter  Support  from  Connection,  page 
467:  A,  H"  x  }"  x  1"  Tee  on  Service  End;  B,  f" 
Service  Tee;  C,  i"  Special  Service  Tee  with  Solid 
Male  End;  D,  J"  x  1"  Service  Ell;  E,  Bottom  of 
House  Riser;  F,  Wire  Hanger  Eye. 


474 


METER  WORK 


WIRE      SUPPORT »| 

(SVHERE      NECESSARY) 


HOUSE   RI3ER 


ADJUSTABLE. 
TIE-IN     CONNECTION! 


USE     ELL    INSTEAD     OP     TEE 
ON      END      OP     HEADER      UNLESS 
FUTURE       EXTENSION       OF 
HEADER     SEEMS      PROBABLE. 


t-SERVICE 

Figure  140.— Adjustable  Tie-in  Header  Connections,  page  471. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS 


475 


WIRE    5UPPORT- 

(WHEPC      NCCE3SASY.) 


HOUSE    RISER 


TEE    OR    CRO55 

(LEAVE    i"  OUTLET    FOR  STOVE   LINE) 


WIRE   SUPPORT- 


NOTE: 


use    ecu    INSTEAD  OF  TEC 

ON       END       Or     HE40ER      UNLESS 


THPOW    BACK 
XJGAINST  WALL- 


HEADER     5EELM3     PROBABLE 


\. 


•SERVICE 

Figure  141.— All-Iron  Header  Connections,  page  471. 


476  METER  WORK 

called  for  by  the  schedule,  without  also  entailing  the  expense  of 
a  cock  of  the  same  size.  For  better  explanation,  suppose  that 
the  company  using  the  schedule  on  page  460  placed  the  meter 
cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  inlet  riser  (see  Figure  101,  page  378); 
this  would  require  a  1-inch  size  for  meters  10-lt.  or  smaller,  in- 
stead of  the  f-inch  size  used  when  the  cock  is  placed  close  to 
the  tailpiece,  which,  for  the  sizes  considered,  never  is  larger 
than  f-inch. 

An  advantage  of  this  location  at  the  service  end  is  that  a  cock 
at  that  point  controls  all  of  the  piping  inside  of  the  house,  but 
the  great  majority  of  gas  engineers  do  not  view  it  with  favor, 
especially  if  there  is  also  a  curb  cock  in  use  (see  pages  91  and 
98).  The  absence  of  the  latter  may  be  considered  as  furnish- 
ing somewhat  more  reason  for  placing  the  meter  cock  at  the  ser- 
vice end,  and  in  some  situations  using  no  curb  cock,  two  inside 
cocks  are  placed:  one,  the  meter  cock,  close  to  the  meter,  and 
the  other,  at  the  service  end.  However,  this  extra  expense 
cannot  be  justified  in  view  of  the  many  companies  operating 
satisfactorily  with  no  curb  cock  and  only  the  usual  meter  cock. 

When  more  than  one  meter  large  enough  to  require  an  inlet 
valve  supplies  the  same  system  of  piping,  each  outlet  connection 
should  be  equipped  with  a  valve.  Since  the  wheel  handle  of 
a  valve,  unlike  the  head  of  a  plug  cock,  does  not  indicate  by  its 
position  whether  the  valve  is  open  or  shut,  a  f-inch  hole  should 
be  tapped  in  the  piping  between  the  valve  and  the  meter  outlet. 
This  affords  an  opportunity,  after  both  the  inlet  and  the  outlet 
valve  have  been  supposedly  closed,  to  make  sure,  by  removing 
the  plug,  that  all  gas  pressure  is  off  the  meter  before  starting 
to  disconnect  it.  Such  a  hole  also  should  be  tapped  on  each 
outlet  connection  large  enough  to  require  a  valve,  where  there  is 
a  by-pass  around  the  meter. 

KINDS 

Considering  only  cocks  used  with  iron  pipe,  there  are  two 
types:  the  "double-hex,"  A,  Figure  142,  and  the  union  cock, 
B.  The  latter  is  more  expensive  than  the  former  and  has  no 
excuse  for  being  except  when  used  at  the  service  end  location. 
Close  to  the  meter,  the  union  of  the  meter  screw  renders  any 
other  union  superfluous. 

There  are  two  principal  shapes  of  heads,  viz.,  the  square, 
D,  Figure  142,  and  the  flat,  C.  The  latter  economizes  in  metal, 
and  is  to  be  preferred.  Companies  supplying  many  apartment 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  477 

houses,  or  with  meters  in  other  locations  where  gas  might  be 
turned  on  by  consumers  with  dishonest  intentions,  use  the  wing 
lock  cock,  E,  for  meters  out  of  use  but  left  in  place.  This  cook 
is,  of  course,  appreciably  more  expensive  than  the  plain  cock, 
which  fact  has  led  at  least  one  company  having  comparatively 
few  services  supplying  more  than  one  meter,  to  insert  a  solid 
tailpiece  in  the  inlet  connection  of  each  meter  shut-off,  where, 
because  of  other  meters  supplied  by  the  same  service,  the  curb 
cock  could  not  be  closed. 

In  the  preceding  remarks,  the  word  "cock"  has  been  used 
to  designate  any  form  of  stop,  whether  cock  or  valve.  The 
schedule  of  meter  connections  on  page  460  calls  for  a  valve  on 
meters  150-lt.  and  larger  and  60-A  and  larger,  because  in  sizes 
larger  than  2-inch  a  plug  cock  is  too  apt  to  leak  or  not  turn  easily. 

MATERIAL 

As  for  service  cocks,  brass  has  been,  until  quite  recently,  the 
exclusively  used  material  for  meter  cocks.  Its  recent  tremendous 
advance  in  price  is  hastening  the  substitution  of  a  cock  having  an 
iron  body  and  brass  plug.  This  generally  means  a  slightly 
heavier  and  larger  cock,  size  for  size. 

Detailed  drawings,  with  other  information  about  all-brass  meter 
cocks,  will  be  found  on  pages  284  to  291,  inclusive,  of  the  1915 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas  Institute. 

BY-PASS 

The  increasing  industrial  uses  for  gas  have  brought  a  class 
of  consumers  to  whom  a  stoppage  of  supply  for  more  than  a  few 
moments,  would  involve  great  inconvenience  or  monetary  loss, 
and  who,  therefore,  should  be  protected  against  such  happening. 
Linotype  machines  in  newspaper  offices,  industrial  appliances 
for  continuous  processes,  and  many  gas  engines  belong  in  this 
class.  The  only  unintentional  interruption  of  supply  threatening 
a  one-meter  installation,  is  a  "won't  pass  gas".  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  number  of  occasions  when  it  is  desirable,  from  the  gas 
company's  standpoint,  to  shut-off  gas  from  a  meter  during  work- 
ing hours,  as,  for  instance,  to  change  meters,  or  to  make  certain 
meter  tests  in  place.  If  this  work  also  involves  the  nonuse  of  gas 
by  the  consumer,  experience  indicates  that  the  expense  entailed 
in  arranging  for  the  work  at  a  time  to  suit  the  consumer's  con- 
venience, or  if  this  is  not  possible,  the  annoyance  to  the  latter 
by  the  stoppage  of  his  supply,  justifies  a  far  wider  adoption, 
than  now  prevalent,  of  some  remedy.  Two  remedies  are  avail- 


478 


METER  WORK 


able-    a  by-pass  around  the  meter,  or  meters  in  parallel.    The 
latter  involves  more  meter  investment  and  the  possibility  of  poor 


Figure  142.— Meter  Cocks,  page  476:  A,  f"  Double  Hex; 
B,  f"  Union;  C,  Flat  Head;  D,  \"  Square 
Head;  E,  Lock  Wing  Head. 

service  from  overload  conditions,  pending  change  of  the  disabled 
meter.  To  the  by-pass,  the  only  objection  is  its  possible  sur- 
reptitious use.  This  is  not  likely  in  any  event  by  the  class 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  479 

of  consumer  needing  the  by-pass,  and  can  be  adequately  safe- 
guarded through  the  installation  of  a  sealed  stop  on  the  by-pass. 
If  the  by-pass  is  put  into  use  by  the  consumer,  he  at  once  notifies 
the  company,  which  changes  the  meter  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  gas  used  through  the  by-pass  in  the  meantime  is  determined 
by  estimate.  Any  gas  so  used  during  company  work  usually 
would  be  so  slight  as  not  to  warrant  any  charge. 

In  addition  to  the  stop  on  the  by-pass  and  the  inlet,  one  will 
be  needed  on  the  outlet  piping,  to  permit  supply  through  the 
by-pass  in  the  absence  of  the  meter. 

WASHER 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  leaks  in  the  meter  case  itself, 
the  great  source  of  meter  leaks  always  has  been  the  washer  joint 
between  the  shoulder  on  the  tailpiece  and  the  face  of  the  meter 
screw.  Most  of  the  leaks  occurred  after  a  year  of  service,  being 
due  to  the  drying  out  and  consequent  shrinkage  of  the  universally 
used  leather  washer.  Probably  this  has  been  more  or  less  well 
known,  even  to  those  companies  who  have  not  made  a  careful 
record  and  study  of  these  leaks.  It  became  very  apparent  in 
Philadelphia  fifteen  years  ago,  after  two  years  of  data  were 
available.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  attempts  to  over- 
come the  trouble  is  considered  to  be  of  sufficient  general  interest 
to  be  sketched  here. 

Following  common  practice,  the  washer  in  use  was  whatever 
the  supplier  chose  to  send,  and  no  attention  had  been  paid  to 
uniformity  in  dimensions  or  quality  of  the  material,  which  usual- 
ly was  punched  from  miscellaneous  scrap.  Investigation  reveal- 
ed ten  different  qualities  in  one  shipment.  In  the  attempt  to 
reach  a  standard,  specifications  were  prepared  calling  for 
selected  close-grained,  smooth-faced  calfskin,  for  exact  dimensions 
as  to  thickness  and  diameters,  and  for  clean-cut  edges.  Later 
on,  it  was  decided  that  if  each  washer  was  of  a  uniform  thickness, 
sufficient  to  cushion  properly  in  unions  of  uneven  facing,  it 
was  immaterial  whether  such  thickness  was  the  same  for  all 
washers  of  the  same  diameter.  In  the  purchase  of  these  selected 
leather  washers,  quality  always  was  considered  before  price. 
Nevertheless,  after  three  years  and  the  use  of  several  hundred 
thousand  washers,  the  leak  record  showed  that  no  real  improve- 
ment had  been  effected,  for  the  good  leather  shrank  as  badly 
as  the  poor  had.  Equally  unsuccessful  was  an  experiment  with 
two  hundred  oil-soaked  washers. 


480  METER  WORK 

Soon  after  the  first  thought  of  a  standard  for  leather  washers, 
the  idea  of  using  lead  was  suggested,  and  this  material,  one-thirty- 
second  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  was  used  for  3  and  5-lt.  connections 
for  five  years,  following  upon  favorable  results  from  a  year's  test 
of  1000  experimental  installations.  It  was  believed  that  tight 
joints  would  result  from  the  use  of  a  moistureless  material,  and 
that  most  of  the  extra  first  cost  would  be  recouped  through  the 
re-use  of  washers.  Experience  showed  that  there  was  no  saving 
in  the  quantity  of  washers  bought,  and  that,  per  meter  in  service, 
the  washer  leaks  doubled.  The  lead  washers  possessed  no  re- 
silient qualities,  and  so  were  gradually  flattened  out  by  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  meters  and  their  connections  until  leaks  resulted. 
Again,  in  order  to  obtain  a  tight  joint,  when  the  screw  and  tail- 
piece did  not  face  exactly,  it  was  necessary,  in  compressing  the  lead 
washer,  to  exert  an  undue  strain  on  the  screws  and  columns. 
Therefore,  lead  was  abandoned  in  favor  of  selected  leather,  with 
the  results  above  described. 

Previous  to  using  lead,  several  hundred  pure  rubber  and  also 
rubber-coated  fabric  washers,  were  installed,  and  examined  with 
discouraging  results  after  six  months  use.  Other  materials 
considered  and  discarded,  were  cardboard,  from  tarred  and  un- 
tarred  rope,  flaxboard,  asbestos-,  horn-,  and  star-fibre,  leatheroid 
and  glazed  leathers. 

As  before  stated,  the  results  from  selected  leather,  while  better 
than  those  from  lead,  were  not  considered  satisfactory,  so  in 
1915,  after  a  favorable  experience  elsewhere  on  a  small  scale, 
"ebonite  "was  substituted  for  leather  on  meters  10-lt.and  smaller, 
and  later  on,  for  all  sfzes.  To  date,  the  indications  are  that  this 
nonshrinkable  washer  will  be  no  more  expensive  than  selected 
leather,  will  retain  its  resiliency  for  years,  even  when  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere,  and  will  form  tight  joints,  even  on  poorly-faced 
unions,  without  over  straining  the  old  type  meter  screws.  This 
washer  is  made  to  fit  snugly  over  the  lip  of  the  tailpiece,  and 
this  feature  saves  both  time  and  washers.  Under  compression  in 
the  joint,  the  ebonite  takes  a  set,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be 
taken  from  one  union  for  use  in  another,  and  only,  after  exami- 
nation, made  up  again  in  the  first  union. 

It  will  be  several  years  before  the  ebonite  washers  in  Philadel- 
phia form  a  sufficient  percentage  of  the  total  number  to  warrant 
any  deduction  from  the  leak  records.  In  the  meantime,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  it  will  continue  to  be  preferred  to  leather  for  its  other 
qualities,  even  though  the  leak  record  is  not  greatly  improved. 


SIZES  AND  CONNECTIONS  481 


Figure  143.— Adjustable  Meter  Shelf,  page  482:    A,  Shelf ;    B, 
Bracket;  C,  Back  Board;  D,  40-penny  Wire  Nail. 


482  METER   WORK 

SUPPORT 

An  adequate  support  for  the  meter  is  an  essential  part  of  any 
properly  executed  connection  job.  In  describing  lead  con- 
nections, it  was  stated  that,  in  some  instances,  the  meter  was 
supported  from  the  connection.  However,  this  practice  never 
was  widely  accepted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tie-in  connections 
offer  as  one  of  their  peculiar  advantages,  a  very  satisfactory 
support  of  the  small  meter  from  the  connection.  Nevertheless, 
until  these  connections  supersede  the  millions  of  ordinary  con- 
nections still  in  use,  methods  of  supporting  the  meter  independent 
of  the  connection  will  be  in  demand.  For  sizes  to  60-lt.  inclusive, 
an  adjustable  shelf,  or  shelves,  as  shown  in  Figure  143,  is 
satisfactory,  though  care  must  be  used  always  in  fastening  the 
back  board  securely  to  the  wall  and  relating  the  iron  support 
to  the  meter  bottom.  Because  of  better  possibilities  of  ad- 
justment, it  is  superior  to  the  shelf  with  a  grooved  back  board 
in  which  is  fastened  two  rigid  metal  wings.  Numerous 
inspections  of  such  shelves  have  revealed  many  meters  either 
entirely  unsupported  or  resting  only  on  one  point  of  a  wing. 
Such  lack  of  support  invariably  entails  strains  and  leaks. 

The  wooden  shelf,  with  triangular  sides,  an  1  back  and  bottom 
both  rectangular,  and  the  former  extending  above  the  latter, — 
probably  the  earliest  'type  of  shelf  used, — was  long  ago  con- 
demned, because  it  enclosed  the  meter  sufficiently  to  prevent 
free  air  circulation,  and  resulted  in  increased  corrosion  of  meter 
backs  and  bottoms. 

For  sizes  larger  than  60-lt.,  support  should  be  given  by  wooden 
or  metal  stands  resting  on  the  floor,  by  wire  or  other  supports 
pendant  from  the  ceiling,  or,  more  rarely,  by  brackets  attached 
to  a  wall. 


CHAPTER  XLIX 

EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS 
GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  DETAILS 

Chapter  II  contains  a  paragraph  describing  the  skeleton  of 
the  organization  requisite  for  fitting  work.  As  stated  there, 
this  organization  would  care  for  "all  work  done  inside  of  buildings, 
this  including  complaints  and  all  branches  of  fuel  and  light- 
ing appliance  work."  At  this  point  will  be  described  only  the 
conditions  under  which  meter  fitting  work  is  done.  A  similiar 
description  of  appliance  and  complaint  work  will  be  given 
later  on  when  treating  of  these  branches  of  distribution  activities. 

Meter-fitting  work  naturally  falls  into  two  classes,  according 
as  there  is,  or  is  not,  a  meter  to  be  carried.  The  first  class 
comprises  setting,  changing  and  removing  meters.  The  great 
bulk  of  such  work  is  done  from  specially  constructed  covered 
wagons  (see  Figure  74,  page  209).  The  meters  are  secured  by 
separate  straps  to  padded  shelves  on  each  side,  while  the  tools 
and  connection  material  are  carried  in  bins  on  the  wagon  bottom. 
Whether  there  should  be  a  fitter,  or  a  fitter  and  helper  (the  latter 
then  acting  as  driver),  on  each  wagon,  should  be  determined 
mainly  by  the  relative  economy  of  the  two  arrangements. 
Where  the  work  is  intricate,  usually  two  men  are  preferable. 
Each  wagon  leaves  the  shop  supplied,  if  possible,  with  orders 
sufficient  for  a  day's  work,  thus  saving  the  time  that  would  be 
required  in  returning  to  the  shop  for  more  work. 

A  standard  equipment  of  a  meter  wagon  would  be  as  follows: 

TOOL  EQUIPMENT  OF  ORDINARY  METER  WAGON 
1  f-inch  Bit, 
1   H-inch  " 
1  Stationery  Box, 
1  Ratchet  Brace, 
1 -gallon  Alcohol  Can, 

(483) 


484  METER  WORK 

1  "Dope"  Can  and  Brush,  |   .    , 

_..     ~-  >      HI    UUX, 

1  Squirt  Oil  Can,  j 

1  Soap  Can  and  Brush, 

1  Small  Meter  Test  Cap  and  Case,  3  to  20-lt.  inclusive  (Fig- 
ure 59,  page  187), 
1  Large  Meter  Test  Cap  and   Case,  30  to  100-lt.  inclusive 

(Figure  59), 

1  f-inch  Cold  Chisel,  6  inches  long  (E,  Figure  26,  page  136), 
1  f-inch  Plugging  Chisel,  10  inches  long, 
1  |-inch  Wall  Chisel  (B,  Figure  62,  page  192), 
1  |-inch  Wood  Chisel  (A,  Figure  62), 
1  Stop  Box  Cleaner  (spoon), 
1  No.  1  3-wheel  Pipe  Cutter, 
1   No.  2 

1  Safety  Device  for  cleaning  service  (Figure  69,  page  202), 
1  6-inch  Screw  Driver, 
1   12-inch  Bastard  File, 
1   1^-lb.  Ball  Pein  Machinist's  Hammer, 
1   Extra  Heavy  Stop  Cock  Key  (for  stiff  stop  cocks), 
1  Long  Stop  Cock  Key  (standard),  (B,  Figure  45, page  168), 
1  Asphyxiation  Kit  (C,  Figure  57,  page  183), 
1  Stop  Box  Lid  Lifter, 

1  pair  6-inch  Combination  Pliers  (D,  Figure  62), 
1  Force  Pump  (A,  Figure  70,  page  203), 

1  6-ft.  Rule, 

1   12-inch  Compass  Saw, 

1  Stock,  with  dies  and  guides  for  pipe  \  to  1-inch  (A,  Fig- 
ure 27,  page  139), 

1  Stock,  with  dies  and  guides  for  pipe  f  to  2-inch  (A,  Figure 
27), 

1  Electric  Hand  Torch  (C,  Figure  55,  page  180), 
25  feet  Galvanized  Wire,  No.  10  gauge  (for  wiring  service), 

1   10-inch  Trimo  Wrench, 

1   14-inch      " 

1   18-inch      " 

1  24-inch      " 

Case  for  Order  Cards. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS 


485 


METER  WAGON  MATERIAL 


BUSHINGS 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

2 

fx  r 

8 

4"x  f" 

6 

f  x  4* 

6 

1    "  X      f" 

6 

I1"  X  1    " 

3 

14*  x  H" 

1 

14"  x  i  " 

1 

2  "  x  1   ' 

1 

2  "  x  ir 

1 

2  "  x  U" 

1 

24"  x  2  " 

CAPS 

10 

3." 

2 

1" 

3 

3  // 

COUPLINGS 

8 

3  If 

2 

f  "  x  4* 

2 

-"  x    \" 

8 

3." 

2 

1"  x     3." 

6 

3.  "  v     4-  " 

4      X       2 

6 

1  " 

2 

1  "  x    i' 

2 

H" 

2 

\\"  X  1    " 

4 

14"  x  H" 

4 

14*  x  r 

COCKS 

15 

f"  Meter 

3 

1    "       " 

2 

11"       " 

2 

ir   •• 

6 

^    Straight  Gas 

2 

4"  X     |"  Pillar 

CROSSES     . 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

3 

r 

3 

i  " 

6 

1  *  x    I" 

ELLS 

2 

1  it 

12 

;  H 

4 

f"  Drop 

3 

j  "  x  j* 

6 

i" 

25 

I" 

10 

f  "  x  4" 

10 

-"  x  1   * 

4 

|"45° 

20 

1  " 

4 

1  "  45° 

3 

H" 

SERVICE  ELLS 

18 

aw 

2 

I" 

40 

| 

20 

1    " 

15 

i  "X  r 

4 

ir 

HOOKS 

20 

4"  Iron 

20 

1   "     " 

12 

1    *  X     4*  Wire 

3 

r"x  6"    " 

3 

1    "  X     8"       " 

3 

1   "  x  10"     " 

15 

\Y 

NIPPLES 

6  each  \"  close  to  3" 
11 

10  1",    2"  to    6" 

3  r,    7"  to  12" 


486 


METER  WORK 


NIPPLES 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

6  each 

\  "  close 

1     " 

f  ,  2"  to 

8" 

30 

f  "         " 

6  each 

!*,  2"  to 

18" 

20 

"  clo^e 

6  each 

",  2"  to 

6" 

4     " 

",  7"  to 

16" 

8 

"  x  20" 

4 

"  x  24" 

4 

(  "x30" 

6 

I  "x36" 

4              H"  close 

2  each 
1     " 

11",    2"  to  10" 
li",  11"  to  16" 

LONG    SCREWS 
I'' 


METER    SHELVES 
5-lt. 

20  " 
60  " 

Wall  Boards 


STRAPS 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

4 

3" 

4 

1  // 

4 

3  If 

4 

1      " 

4 

IF 

PLAIN    TEES 

4 

I" 

3 

f  "  Wall 

4 

i" 

10 

I" 

4 

f  "  X  f  " 

4 

f"  X  |"  X  f" 

4 

f  "  X  i"  X  |" 

6 

" 

4 

"  X  f  " 

2 

F 

2 

F  x  i" 

2 

i';  x  r  x  i 

2 

iFxr  x  \\ 

METER   UNIONS 

6 

3-lt. 

16 

5  " 

16 

10  " 

4 

20  " 

4 

30  " 

2 

45  " 

2 

60  " 

UNIONS 

2 

4 

6 

1"             w 

2 

\"H             Was 

10 

For  emergency  work,  especially  if  close  to  the  shop,  a  single 
meter  may  be  carried  by  a  strap  thrown  over  the  fitter's  shoulder 
and  secured  to  the  meter  screws  by  snap  hooks  and  special  screw 
caps.  At  times,  also,  if  a  bicycle  is  not  available,  the  meter  can 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  487 

be  carried  over  the  shoulder  of  the  fitter  going  afoot.  In  every 
case  where  there  is  no  wagon,  and  connection  work  is  required, 
the  necessary  material  is  put  together  in  the  shop  from  a  sketch 
previously  made  on  the  consumer's  premises. 

In  one  situation  both  time  and  expense  have  been  saved  in 
making  new  sets,  by  the  practice  of  having  a  sketch  for  the  meter 
connection  made  by  the  house  pipe  inspector  at  the  time  he 
makes  the  pressure  test  on  the  fixtures.  Each  sketch  is  filed 
by  street  and  number,  and  when  a  set  order  is  received,  the 
proper  sketch  is  taken  out  of  file,  the  necessary  connection  made 
up  and  sent  out  on  the  meter  wagon.  This  decreases  greatly 
the  rest  time  of  the  meter  wagon. 

The  second  class  of  meter  work  comprises  turning  on  and  off 
(called  locking  and  unlocking,  where  the  practice  is  to  lock 
meters  not  in  use),  and  prepayment  meter  complaint  work. 
This  work  should  be  done  from  a  bicycle,  or  perhaps  a  motor- 
cycle (Figure  72,  page  206)  where  the  distance  between  jobs  is 
long,  as  on  the  city's  edges  or  in  the  suburbs.  The  tools  required 
are  carried  in  the  tool  bag  (Figure  65,  page  196)  and  are  listed  on 
page  197.  For  prepayment  complaint  work,  additional  tools  as 
follows  are  needed: 

1  No.  5  Harwood  Screw  Driver, 

1  Small  Flat  File, 

1       "      Half-round  File, 

1       "      Rat- tail  File, 

1  pair  4-inch  Flat  Nose  Pliers. 

In  general,  a  man  who  is  sufficiently  trustworthy  to  be  a  meter 
fitter  should  not  need  an  inspection  of  his  work.  However,  it 
has  been  found  in  Philadelphia  that  there  is  a  constant  tendency 
to  sacrifice  the  finer  points  of  the  work  in  order  to  gain  speed,  and 
in  this  way  increase  the  causes  of  meter  leaks,  Because  of  strain 
from  improper  shelf  support,  or  badly  run  connections.  To 
counteract  this,  a  certain  percentage  of  all  meter  work  is  viewed 
by  an  inspector  reporting  directly  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Meters,  and  this  has  resulted  in  a  high  standard  of  performance. 
In  addition,  the  district  foreman,  and  sometimes  an  inspector, 
sees  a  certain  amount  of  all  meter  work  in  the  course  of  his 
daily  round. 

DETAILED  INSTRUCTIONS  TO  MEN 

The  attempt  to  place  a  fitter  in  a  position  where  he  will 
generally  know  what  to  do  under  every  condition  that  may 


488  METER  WORK 

arise  in  meter  work,  involves  the  preparation  of  many  rules.  At 
the  same  time,  the  larger  the  organization,  the  more  necessary 
are  written  rules  to  insure  good  service.  The  preparation  of 
such  rules  and  the  means  taken  to  keep  them  up  to  date  are 
described  in  Chapter  IV.  The  more  nearly  these  rules  approach 
perfection  in  meeting  local  conditions,  the  less  are  they  adapted 
for  exact  quotation  in  a  general  treatise  such  as  this  is.  There- 
fore, the  instructions  which  follow  are  not  to  be  considered 
as  complete.  As  a  case  in  point,  no  mention  is  made  of  pre- 
payment meter  complaint  work.  The  directions  for  this  are 
peculiarly  dependent  upon  the  particular  type,  or  types,  of  pre- 
payment mechanism  in  use. 

First  will  be  given  those  rules  of  behavior  and  the  general 
methods  and  precautions  that  should  be  followed  by  all  employees. 

GENERAL  RULES 
BEHAVIOR 

The  policy  of  the  company  is  to  give  prompt  service  and 
complete  satisfaction  so  far  as  its  rules  will  permit.  You  should 
be  courteous  at  all  times  to  your  fellow  employees,  consumers  and 
the  public  in  general,  but  not  talkative.  Never  discuss  the 
company's  affairs,  nor  give  advice  except  to  consumers  concerning 
the  work  on  which  you  are  engaged.  Politely  refer  all  inquiries 
regarding  gas  matters  to  the  shop. 

When  dealing  with  consumers  inclined  to  be  unreasonable, 
ill-tempered,  or  even  abusive,  show  every  possible  courtesy  and 
carefully  avoid  loss  of  temper.  By  conducting  yourself  this  way, 
you  not  only  work  for  the  interests  of  the  company,  but  for  your 
own  best  interests. 

To  gain  access  to  a  house,  ring  bell  or  knock.  If  there  is  a 
side  yard,  so  that  you  may  enter  by  kitchen  door,  apply  there  first ; 
but  if  the  house  is  in  a  solid  row,  apply  at  front  door.  Before 
entering,  wipe  your  shoes  and  remove  your  hat.  Ask  consumer 
where  you  should  enter  and  leave  the  house  during  the  progress 
of  your  work,  and,  if  possible,  accept  the  entrance  the  consumer 
selects.  If  request  is  unreasonable,  ask  permission  to  enter 
another  way,  but  do  not  object  to  using  the  back  door;  do  not 
use  the  front  door  without  consumer's  consent. 

Do  not  enter  premises  without  consumer's  knowledge,  and 
never  enter  a  house  or  any  room  against  his  wishes. 

As  far  as  possible,  do  not  enter  the  various  rooms  in  a  house 
alone.  Have  consumer,  or  a  servant,  accompany  you.  Always 
knock  (even  though  the  door  may  be  open)  and  gain  consent  of 
any  one  in  a  room  before  entering.  If  it  can  be  avoided,  do  not 
enter  a  room  where  guests  are  being  entertained,  or  where  a  meal 
is  in  progress. 

A  reasonable  degree  of  cleanliness  as  to  your  person  and 
clothing  is  expected,  according  to  the  work  on  which  you  are 
engaged. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  489 

Wearing  your  hat  in  any  part  of  consumer's  premises,  except 
cellar,  expectorating  anywhere  in  or  around  the  premises,  eating 
on  front  steps,  and  hanging  clothes  on  front  fence,  are  prohibited. 

Profanity,  loud  talking,  unseemly  conduct,  and  drinking 
intoxicating  liquors  of  any  kind,  are  prohibited. 

Promptness  in  reporting  for  work  in  the  morning.and  resuming 
work  after  luncheon,  is  expected. 

If  possible,  give  notice  before  starting  time  if  unable  to  come  to 
work.  Report  at  once  if  you  stop  work  after  starting.  If  absent 
from  work,  report  your  intended  return  at  least  one  day  prior  to 
returning. 

Notify  your  foreman  promptly  when  you  change  your  address. 

Always  wear  your  badge  and  uniform  during  working  hours. 
Show  consumer  badge  on  request. 

Never  leave  your  work  to  go  to  a  fire  unless  instructed  to  do  so, 
in  which  case  you  must  have  a  fire-line  badge,  or  be  accompanied 
by  a  foreman  who  has  one. 

Never,  during  working  hours,  canvass  or  sell  articles  for  your 
own  account,  and  at  no  time  state  that  the  company  approves  an 
article  i  n  which  you  are  i  nterested. 

Make  no  complaints,  favorable  or  otherwise,  about  anything 
in  consumer's  house. 

GENERAL  METHODS  AND  PRECAUTIONS 

You  are  never  warranted,  even  to  save  time  or  money,  in 
adopting  a  method  of  doing  any  work  which  involves  danger,  if 
there  is  a  safer  method. 

The  dispatching  clerk,  who  is  an  assistant  to  the  General 
Foreman  of  Fitters,  is  always  available  to  consult  with  about  your 
work,  either  by  telephone  or  when  you  are  in  the  office.  When 
you  are  uncertain  what  to  do,  or  when  a  consumer  makes  a 
special  request  that  you  cannot  grant,  use  the  nearest  available 
telephone.  If,  however,  the  General  Foreman  of  Fitters,  or  one 
of  his  outside  assistants,  visits  the  job  after  the  shop  has  instructed 
you  what  to  do,  relate  the  circumstance  to  him,  including  the 
instructions  received,  and  then  be  guided  by  his  instructions. 

As  far  as  possible,  confine  your  work  in  consumer's  premises 
to  the  class  of  work  done  by  your  department. 

Never  begin  work  in  a  consumer's  premises  without  first 
explaining  the  nature  of  the  work  and  obtaining  permission  to  go 
ahead.  When  the  work  involves  the  temporary  turning  off  and 
on  of  the  gas  supply,  this  fact  should  be  fully  explained  when 
asking  foi  permission.  In  a  business  place,  obtain  the  permission 
from  the  person  in  charge.  In  a  dwelling,  it  is  preferable  to 
obtain  permission  from  a  member  of  the  family,  and,  if  you  have 
any  choice,  to  consult  the  one  whom  you  think  has  the  most 
authority,  but,  of  course,  you  must  avoid  giving  offense. 

If  a  servant  answers  the  door,  explain  the  work  and  ask  her  to 
get  permission  from  a  member  of  the  family.  If  no  member  of 
the  family  is  in,  and  the  servant  of  her  own  accord  gives  you  per- 
mission, do  the  work,  unless  it  is  of  such  a  character,  or  conditions 
are  such  that  you  do  not  feel  warranted  in  taking  the  responsibility 


490  METER  WORK 

of  going  ahead  on  the  servant's  permission.     In  such  a  case, 
telephone  the  shop  before  making  any  decision. 

In  any  case,  if  permission  to  do  the  work  is  not  granted,  do  not 
proceed  with  it. 

To  suit  the  convenience  of  a  consumer,  you  may  wait  for 
fifteen  minutes.  If  a  longer  wait  is  requested,  explain  it  is 
against  the  company's  rules.  Make  no  promise  as  to  when  the 
work  can  be  done,  except  to  say  that  you  will  ask  the  shop  to  send 
a  man  promptly.  If  a  later  hour  of  the  same  day  is  requested, 
make  no  promise,  but  tell  consumer  that  you  will  telephone  the 
request  to  the  shop  at  once.  If  a  later  date  is  requested,  state  it 
on  your  order. 

If  you  are  not  competent  nor  able  to  do  work  specified  on 
order,  tell  consumer  another  man  will  call.  If  consumer  is 
inconvenienced,  telephone  shop. 

While  working  at  consumer's  premises  on  any  kind  of  order, 
if  you  cause  a  leak  or  an  obstruction,  or  damage  piping  or  fixtures, 
make  a  permanent  repair  if  possible,  regardless  of  its  extent.  If 
unable  to  make  repair,  report  case  to  shop. 

If,  from  the  nature  of  a  complaint,  or  for  any  other  reason,  you 
think  consumer  needs  guidance  in  meter  reading,  inserting  coin, 
etc.,  give  the  necessary  instructions. 

If  any  work  involves  much  more  expense  than  the  order  seems 
to  warrant,  or  than  similar  work  usually  costs,  consult  shop 
before  going  ahead. 

Do  not  lay  materials  or  tools  on  cellar  stairs,  or  anywhere 
where  persons  are  liable  to  stumble  over  them. 

When  working  on  an  order  of  any  kind,  if  you  notice  that  the 
prepayment  mechanism  of  meter  has  been  tampered  with,  or  the 
cash  box  broken,  notify  consumer  and  have  him  present  when  you 
remove  money.  Report  facts  on  order. 

After  you  have  completed  your  work  at  consumer's  premises 
if  you  know  that  another  workman  will  call  to  do  additional  work, 
state  this  fact  to  consumer. 

Never  open  a  service  cock  before  making  sure  that  the  meter 
cock  is  shut,  or  pipe  closed. 

Unless  otherwise  specifically  instructed,  never  do  the  following 
work  with  the  service  cock  open: 

Removing  plug  or  cap  from  end  of  service. 
Disconnecting  any  portion  of  meter  connections  between 

service  and  meter  cock. 

Setting  or  removing  pressure  gauge  at  head  of  service  unless 

the  pressure  is  taken  from  a  J-inch  hole  tapped  in  service. 

Never  leave  the  stop  key  on  service  cock  while  working  in  the 
premises. 

If  you  find  gas  off  at  service  cock,  or  at  plugged  swivel,  when, 
from  the  nature  of  the  order,  you  expected  to  find  it  on,  telephone 
the  shop. 

Before  removing  any  plug  or  loosening  a  joint,  where  the  gas 
supply  is  controlled  by  a  valve  at  the  meter  instead  of  a  cock, 
make  sure  that  gas  is  off  by  trying  a  burner  on  the  system  supposed 
to  be  cut  off. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  491 

If  your  work  requires  the  unscrewing  of  a  cap,  plug,  fixture 
key,  appliance  cock  key,  or  piece  of  pipe  not  larger  than  f-inch, 
gas  need  not  be  shut  off  if  consumer  objects,  but  before  starting 
the  work  with  gas  on,  observe  the  following: 

Have  a  plug  (cork  or  rubber)  of  the  proper  size  to  fit  into 

the  opening  through  which  the  gas  might  flow. 

Examine  the  threads  of  the  pipe  or  fitting  to  be  inserted. 
See  that  no  gas  is  lighted  nearby. 

Make  sure  that  even  a  slight  escape  of  gas  will  not  injure  any 
person,  especially  an  invalid,  or  a  domestic  pet. 

After  completing  work  with  gas  on,  examine  carefully  for 
unlighted  pilots. 

In  all  other  cases,  working  against  gas  is  prohibited,  except 
when  you  are  specifically  instructed  to  do  so  by  the  dispatching 
clerk  or  a  foreman,  in  which  'case  at  least  two  employees  must 
be  present. 

A  lowering  of  the  pressure  in  a  system  of  piping,  even  if 
momentary,  may  result  in  the  extinguishing  of  a  burner;  it  is, 
therefore,  dangerous  to  restore  the  pressure  without  observing  all 
the  precautions  given  for  turning  on  gas. 

If  gas  was  on  when  you  started  work,  arrange  your  work  so 
that  if  unable  to  complete  it  before  quitting  time,  you  can  turn  on 
gas  for  the  night.  If  anything  prevents  your  turning  on  the  gas, 
telephone  the  shop  before  leaving. 

If  you  shut  gas  off  in  error,  and  for  any  reason  cannot  turn  it 
on,  telephone  shop.  Report  all  cases  where  you  find  gas  shut 
off  in  error. 

If  consumer  is  deprived  of  gas  for  any  reason,  and  you  cannot 
remedy  the  trouble,  if  gas  is  wanted  the  same  day,  telephone  shop. 

Remove  carefully  from  the  premises  any  surplus  material,  dirt, 
or  any  odor  arising  from  illuminating  gas,  that  may  have  accumu- 
lated as  a  result  of  your  work,  or  that  done  by  another  employee. 
Condensation,  or  any  contents  of  service  or  meter,  should  be 
removed  as  quickly  as  possible  and  disposed  of.  The  odor  from 
this  is  as  objectionable  as  that  from  live  gas.  Where  such  con- 
tents may  fall  upon  coal,  spread  canvas  on  the  coal  so  as  to 
catch  whatever  may  come  from  the  service. 

Be  careful  not  to  damage  electrical  meters,  wires  or  any 
property  belonging  to  other  companies.  Telephone  shop  at 
once  if  you  do  any  damage. 

If  your  work  requires  the  disconnection  of  wires,  disconnect 
them,  unless  work  which  you  are  not  competent  to  perform  is 
necessary  to  restore  the  wires  to  their  original  condition.  In 
such  cases,  tell  consumer  that  wires  must  be  removed  before  work 
can  be  done,  and  that  the  shop  will  arrange  for  their  removal. 
Note  on  order  to  whom  wires  belong. 

Replace  and  secure  any  pipes  or  wires  that  you  may  have 
moved  or  bent  out  of  place  in  the  course  of  your  work. 

Never  let  your  haste  to  finish  a  job  at  quitting  time  lead  you 
to  omit  any  of  the  precautions  against  turning  the  gas  into  open,  or 
leaking,  pipes.  Always  make  the  test  prescribed.  Carelessness 
caused  by  haste  has  caused  many  bad  accidents. 


492  METER  WORK 

Do   not   forget   the  danger  of  explosion.     Extinguish   any 
nearby  existing  flame  or  fire,  and  do  not  use  an  unprotected 
flame  or  strike  a  match  when: 
Testing  piping  or  joints. 

Hunting  for  leak,  whether  or  not  you  smell  gas. 
Hunting  for  open  cock,  or  leak  as  shown  by  test  hand 

after  turning  on  gas. 

There  is  an  odor  of  gas,  no  matter  what  work  you  are  on. 
Working  on  fixtures,  appliances  or  piping  when  gas  may 

escape,  unless  you  have  shut  the  cock  controlling  the  flow  of  gas. 
Entering  room  or  cellar  where  combustible  or  explosive 
material  is  known  to  be  stored. 

Condensation  has  been  spilled  or  exposed  to  the  air. 
Working  in  a  confined  space,  such  as  under  floors,  if  there 

is  a  possibility  that  gas  may  be  present. 

If  a  light  is  required  for  the  above  work,  use  an  electric  torch. 

When  permitted  to  use  an  unprotected  flame  in  the  cellar, 
carry  it  below  the  waist,  and  if  gas  is  on,  keep  it  within  three  feet 
of  the  floor.  Endeavor  to  keep  it  on  a  lower  level  than  the  meter, 
and  never  bring  it  closer  than  is  necessary  to  enable  you  to  see  the 
dial  or  part  you  wish  to  inspect.  Never  allow  flame  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  meter,  meter  connections,  or  any  piping. 

Use  only  the  safety  _  matches  furnished  by  the  company. 
Place  burnt  match  sticks  in  a  receptacle  used  for  that  purpose,  or 
bring  them  away  with  you.  Never  throw  them  on  the  floor. 

Never  carry  gasoline  or  benzine  into  a  building  except  the 
small  quantity  in  the  plumber's  furnace. 

When  using  candle,  do  not  allow  the  grease  to  drop  where 
it  can  do  damage.  Remove  any  grease  that  drops,  or  that  served 
to  hold  candle. 

When  your  work  necessitates  damaging  plaster,  flooring, 
surbase,  or  special  construction  of  any  kind,  or  if  anything  on  the 
premises  which  you  are  required  to  disturb,  is  in  such  a  condition 
that  your  work  may  injure  or  destroy  it,  before  starting  work, 
have  consumer  or  his  representative  sign  a  release,  after  explaining 
its  meaning.  In  the  latter  case,  the  consumer's  name  per  his 
representative  should  be  given. 

The  release,  however,  does  not  permit  you  to  do  unnecessary 
damage  or  to  soil  the  walls.  Make  no  hole  larger  than  necessary. 
Take  up  flooring,  surbases,  etc.,  neatly  so  that  when  replaced,  an 
unsightly  joint  is  not  left. 

As  the  company  desires  consumers  to  have  good  gas  service, 
report  to  the  shop  any  faults  you  notice  in  appliances,  service, 
meter,  meter  connections,  or  meter  location,  that  are  beyond 
your  province  or  ability  to  remedy.  Do  not  mention  the  matter 
to  consumer.  This  has  no  reference  to  work  to  be  done  by 
another  employee,  but  to  defects  noticed  without  being  called  to 
your  attention  by  consumer.  If  able  to  remedy  trouble,  do  the 
work  even  if  not  called  for  on  your  order. 

If  you  notice  open-flame  burners  not  protected  by  glassware, 
near  windows  hung  with  curtains,  report  fact  on  order. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  493 

Do  not  work  with  worn-out  or  defective  tools.  Ask  for  new 
ones.  Unless  you  are  working  with  fellow  employees,  or  in  an 
emergency,  do  not  lend  tools  to,  nor  borrow  from,  employees 
without  permission  from  a  foreman.  You  may  borrow  a  step- 
ladder  or  a  bucket  from  a  consumer. 

Do  not  lend  tools  to  the  public,  but  if  consumer  wishes  to 
borrow  one,  unless  it  seriously  interferes  with  your  work,  you  may 
accommodate  him,  but  never  lend  any  tools  overnight. 

If  while  working  on  an  order  of  any  kind,  the  conditions 
indicate  that  meter  is  too  small  to  give  good  service,  report  this 
fact  on  order,  stating  number  of  burners  and  names  and  kinds  of 
appliances  in  use,  and  if  electricity  is  used  for  illumination,  to 
what  extent. 

Unless  specifically  instructed  to  do  so,  never  enter  premises 
where  there  is  a  contagious  disease.  Report  the  facts  on  order, 
or  in  case  of  a  leak,  telephone  the  shop.  When  instructed  to 
enter  premises,  immediately  after  coming  out,  wash  your  hands  and 
face,  blow  your  nose,  and  gargle  your  throat  with  listerine. 

Do  not  accept  gifts  from  consumers,  such  as  tools,  material, 
private  meters,  gas  appliances,  etc.,  without  permission  from 
the  shop. 

When  making  joints,  always  use  jointing  material  on  the  male 
thread  only.  Use  sparingly  to  avoid  clogging  the  pipe.  To 
avoid  danger  of  poisoning,  never  allow  your  bare  hands  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  jointing  material. 

If  twice  within  a  short  period,  you  do  work  on  a  similar 
complaint  referring  to  the  same  meter,  appliance  or  piping,  or 
learn  that  another  workman  has  done  similar  work,  report  the 
fact  on  order,  even  though  you  believe  you  have  remedied  the 
trouble.  This  is  especially  important  when  the  complaint  is 
about  insufficient  supply. 

Dp  not  disconnect  and  leave  an  appliance  in  vacant  and  open 
premises. 

When  working  on  an  order  of  any  kind,  if  you  discover  a  leak 
coming  through  cellar  wall  after  turning  on  service  cock,  shut  it 
off,  thoroughly  ventilate  premises,  and  telephone  the  shop. 

WORK  ORDER  SPECIFICATIONS 

Before  starting  on  your  route,  examine  your  orders  to  see  if 
you  have  been  given  any  special  or  specific  instructions,  and 
arrange  your  calls  in  the  best  manner.  If  an  order  is  stamped 
"Immediate  attention,"  attend  to  it  before  doing  other  work. 
I  n  case  you  receive  several  such  orders  at  the  same  time,  take  them 
in  turn,  but  attend  to  all  before  doing  any  other  work.  If  an 
order  is  stamped  to  show  at  what  time  the  call  is  to  be  made, 
arrange  your  route  accordingly. 

In  writing  reports,  use  a  fairly  hard,  well-sharpened  pencil 
(not  indelible).  To  avoid  errors,  use  care,  avoid  flourishes,  and 
do  not  write  hurriedly.  Make  figures  legible;  the  numerals  3,  5 
and  8  resemble  one  another  and  should,  therefore,  be  made 
distinctly  to  avoid  error  in  reading. 

Before  leaving  premises,  enter  all  the  data  asked  for  on  order, 
or  give  reason  for  omission.  Note  on  order  everything  that 


494  METER  WORK 

you  should  report  to  the  shop.  Never  trust  to  your  memory. 
Enter  only  the  completed  report  on  the  face  of  the  order.  Put 
general  explanations,  remarks  made  by  consumers  showing 
dissatisfaction,  etc.,  and  notes  on  back. 

When  you  complete  a  charge  order,  simply  nil  in  your  name 
and  date  unless  you  have  not  completed  order  exactly  as  specified, 
in  which  case,  report  what  you  did  and  why  change  was  made. 

On  all  orders,  report  exactly  what  you  did,  whether  or  not  it 
agrees  with  the  work  called  for.  If  conditions  found  do  not  agree 
with  this  data,  state  this  fact  on  order. 

If  you  do  not  entirely  complete  order,  enter  report  on  back, 
under  which  state  the  time  you  arrived  and  left  the  job.  The 
printed  space  for  filling  in  time  arrived  and  time  left  is  to  be  used 
only  by  the  workman  who  completes  the  order. 

When  unable  to  complete  a  job  the  same  day  as  started,  fill  in 
the  date  started  and  date  finished,  in  addition  to  reporting 
the  time. 

In  making  report,  never  write  more  than  is  necessary,  but 
always  write  enough  to  explain  what  you  have  done.  Note 
below  the  incorrect  and  correct  way  of  making  report: 

UNNECESSARY  WORDS  A    BETTER   WAY 

Examined  and  found  leak  Greased  in  leaking  fixture 

in  key  of  fixture  in  second  floor  key  2 nd  floor  front  room  O.K. 

front  room.  Greased  in  O.K. 

When  reporting  repairs  to  prepayment  meters,  if  any  damage 
was  done  by  you,  so  state,  so  that  consumer  will  not  be  charged. 

If  you  enter  the  room  where  the  meter  is,  enter  on  order  the 
company's  number  and  index  of  the  meter  to  which  order  refers. 
Do  not  write  this  data  on  another  paper  and  then  copy  it  on  order. 
Data  for  other  meters  on  premises  need  not  be  entered. 

When  a  drawing  of  the  index  dial  is  required,  carefully  examine 
the  position  of  the  one-thousand  hand,  and  place  pencil  point  on 
the  corresponding  position  on  the  edge  of  the  one-thousand  hand 
circle  on  order,  and  draw  a  line  toward  the  center  of  the  circle. 
Follow  this  method  for  the  other  dial  hands.  Never  write  the 
index  and  attempt  to  draw  the  dial  from  your  figures.  As  a  wrong 
drawing  may  lead  to  an  incorrect  bill  being  rendered  to  the 
consumer,  you  can  readily  see  the  importance  of  a  correct  drawing. 

In  every  case  where  immediate  attention  should  be  given  an 
order,  and  you  have  not  been  instructed  to  telephone  the  shop, 
you  should  upon  your  arrival  there,  in  addition  to  giving  details 
on  order,  refer  the  case  to  the  dispatching  clerk. 

If  the  wrong  name  or  address  is  given  on  order,  locate  the 
correct  one  if  possible  and  do  the  work.  Report  the  correct 
name  or  address  on  order.  If  order  is  for  corner  property  and  no 
house  number  is  given,  if  possible,  report  the  number.  Rectify 
any  other  errors,  such  as  wrong  meter  number,  etc.,  that  you 
notice,  but  make  no  erasures. 

METER  WORK 

METER  READING 

The  general  rule  for  reading  the  index  of  a  gas  meter  is:  Begin 
with  the  left-hand  dial,  and  put  down  the  figure  that  each  hand  or 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  495 

pointer  has  passed  (every  alternate  dial  being  read  in  the  reverse 
direction)  until  the  last,  or  "1  thousand"  dial,  is  reached;  for 
this  last  dial  the  rule  is: 

If  the  hand  has  not  yet  gone  halfway  to  the  next  number,  the 
number  that  has  been  passed  should  be  taken,  or  if  it  is  past  the 
middle  point,  then  the  larger  number  should  be  taken,  and  if  there 
is  any  doubt,  the  larger  number  should  be  taken. 

For  example,  the  index  here  shown  should  read  793: 


Figure  144. 

However,  owing  to  defects,  or  inaccuracies,  in  the  construction 
of  dials  and  indexes,  the  above  rule,  that  for  all  dials  (except  the 
"1  thousand"  dial),  the  figure  that  is  passed  shall  be  taken, 
cannot  be  blindly  followed.  Some  of  the  hands  may  be  more  or 
less  out  of  place,  so  that  they  read  "fast"  or  "slow,"  and  the 
meter  reader  must  learn  to  examine  every  index  he  takes  with  a 
critical,  suspicious  eye,  in  order  to  make  sure  that  he  has  not  been 
misled  by  the  inaccuracies  referred  to. 

The  meter  index  is  so  constructed  that  the  hand  on  each  dial 
moves  through  one  space  on  that  dial  in  the  same  time  that  the 
hand  on  the  next  dial  to  the  right  makes  one  complete  revolution. 
In  consequence,  the  positions  of  the  different  hands  on  the  index 
bear  a  definite  relation  to  each  other;  so  that,  by  looking  at  the 
right  hand,  or  "  1  thousand"  dial,  one  should  be  able  to  tell  in 
what  part  of  one  of  the  spaces,  the  hand  on  the  "  10  thousand" 
dial  will  be  found.  In  the  same  way,  the  position  that  should  be 
occupied  in  one  of  the  spaces  on  the  "  100  thousand"  dial,  could 
be  foretold  by  examining  the  position  of  the  hand  on  the 
"  10  thousand"  dial;  and  so  on,  from  dial  to  dial. 

For  example:  If  the  hand  on  the  "  1  thousand"  dial  reads  5, 
indicating  that  it  has  made  half  its  total  revolution,  then  we  know 
that  the  other  hand  on  the  "  10  thousand  "  dial  should  be  midway 
within  whatever  space  it  occupies;  if  the  hand  on  the 
"  1  thousand  "  dial  reads  2,  indicating  that  it  has  made  one-fifth  of 
its  total  revolutions,  then  the  hand  on  the  "10  thousand"  dial 
should  be  found,  in  whatever  space  it  occupies,  to  be  at  a  point 
which  is  one-fifth  of  the  space  from  the  beginning  of  the  space; 
if  the  hand  on  the  "  1  thousand"  dial  reads  8,  then  the  hand  on 
the  "10  thousand"  dial  should  be  at  a  point,  in  the  space  it 
occupies,  that  is  four-fifths  of  the  space  from  the  beginning  of 
the  space;  and  so  on. 

The  meter  reader  should  accustom  himself  to  habitually 
observe  this  point  of  the  relative  positions  of  the  hands  on  the 
adjoining  dials,  so  that  if  any  hand  is  misplaced,  even  slightly, 


496  METER  WORK 

he  will  notice  it;  for  on  the  certainty  of  his  noticing  any  dis- 
placement of  any  hand  will  depend,  to  a  great  extent,  his  ability 
to  read  meter  indexes  correctly. 

Now  it  will  be  asked,  suppose  the  meter  reader  notices  a 
misplaced  hand,  how  is  he  to  read  it?  He  must  use  his  judgment, 
and  of  two  possible  readings,  must  take  the  one  that  assumes  the 
lesser  displacement  of  the  hand. 

Consider  the  index  here  printed : 


Figure  145. 

If  the  rule  were  followed  blindly,  the  reading  would  be  893. 
A  competent  meter  reader  would,  however,  see  immediately  that 
something  was  wrong;  because  the  hand  on  the  "  10  thousand" 
dial  has  almost  completed  a  revolution,  and,  therefore,  the  hand 
on  the  "100  thousand"  dial  should  have  almost  completed  a  space, 
and  yet  there  is  the  hand  on  the  "  100  thousand"  dial  which  has 
completed  only  a  very  small  part  of  its  space. 

It  follows  that  this  hand  is  misplaced,  and  the  question  is,  on 
which  side  is  it  misplaced?  If  the  hand  is  misplaced  forwards, 
then  its  proper  position,  in  order  to  correspond  with  the  hand  on 
the  "  10  thousand"  dial,  would  be  as  shown  by  dotted  line  C,  and 
the  reading  would  be  793;  if  the  hand  is  misplaced  backwards, 
then,  in  order  to  correspond  with  its  right-hand  neighbor,  it 
should  be  as  shown  at  dotted  line  at  B,  and  the  reading  would 
be  893. 

Now  which  of  these  two  positions  is  the  correct  one,  or  the  one 
which  the  hand  should  occupy?  It  is  more  reasonable  to  take  the 
position  at  C,  than  the  one  at  B,  because  by  accepting  C,  you 
accept  the  position  that  requires  you  to  assume  the  lesser  amount 
of  displacement  of  the  hand.  C  is  much  closer  to  A  (the  actual 
position  of  the  hand)  than  B  is,  and,  therefore,  position  C  should 
be  taken,  and  the  correct  reading  is  793. 

Suppose  now,  that  the  hand  on  this  dial,  instead  of  being 
located  at  point  A,  should  have  been  so  far  misplaced  as  to  show 
at  point  D.  Then  how  should  the  meter  be  read?  Here  the 
meter  reader,  in  mentally  estimating  the  distances  between  the 
actual  position  of  the  hand  (D)  and  the  two  possibly  correct 
positions  (C  and  B),  in  order  to  determine  which,  being  the 
lesser,  should  be  accepted,  is  puzzled  to  find  that  the  distances 
are  the  same,  or  practically  the  same,  and  is  consequently  at  a  loss 
which  reading  to  accept. 

In  this  case,  where  a  hand  is  misplaced  to  the  extent  of 
one-half,  or  nearly  one-half,  of  a  space  on  a  dial,  there  is  no  way 
in  which  the  meter  reader  can  determine  which  is  the  correct 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  497 

reading,  he  should  put  down  both  readings,  with  a  question 
mark,  and  he  should  show  the  positions  of  the  hands  on  a  sketch 
of  the  dial,  and  report  the  defective  dial  to  the  dispatching  clerk. 

Fortunately,  very  few  dials  are  so  inaccurate  as  the  one  in  the 
last  example;  usually,  the  displacement  of  the  hand  is  small,  and 
the  meter  reader  can  easily  compare  the  two  distances  and  accept 
the  smaller  one.  In  all  such  cases,  note  should  be  made  on  the 
back  of  the  card  that  the  dial  is  defective.  The  inaccuracies  on 
the  dials  are  usually  of  such  a  nature  that  the  hand  will  register 
correctly  in  some  parts  of  its  circle,  while  it  will  be  out  of  place  at 
other  points. 

The  explanations  made  above  apply  also  to  the  reading  of  the 
"  10  thousand"  dial.  For  instance,  if  the  hand  on  this  dial  had 
stood  at  point  F  instead  of  point  E,  the  correct  reading  of  this  dial 
would  still  be  9,  because  as  the  hand  on  the  "  1  thousand"  dial 
(the  next  one  to  the  right)  has  travelled  over  only  a  small  fraction 
of  its  circle,  we  know  that  the  hand  on  the  "  10  thousand"  dial 
should  be  a  small  fraction  of  a  space  beyond  either  the  8  or 9,  and 
we  accept  the  9  as  being  correct,  because  it  is  a  less  violent 
assumption  than  it  would  be  to  accept  the  8. 

The  principle  involved  here  is  the  same  as  the  one  involved  in 
telling  the  time  from  a  clock  face  with  the  hour  hand  slightly 
misplaced.  The  minute  and  hour  hands  bear  somewhat  the  same 
relation  to  each  other  as  do  any  two  adjoining  dial  hands  on  a 
meter  index;  the  one  makes  a  whole  revolution,  while  the  other 
goes  over  one  space.  In  the  clock  face,  both  hands  are  on  one 
dial,  while  in  the  index  the  dials  are  separate. 

Now,  a  clock  face  as  here  shown, 


Figure  146. 

would  be  read  as  ten  minutes  to  one,  instead  of  ten  minutes  to  two, 
because  it  is  evident,  at  a  glance,  that  the  hour  hand  is  misplaced, 
and  it  is  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  of  the  two  misplacements 
that  are  possible,  the  smaller  one  is  the  real  one. 

Especial  care  must  be  observed  when  the  left-hand  dial  on  the 
index  has  just  about  completed,  or  has  just  passed,  its  revolution, 
so  that  the  hand  stands  near  the  0  point. 

For  instance,  in  Figure  147,  the  reading  is  993: 


Figure  147. 


498  METER  WORK 

Also,  in  Figure  148,  the  reading  is  993. 


Figure  148. 

In  Figure  149,  the  reading  is  003,  or  3. 


Figure  149. 

In  this  last  case,  while  3  is  the  reading  that  ought  to  be  entered 
on  the  card,  it  should  be  understood,  that,  when  this  reading  is 
used  in  the  office,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  gas  that  has 
passed  since  the  last  preceding  reading,  it  may  be  necessary  for  the 
bill  clerk  to  assume  this  reading  as  1003 ;  for,  if  the  last  reading  had 
been  962,  the  difference  between  the  two,  or  4100  cu.  ft.,  is  the 
quantity  of  gas  passed.  When,  however,  the  bill  clerk  records 
this  reading  where  it  will  be  used  to  determine  the  quantity  of  gas 
passed  between  it  and  the  next  following  reading,  he  will  ignore 
the  100,000  cu.  ft.,  which  represents  a  complete  revolution  of  the 
left-hand  dial,  and  make  a  fresh  start  by  calling  the  reading 
simply  3. 

The  usual  practice  in  indexing  meters  is  to  omit  the  two 
ciphers  which  represent  tens  and  units,  thus  reading  no  closer 
than  the  nearest  hundred. 

For  instance,  in  Figure  144,  this  reading  793  indicates  that 
79,300  cu.  ft.  had  passed  since  the  meter  started  at  0.  In  Figure 
148,  99,300  cu.  ft.  had  passed  since  the  meter  had  started  at  0. 

Do  not  be  confused  by  the  fact  that  the  alternate  dials  read  in 
reverse  directions;  accustom  yourself  to  follow  on  each  dial  the 
direction  in  which  the  figures  run. 

With  these  explanations  in  mind,  we  are  now  1>:  shape  to  write 
the  following  rules  for  reading  meter  indexes: 

1.  Begin  with  the  left-hand  dial,  and  mentally  select  the 
figure  which  the  hand  has  passed. 

2.  Immediately  verify  the  figure  so  selected,  by  looking 
at  the  next  dial  to  the  right. 

3.  If  the  position  on  the  hand  of  the  second  dial  is  such 
that  it  corresponds  with  that  on  the  dial  you  are  reading  (the 
first  dial),  then  accept  the  figure  you  have  selected,  and  put 
it  down. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  499 

4.  If,  on  the  contrary,  these  two  dials  are  not  theoreti- 
cally, in  their  correct  relative  positions,  then,  assuming  that 
the  hand  on  the  dial  you  are  reading  (the  first  dial)  is  mis- 
placed, mentally  place  the  hand  on  this  dial  at  the  point  where 
you  believe  it  ought  to  be. 

After  you  have  selected  the  proper  point  for  the  hand  on 
the  dial,  then  adopt  the  figure  that  belongs  to  that  point; 
i.  e.,  assume  the  hand  to  be  in  its  proper  position,  and  then 
take  the  figure  that  the  hand  in  this  assumed  position  has 
passed  and  put  it  down.  This  may.  or  may  not,  be  a  different 
figure  from  the  one  you  had  first  selected. 

5.  Having  thus  determined  the  correct  figure  for  the  first 
dial,  begin  with  the  second  dial,  and  go  through  the  same 
process  with  it,  using  the  dial  on  its  right  (the  third  dial)  to 
check  or  verify  the  figure  first  selected  on  the  second  dial. 

6.  Repeat  this  process  for  each  dial,  each  one  being 
verified  by  its  right-hand  neighbor,  until  you  come  to  the  last 
dial  (the  "1  thousand"  dial). 

7.  In  reading  the  "  1  thousand"  dial,  as  it  has  no  right- 
hand  neighbor,  a  different  rule  obtains.     If  the  hand  has  not 
yet  gone  halfway  to  the  next  number,  the'number  it  has  passed 
should  be  taken;   or  if  it  has  passed  the  middle  point,  then  the 
larger  number  should  be  taken,  and  if  there  is  any  doubt,  the 
larger  number  should  be  taken. 

8.  Omit  the  two  ciphers  that  represent  tens  and  units; 
thus  your  reading  as  written  contains  only  the  figures  you  read 
from  the  dials. 

9.  In  any  particular  case,  if  the  hand  is  so  far  misplaced, 
or  if  for  any  other  reason,  you  are  in  any  doubt  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  the  reading  you  have  taken,  always  express  your  doubt 
on  the  order  by  a  question  mark  (?)  after  the  reading,  and 
mark  the  positions  of  the  hands  on  a  sketch  of  the  dial  on 
the  order. 

10.  Make  clear,  legible  figures.     Keep  your  pencil  fairly 
sharp. 

11.  Incorrect   meter  readings  involve  the  company  in 
serious  trouble;   therefore,  the  meter  reader  should  exercise 
the  greatest  care.      There    is  no  excuse  for  carelessness  in 
putting  down  figures,  when  errors  in  them  cause  so  much  harm. 

12.  Make  a  note  on  the  order,  calling  attention  to  any  dial, 
the  hand  on  which  is,  in  your  opinion,  far  enough  misplaced 
to  make  errors  liable. 

13.  In  reading  meters,  always  follow  with  the  eye  the  line 
of  pipe  connecting  the  service  with  the  meter,  to  make  sure 
that  no  connection  has  been  made  from  it  for  the  purpose  of 
using  unmeasured  gas.     This  does  not  mean  that  the  average 
gas  consumer  is  suspected  of  dishonesty,  but  if  the  meter 
readers,  and  any  of  the  company's  employees  who  may  read 
the  meter  for  any  purpose,  habitually,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
glance  along  the  pipe,  this  practice  constitutes  an  excellent 
means  of  detecting  such  connections. 


500 


METER  WORK 


14.  In  removing  a  meter,  read  the  index  before  the  meter 
is  removed  from  its  shelf;    when  setting  a  meter,  read  the 
index  after  the  meter  is  in  permanent  position  on  its  shelf. 

15.  VVhen  you  are  in  the  house  of  a  consumer,  and  the 
work  requires  you  to  obtain  access  to  the  meter,  read  the  index, 
and    record    the   reading   on  whatever   order  you    may    be 
working  on. 

16.  Sample  indexes,  with  the  "careless  reading"  and  the 
"correct  reading"  in  each  case,  are  given  below: 


Careless  Reading  80 

Correct  Reading  90 

Figure  150. 


Careless  Reading  2 

Correct  Reading  102 

Figure  151. 


Careless  Reading  9101 

Correct  Reading  101 

Figure  152. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS 


501 


Careless  Reading  151 

Correct  Reading  151 

Figure  153. 

In  this  case,  the  "100  thousand"  hand  is  misplaced,  but  its 
correction  does  not  affect  the  reading. 


Careless  Reading  1895 

Correct  Reading  895 

Figure  154. 


Careless  Reading  8119 

Correct  Reading  9119 

Figure  155. 


Careless  Reading  3185 

Correct  Reading  3085 

Figure  156. 


502  METER  WORK 


Careless  Reading  5579 
Correct  Reading  5579)  ?  with  sketch  and 
5479)    note. 

Figure  157. 

In  this  case  the  "  100  thousand"  hand  is  so  far  misplaced  that 
the  correct  reading  cannot  be  told  with  certainty. 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Always  keep  meters  upright,  but  if  tilting  is  unavoidable, 
incline  them  so  that  the  inlet  side  is  kept  lower  than  the  outlet  side. 
When  possible,  meters  in  wagbns  should  be  placed  on  the  side 
shelves  and  securely  strapped,  but  whetner  placed  on  the  shelves 
or  on  the  floor,  the  meters  should  be  carefully  supported  to 
prevent  shifting  and  damage;  and  pads  should  be  placed  between, 
beneath  and  back  of  them.  Use  the  same  care  in  handling  old 
meters  as  new  ones. 

Never  throw  a  meter;  never  leave  it  on  the  sidewalk,  and 
never  chalk  the  index  reading  on  a  meter. 

Do  not  lean  against  a  meter  or  meter  connections. 

Before  doing  any  work  at  a  meter,  or  meter  connections, 
verify  the  company's  number  of  meter  and  the  consumer's  name. 

To  provide  an  opening  for  cleaning  out  riser  and  house  pipes, 
a  tee  (or  cross)  should  be  placed  on  the  lower  end  of  house  riser. 
Therefore,  when  you  disconnect  a  meter  for  any  purpose,  if  this 
fitting  is  missing,  supply  it  if  you  have  the  necessary  tools  and 
material  with  you. 

When  removing  condensation,  do  not  "dump"  or  pour  it  out 
of  a  meter.  Use  a  pump  to  remove  the  liquid  from  the  meter 
column  into  any  glass  or  metal  receptacle  known  to  be  tight. 
Be  very  careful  not  to  spill  any  of  the  condensation,  but  if  any 
spills,  either  in  the  house  or  on  the  street,  apply  vinegar  or 
chloride  of  lime  to  deodorize. 

When  possible,  do  this  work  in  the  cellar  or  basement,  and 
remove  the  condensation  from  the  premises  as  quickly  as  possible, 
but  if  there  are  any  inflammable  goods  nearby,  or  if  consumer 
claims,  or  you  fear,  that  the  odor  will  damage  the  goods,  or  if  any 
flame  or  fire  is  unavoidably  close,  carry  the  meter  outdoors  to 
remove  the  condensation,  a  back  yard  or  vacant  lot  being 
preferable  to  the  street. 

In  all  cases,  pour  the  condensation  into  a  newspaper  and  burn 
it  in  a  safe  place  (preferably  a  back  yard  or  vacant  lot)  and  stay 
on  the  spot  until  it  is  all  consumed  and  the  fire  is  out. 

Never  burn  condensation  in  a  busv  street. 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  503 

An  excessive  quantity  of  liquid  in  the  bottom  of  a  meter,  as 
determined  by  its  increased  weight,  does  not  necessitate  the 
immediate  removal  of  this  liquid  from  the  meter.  Change  the 
meter,  or  order  it  changed. 

If  you  find  that  a  meter  has  been  "dumped,"  change  it,  or 
order  it  changed. 

Never  use  fire  to  thaw  out  a  meter.  Pour  hot  water  over  the 
part  thought  to  be  frozen,  until  the  meter  will  pass  gas.  If  not 
advisable  to  use  water,  wrap  hot  bagging  or  hot  cloths  around 
the  meter. 

Report  all  meters  found  badly  rusted  or  being  affected  by 
steam,  acid  fumes  or  dampness,  and  any  undue  weight  or  strain  on 
meter  or  connections,  such  as  boxes  on  meters,  clothes-lines 
attached  to  connections,  or  governor  not  supported  firmly. 

If  consumer  requests  you  to  loosen  meter  cock,  state  that  you 
are  not  permitted  to  do  so,  and  explain  the  danger  incurred  in 
turning  gas  off  and  on. 

TURNING   ON  GAS 

The  turning  on  of  gas  is  a  process  that  merits  your  utmost 
care  and  closest  personal  attention.  The  possibility  that  gas  was 
burning  at  the  time  the  shut-off  was  made  and  may,  therefore, 
escape  when  again  turned  on;  the  possibility  that  some  person 
may  open  a  burner  while  the  gas  is  off  and  carelessly  leave  it  open; 
and  the  possibility  that  your  work,  or  some  other  cause,  may 
have  started  a  leak  while  the  gas  is  off,  should  impress  you  with  a 
sense  of  responsibility  when  you  turn  gas  on. 

When  it  seems  advisable  to  turn  on  gas  without  complying 
literally  with  the  following  rules,  do  not  take  the  responsibility, 
but  telephone  to  the  shop,  unless  you  have  been  given  specific 
instructions  how  to  proceed. 

When  ready  to  turn  on  gas  after  a  temporary  shut-off, 
examine  any  independent  appliance  line  with  special  reference  to 
the  possibility  of  the  end  being  open,  and  see  that  service  cock  is 
open  and  meter  cock  closed.  \Yhen  turning  on  gas,  whether  in 
the  above  case,  or  whether  the  piping  is  new,  or  is  old  and  has 
been  u  ^used  for  some  time,  in  order  that  you  may  be  positive  that 
no  gas  is  escaping  after  you  have  turned  it  on,  carefully  follow 
Precautions  Nos.  1,  2  and  3.  As  each  precaution  is  intended  to 
serve  as  a  check  on  the  other,  carry  out  each  one  as  thoroughly  as 
though  it  were  the  only  one. 

The  workman  in  charge  should  personally  make  the  tests  de- 
scribed in  Precautions  Nos.  1  and  3,  and  should  never  trust 
anyone  else  to  make  them. 

Precaution  No.  1: 

This  consists  of  a  test  of  the  meter  to  determine  whether  it  is 
in  proper  condition  and  will  indicate  a  very  slight  flow  of  gas 
through  it.  It  is  called  "Test  A." 

As  the  value  of  Test  A  depends  largely  upon  the  condition  of 
the  test  cap  (Figure  59,  page  187),  care  should  be  exercised  to 
protect  it  from  damage.  When  not  in  use,  keep  it  in  the  test 
cap  box.  Renew  the  washers  when  necessary.  Return  the  cap 


504  METER  WORK 

when  it  is  evident  that  the  size  of  the  hole  has  increased  or 
decreased.  Never  ream  or  clean  out  hole  with  any  hard  or  sharp 
instrument.  Before  using  a  test  cap,  make  sure  the  orifice  is  not 
obstructed. 

If  the  meter  is  provided  with  screw  connections,  open  the 
meter  cock  and  allow  the  mixed  gas  and  air  to  blow  from  the 
open  outlet  column  for  about  four  seconds.  Screw  the  2-cubic- 
foot  test  cap  on  the  outlet  screw,  watch  the  test  hand  and 
tighten  the  cap  by  hand  when  the  test  hand  has  reached  a  point 
on  the  dial  from  which  you  can  properly  judge  its  movement. 
Now  watch,  and  continue  to  watch,  the  test  hand  either  until 
it  has  moved,  or  until  the  maximum  time  given  .in  the  table 
below  has  elapsed. 

If  the  meter  is  provided  with  flange  connections,  bolt  test  cap 
loosely  to  the  outlet  flange,  and  open  valve  on  inlet  connection  to 
allow  the  mixed  gas  and  air  in  the  meter  to  escape.  When  a 
movement  of  the  test  hand  is  seen  and  the  hand  has  moved  to 
the  proper  mark,  bolt  the  test  cap  tightly  and  proceed  with  the 
test,  using  the  2 -cubic-foot  cap  when  the  meter  supplies  gas  to 
one  or  more  sleeping  rooms,  and  the  6-cubic-foot  cap  in  all 
other  cases. 


Maximum  Time  in   Minutes  to  Watch  for 
a  Movement  of 


Capacity  of 
Proving  Head 
in  Cu.  Ft. 

Test  Hand 

Extra  Test  Hand 

2  C.  f. 
rate 

6  c.  f. 
rate 

2  c.  f. 

rate 

6c.  f. 
rate 

2 

5 
10 
20 
50 
100 

2 
3 
6 
12 
30 
60 

10 
20 

1 
1 
2 

2 
4 

1 

When  making  test,  note  on  order  the  actual  time  required. 
To  avoid  any  odor  of  gas  on  the  premises,  ventilate  cellar  or 
room  if  possible. 

If  the  test  hand  does  not  move  in  the  maximum  time  shown 
in  the  preceding  table,  the  meter  has  failed  to  pass  the  test,  in 
which  case  send  for  a  new  one  and  give  it  the  same  test;  or  if 
you  see  any  difficulty  in  getting  another  meter  in  time  to  give 
consumer  gas  when  desired,  telephone  the  shop  at  once. 

As  it  is  important  to  give  consumer  gas  immediately  upon 
completion  of  your  work,  do  not  defer  Test  A  until  too  late  in  the 
day,  and  if  it  is  evident  that  your  work  will  not  be  completed 
until  near  the  close  of  the  day,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  test 
prior  to  the  time  you  are  ready  to  turn  gas  into  the  piping. 

When  the  meter  passes  Test  A,  shut  meter  cock,  remove  test 
cap  irom  outlet  screw,  connect  meter  to  outlet  connection  leave 
gas  off  at  meter  cock,  and  follow  Precaution  No  2 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  505 

Precaution  No.  2: 
This  consists  of  an  examination  to  see  that  the  gas  is  shut  off 

at  all  burners  and  appliances. 

Explain  to  the  consumer  the  importance  of  this  precaution, 
have  him  carefully  examine  to  see  that  every  burner  and  appliance 
in  the  premises  is  closed,  and  where  an  instantaneous  automatic 
or  automatic  storage  water  heater  is  installed,  make  sure  that  the 
main  gas  valve  and  pilot  valve  are  closed.  Inquire  particularly 
if  anyone  is  asleep  in  the  premises,  and  use  especial  care  in 
boarding  and  apartment  houses.  If  rooms  are  locked  and 
consumer  thinks  they  are  empty,  advise  him  to  enter  the  room  if 
possible.  Do  not  take  consumer's  assurance  that  all  burners,  etc., 
are  shut  off  until  a  thorough  examination  has  been  made.  By 
explaining  the  danger,  and  stating  that  one  is  sometimes  mistaken 
in  his  general  impression  that  all  burners  are  closed,  you  can 
usually  prevail  upon  the  consumer  to  make  this  examination. 
If  consumer  is  willing,  you  may  accompany  him  in  his  examina- 
tion, but  this  is  not  necessary.  If  consumer  refuses  to  make 
examination,  or  you  think  he  has  not  been  thorough,  make  the 
examination  yourself.  If  not  permitted  to  do  this,  leave  the  gas 
off  and  telephone  the  shop. 

After  the  examination  is  made  and  the  conditions  found  to 
be  satisfactory,  follow  Precaution  No.  3. 

Precaution  No.  3: 

This  consists  of  a  test  of  the  house  piping  system  made  with 
the  meter,  and  is  called  "Test  B." 

Open  meter  cock  and  watch  meter  dial  for  a  movement  of  the 
test  hand.  If  it  does  not  show  any  motion,  watch  it  the  same 
number  of  minutes  as  was  consumed  inTest  A,and  if  it  does  not 
show  any  movement  in  that  time,  the  system  of  piping  is  tight 
and  you  may  leave  the  gas  on. 

If  the  test  hand  moves  rapidly,  shut  meter  cock  and  hunt  for 
an  open  burner  or  other  opening.  If  you  cannot  find  an  opening, 
repeat  the  test  to  make  sure  of  the  rapid  movement  of  the  test 
hand.  If  the  test  hand  still  moves  rapidly,  shut  off  the  gas  imme- 
diately and  continue  to  hunt  for  the  opening,  and  until  you  have 
found  it,  do  not  turn  the  gas  on  even  temporarily. 

If  the  test  hand  shows  any  movement  in  the  period  named, 
and  you  can  find  no  open  cock,  pilot  or  other  opening,  there  is 
evidently  a  leak,  or  leaks,  in  the  piping,  fixtures  or  appliances. 
Your  course  of  action  should  then  depend  upon  circumstances 
as  follows: 

If  the  building  is  a  dwelling,  or  contains  one  or  more  sleeping 
apartments,  shut  off  gas  if  any  motion  of  the  meter  test  hand  is 
visible  in  the  period  named,  unless  you  are  entirely  satisfied  that 
a  very  slow  motion  of  the  test  hand  is  caused  entirely  by  open 
pilots  which  it  is  inconvenient  or  impossible  to  shut  off.  The  fact 
that  you  may  believe  that  the  same  quantity  of  leakage  existed 
before  your  visit  and  that,  therefore,  you  feel  certain  there  is  no 
more  danger  after  turning  on  than  there  was  before,  is  immaterial; 
the  leak,  or  leaks,  should  be  found  and  stopped  before  turning  on. 


506  METER  WORK 

Whether  this  work  will  be  done  by  the  company,  or  bv  t\e 
consumer,  will  depend  upon  the  conditions  of  the  particular  caae, 
as  explained  elsewhere.  A  motion  of  the  hand  due  entirely  to 
open  pilots,  should  not  cause  you  to  leave  gas  off. 

If  the  building  is  a  factory,  shop  or  other  building  where  all 
the  piping  is  exposed  and  does  not  contain  sleeping  rooms,  be 
guided  by  the  rate  of  leakage  after  examining  the  system  as  far 
as  possible,  and  satisfying  yourself  that  the  leakage  is  not  apt  to  be 
a  source  of  danger.  All  parts  of  the  building  should  be  personally 
visited  by  you.  If  there  is  no  danger,  turn  on  the  gas. 

If  the  building  is  a  store,  factory,  public  assembly  room,  shop, 
office  or  other  building  equipped  with  concealed  piping  and  does 
not  contain  sleeping  rooms,  be  guided  by  the  rate  of  leakage 
and  other  conditions.  Large  systems  of  piping  and  fixtures  that 
have  been  installed  for  some  years  may  contain  small  leaks  which 
it  would  be  expensive  to  find  and  repair  and  which  are  not  a  source 
of  danger.  In  view  of  this,  in  the  case  of  a  building  of  the 
character  named,  examine  the  fixtures  and  piping  as  far  as 
possible.  If  after  this  investigation,  which  should  include  a 
personal  visit  by  you  to  all  parts  of  the  building,  you  are  satisfied 
that  there  is  no  danger  and  the  leakage  is  small,  turn  the  gas  on. 
Make  full  report  on  order. 

To  avoid  any  chance  of  misunderstanding,  it  is  repeated  that 
the  preceding  paragraph  does  not  apply  to  dwellings,  or  to  any 
building  where  people  sleep.  If  any  business  or  public  building 
contains  one  or  more  sleeping  apartments,  it  should,  in  making 
turn-ons,  be  treated  as  a  dwelling. 

In  making  a  turn-on,  when  meter  shows  any  gas  passing,  you 
should  realize  your  full  responsibility  and  take  no  chances.  If 
you  are  not  thoroughly  satisfied  that  there  is  no  danger  leave 
gas  off  and  telephone  the  shop. 

If  you  have  shut  off  gas  temporarily  from  only  a  section  of  a 
piping  system,  by  means  of  a  cock  provided  for  that  purpose, 
the  precautions  cannot  be  followed  exactly.  In  such  cases, 
before  turning  on  gas  make  a  personal  examination  of  all  burners 
and  appliances  connected  to  the  system  which  has  been  shut  off. 
If  you  cannot  get  into  every  room,  do  not  turn  gas  on.  Explain 
facts  to  consumer  and  arrange  to  call  again  when  access  to  all 
rooms  may  be  obtained.  Report  facts  on  order,  or  if  urgent, 
telephone  the  shop. 

Never  gas  up  a  system  of  piping  through  an  outlet.  When 
the  necessary  conditions  have  been  fulfilled,  gas  up  as  follows: 

If  the  gas  was  found  off  when  you  began  the  work,  so  that  the 
piping  is  filled  principally  with  air,  open  at  least  one  burner  on 
each  fixture,  or  appliance,  supplied  by  the  meter,  and  light  the 
gas  as  soon  as  it  comes. 

If  consumer  objects  to  your  going  to  an  upper  floor  gas  up 
from  a  lower  floor  and  advise  consumer  that  the  gas  may  blow  and 
burn  blue  when  first  lighted. 

If  you  turned  the  gas  off  when  you  began  work,  and  the  piping 
is  consequently  filled  principally  with  gas,  and  your  work  has  been 
of  such  a  nature  that  any  air  may  have  entered  the  pipes,  open 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  507 

and  light  as  many  of  the  burners  or  appliances  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  convince  you  that  all  air  has  been  expelled.  Be  thorough 
in  this  work,  as  any  air  left  in  a  pipe  leading  to  any  of  tne  burners 
might  lead  to  an  escape  of  gas  and  consequent  damage.  When 
a  meter  has  been  changed,  or  other  work  done  to  the  piping  in 
the  cellar,  which  may  admit  air  into  the  riser,  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  blow  out  the  nearest  burner  in  the  cellar,  or  even  all  the  cellar 
burners;  try  several  of  the  burners  on  the  first  floor,  and  if  air  is 
found  to  come  from  them,  continue  the  process  until  all  the 
burners  show  gas  instantly.  In  trying  first  floor  burners,  let 
them  burn  long  enough  to  be  sure  that  when  the  gas  in  the  piping 
close  to  the  burners  is  exhausted,  the  gas  is  not  followed  by  a 
pocket  of  air,  which  would  extinguish  the  light.  Be  careful  to 
blow  all  the  air  out  of  any  fuel  appliance  line,  holding  a  match  to 
a  burner  until  you  are  sure  all  the  air  has  been  expelled  from  the 
line  and  the  gas  ignites  and  burns  properly. 

If  any  gas  escapes  during  the  process,  remove  it  at  once  by 
ventilation. 

If  you  found  the  service  cock  shut  when  turning  on  gas  to  a 
meter,  test,  by  soap  suds  or  sense  of  smell,  the  meter  and  all 
joints  and  piping  between  the  head  of  service  and  inlet  connection, 
including  all  header  work,  provided  for  other  meters.  If  there  is 
more  than  one  meter  supplied  by  the  service,  make  sure  that  a 
plugged  tailpiece  is  placed  in  all  the  meters  except  the  one  you  are 
turning  on.  Report  on  order  any  work  you  do  on  other  meters. 

SHUTTING  OFF  GAS 

Except  as  otherwise  instructed,  never  shut  off  gas  without 
first  notifying  the  consumer. 

If  your  work  requires  you  to  temporarily  shut  off  gas,  after 
obtaining  consent,  ask  consumer  if  any  gas  is  in  use,  and  if  so, 
request  that  it  be  shut  off.  Do  not  request  consumer  to  make  a 
general  examination  for  open  burners  at  this  time,  as  this  would 
only  tend  to  make  him  careless  or  indifferent  when  requested  to 
make  examination  when  you  turn  on  gas,  but  caution  him  not  to 
turn  on  the  gas  while  you  are  at  work.  Before  shutting  off  the 
gas,  watch  meter  test  hand.  If  it  moves,  do  not  shut  off  until, 
with  consumer's  assistance,  you  have  found  where  the  gas  is 
issuing.  If  an  open  burner,  close  it;  if  a  leak  in  piping  or  fixtures, 
or  if  due  to  pilot  lights  that  cannot  be  conveniently  shut  off, 
you  may  shut  off  the  gas. 

Do  not  let  this  preliminary  watching  of  the  test  hand  influence 
you  to  any  laxity  in  following  the  turn-on  precautions,  for  while 
it  may  be  of  use  in  certain  cases,  it  is  but  a  very  uncertain 
indication  of  a  leak,  as  the  meter  has  not  been  given  Test  A,  and 
also  the  conditions  may  change  before  you  turn  on  gas. 

If  for  any  reason  you  are  required  to  leave  the  gas  off  perma- 
nently, notify  the  consumer. 

When  the  service  supplies  one  meter  only,  light  a  burner, 
shut  off  gas  at  curb,  then  at  meter.  Examine  burner  to  deter- 
mine that  gas  has  been  completely  shut  of. 


508  METER  WORK 

When  the  service  supplies  more  than  one  meter,  and  you  find 
gas  off  at  every  meter  except  the  one  specified  on  order,  shut  off 
gas  at  meter  and  curb. 

When  the  service  supplies  more  than  one  meter,  and  you  do 
not  find  every  meter,  except  the  one  specified  on  order,  shut  off, 
proceed  as  follows: 

If  an  ordinary  meter  with  cock  open,  or  a  prepayment  meter 
with  cock  open  and  valve  apparently  open,  light  a  burner  in  the 
apartment  to  be  shut  off,  and  then  shut  meter  cock.  If  this 
does  not  extinguish  the  burner,  you  have  shut  off  the  wrong 
meter,  and  should  at  once  turn  it  on,  following  carefully  the  in- 
structions for  turning  on  gas. 

If  an  ordinary  meter  with  meter  cock  closed,  or  a  prepayment 
meter  with  cock  closed  or  valve  apparently  closed,  try  to  light  a 
burner  in  the  apartment  to  be  shut  off.  If  able  to  light  burner, 
proceed  as  if  the  meter  cock  and  the  valve  were  open.  If  un- 
able to  light  burner,  turn  gas  on  to  the  meter,  following  carefully 
the  instructions  for  turning  on  gas,  and  again  try  to  light  burner. 
If  you  succeed,  you  have  found  the  proper  meter,  which  then 
should  be  turned  off  in  the  regular  way.  If  you  do  not  succeed, 
you  have  turned  on  the  wrong  meter,  which  should  be  turned 
off  at  once,  and  other  meters  turned  on  in  the  same  way  until 
the  right  one  has  been  found. 

In  either  of  the  above  cases,  after  you  have  found  the  correct 
meter,  replace  the  open  tailpiece  with  a  plugged  tailpiece,  and 
reconnect  meter. 

If  you  cannot  get  into  an  apartment  to  be  shut  off,  and  are 
unable,  therefore,  to  light  a  burner  therein,  be  guided  by  general 
conditions.  If  possible,  make  an  examination  of  the  meters  that 
are  turned  on,  and  of  the  apartment  each  is  supposed  to  supply. 
If  you  are  not  reasonably  certain  that  you  have  properly  identified 
the  meter,  do  not  complete  the  shut  off,  but  leave  all  conditions 
as  found. 

If  you  cannot  obtain  any  information  regarding  the  location 
of  the  key,  you  may  enter  the  cellar  through  a  window  if 
you  find  it  unlocked,  but  do  not  visit  other  parts  of  the  premises. 
Leave  in  the  same  way  you  entered,  and  report  these  facts  on  order. 

SETTING  METER 

A  set  order  implies  an  order  to  turn  on  gas.  Therefore, 
follow  rules  under  "Turning  On  Gas"  when  ready  to  turn  on. 

If  there  is  no  service,  or  if  you  find  any  other  service  conditions 
which  render  the  setting  of  the  meter  impossible  or  inadvisable, 
explain  the  case  to  consumer.  Telephone  the  shop  if  conditions 
require  it. 

If  you  cannot  turn  service  cock,  but  can  shut  off  gas  at  meter 
cock,  set  meter.  If  there  is  no  meter  cock,  do  not  set  meter 
unless  service  cock  is  shut.  Determine  this  by  loosening  a  plug  in 
the  cellar. 

If  the  service  supplies  more  than  one  meter,  and  gas  is  on  to 
any  of  them,  and  it  is  necessary  to  shut  off  gas  at  curb  to  set 
meter,  before  doing  so,  obtain  the  consent  of  the  consumers 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  509 

concerned.  If  consumers  will  not  consent,  or  a  more  convenient 
time  is  named,  do  no  work;  report  facts  on  order.  If  consent  is 
given,  first  shut  off  gas  at  curb,  then  at  meter  cocks,  and  proceed 
with  the  work. 

When  installing  connections  so  that  more  than  one  meter  can 
be  set  on  the  same  service,  place  a  meter  cock  on  each  "header" 
inlet  connection,  even  though  all  the  meters  are  not  being  set. 
Plug  the  outlet  of  each  cock  on  which  a  meter  is  not  set. 

When  setting  meter,  follow  meter  schedule  for  size.  Because 
the  old  connections  may  indicate  that  a  meter  of  another  size 
was  formerly  set,  is  no  reason  why  you  should  set  that  size. 

If  you  believe  the  meter  specified  on  order  is  too  large,  or  too 
small,  do  not  set  it.  Telephone  the  shop. 

Set  all  meters  within  sight  of,  and  as  near  as  practicable  to, 
the  head  of  service,  and  so  that  the  entire  piping  joining  the 
meter  and  the  service  is  visible  to  a  person  standing  in  front  of 
the  meter. 

If  a  prepayment  meter,  set  it  so  that  the  coin  box  will  be  easily 
accessible  to  the  collectors,  but,  whenever  possible,  not  where  it 
will  be  visible  from  the  street,  nor  where  a  thief  can  have  access 
to  it  from  the  street. 

Never  set  a  meter  where  it  will  be: 
Near  a  furnace  or  oven. 
Subject  to  a  sudden  change  in  temperature. 
Damaged  by  steam,  acid  fumes  or  dampness. 
Chilled  by  being  in  a  draught. 
Inconvenient  to  reach,  or  to  read  index. 
Liable  to  have  the  inlet  piping  covered  by  plaster  or 
casing. 

When  the  coalbin  extends  the  whole  width  of  the  premises, 
the  meter  cannot  be  set  within  sight  of  the  point  where  the 
service  emerges  through  the  cellar  wall.  In  such  a  case,  the 
service  should,  if  possible,  be  so  located  that  it  comes  through 
the  front  foundation  wall  into  the  coalbin  at  a  point  not  more 
than  six  inches  distant  from  one  of  the  side  walls  of  the  premises, 
in  which  case  the  service  pipe  should  be  continued  in  a  straight 
line  through  the  coalbin  into  the  main  cellar,  and  on  its  end,  in  the 
main  cellar,  should  be  screwed  the  tee  from  which  the  piping 
extends  to  the  meter.  This  service  pipe  should  be  supported  at 
proper  intervals  by  hooks  or  brackets  attached  to  the  side  wall 
which  it  parallels.  In  case  the  service  pipe  cannot  be  brought 
through  the  front  foundation  wall  within  six  inches  of  a  side  wall, 
the  service  pipe  should  not  be  extended  straight  across  the 
coalbin,  but  it  should  terminate  in  the  usual  manner  at  the  front 
foundation  wall.  Set  meter  on  cellar  wall,  clear  of  the  coalbin, 
and  join  service  and  meter  by  piping  so  located  that  as  short  a 
length  as  possible  will  be  covered  with  coal,  i.  e.,  have  this  pipe 
rise  vertically  from  an  ell  screwed  to  side  outlet  of  tee  on  end  of 
service,  to  a  point  at  or  near  ceiling,  and  thence  extend  to  the 
point  where  it  drops  to  the  meter.  When  a  meter  is  set  in  this 
manner,  ask  consumer  to  store  the  coal  so  that  the  end  of  the 
service  will  be  accessible. 


510  METER  WORK 

Arrange  meter  inlet  piping  so  that  as  much  of  it  as  possible 
will  drain  back  to  the  service. 

If  there  is  no  fuel  line  installed,  leave  a  1-inch  plugged  outlet 
in  meter  outlet  pipe,  or  use  a  cross  at  the  bottom  of  house  riser 
with  a  1-inch  plugged  outlet,  so  that  a  possible  future  fuel  line 
can  be  connected. 

Observe  the  following  rules  for  supporting  meters: 

When  table  is  used,  rest  the  meter  firmly  on  table,  or  if 
blocking  is  used,  carefully  drive  wooden  wedges  under  the  four 
corners  of  meter. 

When  adjustable  shelf  is  used,  after  building  the  meter 
connections  and  before  connecting  meter,  attach  standard  board 
supplied  with  shelf  to  the  wall  in  a  vertical  position,  with  40- penny 
wire  nails,  driven  as  close  to  the  end  of  the  board  as  is  feasible. 
Take  sufficient  time  to  do  this  work,  even  to  the  extent  of  plugging 
the  wall  in  order  to  get  a  firm  hold  for  the  nails.  Place  the  board 
midway  between  the  projected  ends  of  the  meter  connections, 
at  such  a  height  that  the  center  of  the  board  will  be  on  a  line 
with  the  bottom  of  the  meter  when  attached  to  the  connections. 
This  will  insure  a  clear  space  in  the  center  of  the  board  for 
mounting  the  shelf,  and  the  portion  of  the  board  extending  up 
back  of  the  meter  will  keep  the  meter  at  least  1  inch  from  the  wall. 

Do  not  mount  the  adjustable  shelf  on  the  board  until  the 
meter  has  been  connected  hand  tight.  Then  set  the  adjustable 
part  of  the  shelf  in  its  middle  position  so  as  to  allow  equal  distance 
of  play  up  and  down  in  the  adjusting  slot.  See  that  the  shelf  is 
slightly  to  the  outlet  side  of  the  meter  bottom  and  midway 
between  the  front  and  back,  and  close  up  under  the  meter  so 
that  the  bottom  of  the  meter  has  a  good  bearing  on  it;  then  hold 
the  shelf  in  position  by  hand  to  determine  the  position  of  the 
1-inch  round  head  wood  screws  with  which  to  attach  the  shelf 
to  the  board.  Tighten  the  adjusting  nut  by  means  of  a  small 
wrench  or  pliers. 

When  two  or  more  meters  are  set  side  by  side,  use  a  separate 
shelf  or  table  for  each  meter. 

When  meter  is  in  position,  see  that  it  is  plumb  and  parallel 
to  wall  with  at  least  1  inch  clearance. 

To  avoid  placing  a  strain  on  the  meter,  the  following  rules 
should  be  observed: 

(a)  See  that  inlet  connection  where  it  drops  to  meter,  is  as 
nearly  perpendicular  as  you  can  sight  it,  and  so  placed  as  to 
height  and  distance  from  wall    that  it  is  in   proper  position  to 
receive  the  meter. 

(b)  Measure  the  distance  between  the  screws  of  the  meter 
to  be  set,  thus  locating  the  point  at  which  the  outlet  swivel  will 
be  placed;    then  build  the  outlet  connection  so  that  the  swivel 
will  come  as  close  as  possible  to  that  point.     If  the  meter  is  to  be 
supported  on  a  table  on  the  floor,  or  on  a  special  bracket  already 
in  place,  it  may  be  placed  in  position  and  the  screws  used  as 
points   to   which   the  connection   should   be   built.     Place   the 
washers  on  the  tailpieces  of  the  meter  connections,  attach  meter 


EXECUTION  OF  METER  ORDERS  511 

to  the  connections,  making  up  the  unions  hand  tight,  and  let  it 
hang  while  you  are  setting  the  meter  shelf,  as  described  above. 

(c)  Make  the  standard  orifice  test  (Test  A,  page  503) 
before  attaching  the  meter  permanently  to  the  outlet  connection. 
To  make  this  test,  loosen  the  inlet  union,  but  do  not  entirely 
unscrew  it,  and  unscrew  the  outlet  union. 

If  tie-in  connection  is  used,  drop  the  outlet  side  of  the  board 
under  meter  to  allow  the  top  of  the  meter  screw  to  pass  under 
the  lip  of  the  swivel,  using  care  to  see  that  the  weight  of  the 
meter  is  supported  at  the  inlet  side  by  the  shelf.  Swing  meter 
out  far  enough  to  put  on  test  cap.  Tighten  inlet  union  by  hand 
and  proceed  with  test.  After  completing  test,  remove  test  cap, 
loosen  inlet  union,  and  swing  meter  back  into  position.  Then 
tighten  both  unions,  first  by  hand,  and  then  by  using  a  small 
wrench.  Clamp  board  firmly  under  bottom  of  meter  by  means 
of  the  wing  nuts  on  the  hangers. 

If  meter  is  supported  other  than  by  tie-in  connection,  do  not 
lower  support,  but  raise  the  outlet  connection  to  allow  the  top  of 
meter  screw  to  pass  under  the  lip  of  the  swivel.  Move  outlet 
side  of  meter  toward  you  enough  to  enable  you  to  put  on  test  cap. 
Tighten  inlet  union  and  proceed  with  test.  After  completing 
test,  remove  test  cap,  loosen  inlet  union,  and  turn  meter  so  as  to 
slip  the  outlet  screw  into  position  raising  the  outlet  connection 
slightly  if  necessary.  Then  tighten  the  unions.  When  finally 
tightening  the  unions,  tighten  the  inlet  and  outlet  connections 
alternately.  Be  careful  not  to  use  any  great  strength  or  exert 
any  sudden  pull.  This  is  unnecessary,  as  a  gas-tight  joint  can 
be  made  with  little  pressure  when  the  unions  are  properly  faced. 
Any  undue  or  sudden  strain  is  likely  to  cause  a  leak  at  the  meter 
screw  where  soldered  to  the  meter. 

If  the  service  is  an  old  one,  test  it  under  a  pressure  of  6  inches 
of  water,  after  connecting  meter,  in  order  to  be  sure  there  is  no 
leak.  Apply  the  pressure  at  tee  on  the  end  of  the  service,  after 
making  sure  that  service  and  meter  cocks  are  shut.  Report  on 
order,  "Service  tested  O.  K." 

Do  not  set  a  prepayment  meter  unless  the  consumer  gives  you 
a  quarter  to  start  it.  If  quarter  is  not  available,  ascertain  if 
possible  when  it  will  be,  and  report  facts  on  order. 

Make  a  visual  inspection  of  fixtures,  housepiping  and  fuel 
appliances  to  see  if  conditions  are  such  that  gas  may  be  turned  on. 

Unless  otherwise  instructed,  if  you  set  a  meter  and  for  any 
reason  cannot  leave  gas  on,  remove  meter. 

REMOVING  METER 

When  working  on  a  remove  order,  if  you  find  the  gas  on, 
notify  the  consumer  before  shutting  it  off. 

If  the  service  supplies  only  one  meter,  follow  rule  already 
given  for  shutting  off  gas. 

If  service  cock  will  not  turn,  shut  meter  cock  and  remove  meter. 

If  service  supplies  more  than  one  meter,  and  gas  is  off  at  every 
meter  except  the  one  specified  on  order,  shut  off  gas  at  meter  and 
curb,  remove  meter,  and  treat  the  connections  as  described  below. 


512  METER  WORK 

If  service  supplies  more  than  one  meter,  and  gas  is  not  off  at 
every  meter  except  the  one  specified  on  order,  follow  the  rules 
already  given,  to  determine  the  correct  meter.  If  either  connec- 
tion is  iron,  remove  swivel  (whether  open  or  plugged)  and  insert 
a  plug. 

When  removing  meter,  leave  shelf  backboard  in  position, 
but  remove  adjustable  brackets  and  turn  in  to  shop. 

As  soon  as  you  remove  meter  from  the  shelf,  place  metal  caps 
on  the  inlet  and  outlet  screws. 

CHANGING  METER 

A  change  order  is  equivalent  to  a  remove  and  set  order; 
therefore,  in  general,  the  rules  covering  removing  and  setting 
meters  also  apply  to  change  orders,  and  should  be  followed  when 
work  covered  by  these  rules  is  required. 

When  you  change  a  meter,  leave  gas  as  found,  and  state  on 
order  how  you  found  it. 

When  changing  a  meter,  follow  meter  schedule  for  size  to  set. 


CHAPTER  L 

TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 

'  REMOVAL 
PERIODIC  REMOVAL 

A  meter,  like  any  other  mechanism,  is  subject  to  disarrange- 
ment and  deterioration.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  periodic 
removal  of  all  meters  is  requisite  to  insure  the  maximum  of 
correct  registration  and  performance,  and  that,  in  addition,  the 
ultimate  life  of  the  meter  is  thus  prolonged.  While  it  would  be 
possible  by  a  test  in  place  to  obtain  information  sufficiently 
accurate  to  govern  the  future  treatment  of  many  of  the  meters 
so  tested,  the  advantages  of  obtaining  a  correct  registration 
test  are  so  highly  valued  that  it  is  universal  practice  (with  some 
exceptions  for  large  sizes)  to  bring  all  meters  to  a  special  shop 
for  this  test. 

The  exact  interval  between  periodic  removals  has  varied 
somewhat  as  between  sizes  of  meters  and  also  according  to 
individual  ideas.  Until  very  recently,  no  attempt  was  made  to 
classify  the  result  of  meter  examinations  or  of  tests  according 
to  the  years  elapsing  since  the  last  test.  Manifestly  if  such  a 
record  was  available,  and  it  indicated,  for  any  situation,  that  up 
to,  say,  six  years  of  service  there  was  little,  if  any,  difference  in 
the  registration  errors,  and  that  these  and  other  meter  conditions 
did  not  warrant  removal  more  often  than  every  seventh  year,  the 
company  following  this  practice  would  be  able  to  justify  it.  In 
the  absence 'of  such  data,  many  companies,  in  their  desire  to 
omit  nothing  that  might  conduce  to  good  service,  adopted  an 
interval  of  three  years,  and  in  some  cases,  for  large  meters,  of 
one  year  only.  A  few  state  commissions  have  made  such  a 
three-year  removal  obligatory,  but  more  have  adopted  the  more 
sensible  figure  of  five  years.  This  may  well  be  accepted  until 
further  data  indicate  that  most  of  the  meters  so  removed 
register  within  correct  limits  and  are  otherwise  in  good  condition. 

(513) 


514  METER  WORK 

Philadelphia  for  some  years  classified  all  tests  by  years  in 
service,  and,  as  a  result,  came  to  a  seven-year  interval.  This 
was  superseded  by  the  five-year  removal  rule  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Public  Service  Commission,  and  since  this  put  an  end  to  the 
chance  of  getting  records  based  on  more  than  five  years'  service, 
all  classification  ceased,  not,  however,  before  it  was  shown  that 
the  average  net  error  (slow)  of  all  the  "dipping"  meters  removed 
and  tested  was  practically  independent  of  the  time  in  service. 

In  1915,  the  practice  was  started  of  soldering  a  date  badge  on 
the  front  gallery  plate  (left-hand  side  of  Figure  109,  page  420)  of 
each  new  meter  and  of  each  meter  receiving  a  new  diaphragm  re- 
pair. The  purpose  is  to  examine  the  diaphragms  in  each  removed 
meter  which  this  date  badge  shows  has  had  ten  years  of  service. 
Time  alone  can  prove  the  value  of  such  a  record  and  practice. 

IRREGULAR  REMOVAL 

While  the  large  majority  of  meters  may  safely  stay  in  service 
until  removed  for  periodic  test,  there  is  a  minority,  usually  few 
in  percentage,  though  large  absolutely  in  a  big  city,  that  for 
reasons,  due  to  the  meter  itself,  must  be  removed  after  a  shorter 
service.  One  of  the  reasons  for  such  summary  removal  is  a 
disarrangement  of  parts,  stopping  the  flow  of  gas,  and  this  would 
promptly  be  called  to  the  company's  attention  by  the  consumer 
deprived  of  his  supply.  Another  is  a  partial  or  complete  failure 
to  register  the  gas  consumed.  Many  honest  consumers  might 
not  realize  this  condition,  even  though  the  registration  was  much 
below  the  proper  figure.  To  meet  this  contingency  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  meters  visited, 
a  test  in  place,  known  as  the  gradual-cease-house-test,  has  been 
used  with  success  in  Philadelphia  for  many  years. 

After  every  meter-reading  period,  a  gradual-cease-house-test 
order  is  issued  for  each  meter  where  the  consumption  is  33  per 
cent  below  that  of  the  corresponding  period  of  the  previous  year. 
The  test  is  made  substantially  as  follows : 

If  the  meter  is  a  3,  5  or  10-lt.,  light  an  open-flame 
burner,  preferably  the  one  nearest  the  meter,  and  turn 
the  cock  on  full.  Watch  test  hand  as  per  table  below : 

„    Size  of  Maximum  Time  to  Watch 

Proving  Head  Test  Hand  Extra  Test  Hand 

2  cu.  ft.  2  min.  i  min. 

5    "     "  3     «  I     " 

Report  on  order  if  the  hand  does  not  move.  If  the 
hand  moves  within  the  maximum  time,  turn  flame 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  515 

down  to  about  l£  inches  and  watch  test  hand  for  a 
movement  during  not  more  than  10  minutes.  Be 
sure  that  all  other  burners  are  shut. 

If  the  meter  is  a  5- A  to  60-A  inclusive,  or  a  20  to 
100-lt.  inclusive,  shut  meter  cock,  disconnect  meter 
outlet,  turn  on  meter  cock,  allowing  meter  to  purge 
for  about  four  seconds,  screw  gradual-cease-house-test 
cap  (Figure  59,  page  187)  on  meter  outlet  screw,  and 
watch  test  hand  as  per  table  below  when  using  large 
hole  (6  cubic  feet  per  hour)  in  the  test  cap: 

Size  of  Maximum  Time  to  Watch 

Proving  Head  Test  Hand  Extra  Test  Hand 

2  cu.  ft.  2  min.  £  min. 

5    "     "  3     "  I     - 

10   "  •  "  9     "  1       " 

20    "    "  15    "  1£     " 

If  the  hand  moves  within  the  maximum  time,  screw 
on  the  cap  with  small  hole  (3  cubic  feet  per  hour)  and 
watch  test  hand  for  not  more  than  10  minutes. 

If  the  meter  is  150-lt.  or  larger,  use  6  cu.  ft.  turn-on 
test  cap.  Watch  test  hand  as  per  table  below: 

Size  of  Maximum  Time  to  Watch 

Proving  Head  Test  Hand                 Extra  Test  Hand 

50  cu.  ft.  30  min.                      3  min. 

100  "     "  60     " 

If  there  is  no  movement  of  the  particular  test  hand  within  the 
time  designated,  it  is  considered  proven  that  the  meter  is  out  of 
order  and  is  not  registering  correctly,  and  it  is  brought  in  for 
test  and  repair.  If  movement  occurs,  a  report  to  that  effect 
is  made,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  meter  is  not  changed.  In  the  last 
ten  years,  over  220,000  of  these  tests  have  been  made,  and  25  per 
cent  of  the  meters  tested  have  been  removed. 

A  third  reason  for  summary  removal  is  a  belief  on  the  part  of 
the  consumer  that  his  meter  is  fast,  i.  e.,  registering  too  much  gas. 
In  such  a  case  he  almost  always  has  the  choice  of  a  test  by  the 
company  or  one  by  a  state  or  city  official.  The  official  test 
usually  requires  the  payment  of  a  small  fee,  which  is  refunded 
in  case  the  meter  is  fast.  The  records  of  many  years  throughout 
this  country  all  tell  the  same  story  of  very  few  demands  for 
official  tests,  and  of  a  large  percentage  of  these  tests  showing 
meters  correct  or  slow. 

In  one  city  a  special  study  has  been  made,  for  many  years,  of 
the  meters  so  removed  for  official  test,  and  this  is  summarized 


516 


METER  WORK 


below,  as  it  shows  very  clearly  the  effect  on  registration  of  the 
various  ills  to  which  a  meter  may  be  subject: 

FAST  METERS 


Condition 

Causing 

Result 

Diaphragm  dry  or  hard 

Restricted  stroke  of  dia- 
phragm 

Reduction  in  the 
volume  of  gas 
passed  per  revo- 
lution of  the  tan- 
gent 

Flag  arm  out  of  division 

Valve  cut  off  before  dia- 
phragm stroke  is  completed 

Liquid  in  excess 

Reduction  in  diaphragm 
capacity 

Packing  loose  in  stuffing  box 

Reduction  in  pressure  drop 
necessary  to  operate  meter 
and  hence  in  diaphragm 
capacity 

SLOW  METERS 


Bridge  loose  at  base 

Crank  to  wobble,  thus  in- 
creasing diaphragm  stroke 

Increase  in  the 
volume  of  gas 
passed  per  revo- 
lution of  the  tan- 
gent 

Diaphragm  water  soaked 

Extra  resistance,  hence  in- 
crease in  pressure  drop 
necessary  to  operate  meter, 
stretching  diaphragm 

Packing  jammed  in  stuffing 
box 

Valve  dirty 

Diaphragm  broken  at  tying 
or  with  holes 

Flow  of  gas  without  move- 
ment of  meter  parts 

Partial  failure  to 
measure 

Valve  leaking 

Valve    guide    broken    and 
valve  off  seat 

Entire  failure  to 
measure 

None  of  the  conditions  shown  as  resulting  in  fast  meters  is 
very  common,  and  the  most  frequent  one,  which  is  the  drying 
or  hardening  of  the  diaphragm,  may  be  almost  completely  pre- 
vented in  the  "dipping"  meter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  longer 
a  meter  stays  in  service,  the  more  apt  it  is  to  develop  one  of  the 
ills  which  will  make  it  slow.  Therefore,  it  is  the  company  and 
not  the  c6nsumer  that  suffers  from  the  lack  of  any  periodic 
removal. 

Returning  to  other  reasons  that  may  exist  for  the  removal  of 
meters  at  irregular  periods,  all  of  these  reasons  (including  the 
ones  already  described  and  the  periodic  removals)  may  be  listed 
under  four  major  heads  as  given  below,  which  are  records  of 
yearly  removals  based  on  an  average  of  ten  years- 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  517 

Percentage  of 

Total  Meters  Total  Meters 

Cause  of  Removal                                   Removed  In  Use 

Defects  due  to  meter  itself                             38.9  9.2 

Defects  due  to  surrounding  conditions            8.1  1.9 

Desire  of  consumer                                            31.7  7.4 

Policy  of  company                                             21.3  i             5.0 


100.0  23.5 

The  large  figure  opposite  "Desire  of  consumer"  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  in  this  situation  there  are  many  prepayment  meters, 
and  at  all  times  numerous  consumers  are  changing  from  ordinary 
to  prepayment,  or  vice  versa.  "  Policy  of  company"  represents, 
almost  entirely,  periodic  removals.  Included  in  these  are  meters 
which  have  been  shut  off  for  two  years  in  consumers'  houses. 
The  practice  of  allowing  these  meters  to  be  shut  off,  rather 
than  removed  at  the  time  the  house  is  vacated,  is  justified 
by  years  of  local  experience,  which  shows  that  so  many  of  these 
meters  are  turned  on  again  within  two  years  that  the  saving  in 
operating  costs,  through  the  lessened  removals  and  subsequent 
re-sets,  is  considerably  more  than  the  expense  of  turning  on 
and  the  interest  on  the  idle  meter  investment. 

As  a  result  of  all  the  reasons  for  irregular  removal,  it  is  probable 
that  even  where  there  are  few  or  no  changes  in  kind  of  meter, 
from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent  of  all  the  meters  in  use  are  brought  in 
each  year.  Since  all  of  these  meters  are  tested  for  accuracy  of 
registration,  and  many  are  given  an  additional  examination,  it  is 
manifest  that  there  is  ample  material  available  for  the  previously 
described  classification  of  meter  behavior  by  years  of  service. 

DIPPING  PROCESS 
VALUE  OF  PROCESS 

The  description  of  the  principle  of  measurement  on  page  417 
clearly  shows  how  one  essential  to  correct  registration  is  the 
displacement  of  a  constant  volume  by  the  motion  of  the  dia- 
phragm disc.  This,  in  turn,  depends  upon  preserving  unchanged 
the  shape  and  flexibility  of  the  leather  diaphragm.  Unfortu- 
nately, observation  has  long  taught  that  after  more  or  less 
service,  many  diaphragms  become  deprived  of  the  oil  with  which 
they  are  saturated  when  placed  in  a  meter,  and  are  found  to  be 
in  a  bleached  condition,  with  the  leather  dry  or  hard,  resulting 
in  a  fast  meter,  as  previously  noted. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  whenever  the  temperature  of  the 
meter  interior  is  lower  than  that  of  the  entering  gas,  some  of  the 


518  METER  WORK 

oil  vapors  in  the  gas  will  condense  on  the  diaphragms  and  wash 
out  any  of  the  original  oil  still  remaining  in  the  leather.  _  There- 
fore, the  diaphragm  oil  may  be  rapidly  thinned  and  drained  out 
of  the  leather,  leaving  the  latter  saturated  with  merely  the 
volatile  vapors  condensed  from  the  gas.  If  when  in  this  condi- 
tion the  meter  temperature  gets  above  that  of  the  entering  gas, 
evaporation  of  these  vapors  follows  and  the  leather  becomes  dry 
and  somewhat  porous,  stiff  and  shrunken.  During  its  remaining 
service,  the  leather  will  be  unprotected  by  any  diaphragm  oil, 
and  the  registration  of  the  meter  will  vary  according  to  the 
degree  of  saturation  of  the  leather  with  vapors  deposited  out 
of  the  gas. 

This  condition,  usually  known  as  bleached  diaphragms, 
became  especially  aggravated  in  Philadelphia  about  1905,  with 
the  use  of  Texas  oil  in  gas  making.  After  a  good  deal  of  thought 
and  experimental  work,  a  simple  remedy  was  discovered,  which, 
after  ten  years  of  application,  is  giving  satisfactory  results  in 
more  than  a  million  meters  in  different  cities.  This  remedy 
depends  upon  the  capillarity  of  the  leather,  and  consists  in 
placing  sufficient  oil  in  the  bottom  of  the  meter  to  immerse  the 
diaphragm  to  a  depth  of  at  least  ^-inch.  Under  such  condi- 
tions, the  leather  remains  soaked  with  this  oil,  except  for  com- 
paratively brief  periods  when  oil  vapors  from  the  gas  are  being 
deposited  and  are  washing  out  the  diaphragm  oil.  Even  then, 
the  leather  being  wet  with  the  condensed  vapors,  tends  to  keep 
its  shape,  and  therefore,  the  meter  registration  unchanged.  As 
the  oil  vapors  dry  out,  a  fresh  supply  of  diaphragm  oil  ascends 
all  through  the  leather. 

A  meter  so  oiled  is  known  as  a  dipping  meter.  A  fuller 
description  of  the  reasons  leading  to,  and  the  advantages  of,  the 
dipping  process  are  contained  in  "Causes  of  Variation  in  Proof 
of  Consumers'  Meters,"  a  paper  by  J.  M.  Rusby,  as  printed  on 
page  354  of  the  1906  Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas  Institute. 

OIL  USED 

The  oil  used  in  Philadelphia  is  known  as  No.  4  Neutral  oil. 
Its  properties  are  indicated  by  the  following  data: 

Early  Samples  Recent  Samples 

Specific  gravity  .870  .866 

Congealing  point  35°  to  38°  F.  12°  F. 

Viscosity  (P.  R.  R.  pipette)  1.9  at  100°  F.  1.66 

The  oil  has  a  strong  affinity  for  the  hydrocarbon  vapors  in  the 
gas,  and  in  its  first  three  or  four  months  of  service  will  absorb 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  519 

these  vapors  to  the  extent  of  about  12  per  cent  of  its  own  volume. 
After  that,  a  saturated  condition  appears  to  be  obtained  and 
absorption  ceases.  A  very  small  per  cent  of  absorption  lowers 
the  congealing  point  considerably.  Any  oil  drained  from  a 
meter  is  disposed  of  with  other  condensation,  and  new  oil 
supplied  for  the  re-oiling  process. 

At  this  point  it  might  be  stated  that  several  companies  using 
the  dipping  process  and  making  their  own  diaphragms,  have 
replaced  the  special  diaphragm  oil  formerly  used  on  new  dia- 
phragms, with  the  neutral  oil,  it  being  obvious  that  since  the 
diaphragm  would,  after  a  few  months  of  life,  lose  the  diaphragm 
oil  and  absorb  the  neutral  oil,  there  was  no  advantage  in  handling 
two  kinds  of  oil  in  the  repair  shop. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  OIL 

It  has  been  found  perfectly  feasible  to  introduce  oil  into 
meters  brought  in  from  service  without  removing  any  part  of 
the  case,  and  the  meter  so  oiled  may  be  put  back  into  use  with 
perfect  assurance  that  its  condition  has  been  improved.  This 
ability  to  convert  into  dipping  meters,  at  very  slight  expense, 
every  meter  brought  in  from  service,  materially  cheapens  such  a 
change  of  all  the  meters  in  any  situation.  In  this  way,  Phila- 
delphia converted  about  400,000  meters  in  twelve  years. 

In  following  such  a  plan  of  conversion,  the  meters  become 
divided  into  three  classes: 

Class  1.     Meters  not  yet  converted,  known  as  nondipping 

meters. 

Class  2.  (a)  Meters,  the  clearance  of  whose  diaphragm  off 
the  bottom  of  the  case  is  not  definitely  known. 
Such  are  usually  all  meters  brought  in  from 
service  into  which  oil  is  put  without  first  remov- 
ing front  and  back  plates.  The  only  exception 
would  be  meters  known  to  have  been  equipped 
with  diaphragms  of  definite  dimensions. 

(b)  Meters  whose  diaphragm  clearance  is  more 
than  iV  and  not  over  f-inch. 

(c)  Meters,    comparatively    rare,     whose    dia- 
phragm clearance  is  more  than   f-inch.     They 
have  an  additional  designating  mark,  and  a  record 
is  kept  of  the  oil  put  in,  for  use  if  subsequent 
re-oiling   occurs   without   exposure   of    the   dia- 
phragms. 


520  METER  WORK 

All  Class  2  meters  are  known  as  dippers,  and 
are  identified  by  the  use  of  roundheaded  rivets 
in  the  drain  holes. 

Class  3.  Meters  whose  diaphragm  clearance  is  j^-inch  or 
less,  as  determined  at  the  time  of  putting  in  new 
or  cleaning  old  diaphragms.  These  are  also 
known  as  dippers,  and  are  identified  by  the  use 
of  flathead  rivets. 


Figure  158— Draining  Meter,  page  521. 

The  instructions  for  the  introduction  of  oil  are  as  follows: 
Remove  any  liquid  from  the  columns  by  the  small 
hand  pump  (B,  Figure  70,  page  203).     Lay  the  meter 
on  the  inlet  side,  and,  with  a  long  taper  shoulder  punch 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 

and  a  light  hammer,  make,  in  the  outlet  side,  two 
i-inch  holes,  each  f-inch  above  the  bottom  and 
midway  between  the  center  partition  and  the  outside 
of  the  meter.  Use  a  scribe,  properly  set  to  mark 
the  height  above  the  bottom,  to  insure  uniformity  and 
the  clearance  of  any  bottom  flange.  Lay  the  meter 


Figure  159— Oiling  Meter,  page  521. 

on  the  outlet  side,  and  allow  the  condensation  to 
drain  out  of  the  diaphragm  chamber  through  the  two 
holes,  Figure  158.  Then  reverse  the  meter  and,  by 
the  use  of  funnels  of  special  design  inserted  in  the 
holes,  pour  into  each  diaphragm  chamber  the  amount 
of  oil  required  by  the  particular  meter  in  question, 
Figure  159.  After  the  removal  of  the  funnels,  scrape 


522 


METER  WORK 


clean  of  paint  and  wipe  dry  the  surface  within  ^-inch 

of  each  drain  hole.     Insert  a  tinned  rivet  in  each  hole 

and  lightly  tap  it  home.     Sweat  each  rivet  in  position 

with  a  rather  cool  soldering  iron,  and  make  a  neat  job 

by  finishing  around  each  head  with  the  iron.     If  the 

tin  coating  around  the  drain  holes  is  defective,  re-tin 

before  inserting  the  rivet.     Emphasis  is  laid  on  these 

details  of  closing  the  drain  holes,  as  carelessness  in  this 

regard  will  result  in  oil  leaks, —  a  source  of  expense  to 

the  company  and  of  annoyance  to  the  consumer. 

It  has  been  stated  before  that  it  is  desired  that  each  diaphragm 

should  be  immersed  at  least  ^-inch.     Therefore,  the  amount 

of  oil  required  by  any  meter  depends  not  only  upon  the  area  of 

its  cross  section,  but  also  upon  the  clearance  of  its  diaphragm. 

In  the  following  table,  the  oil  for  3-,  5-,  10-  and  30-lt.  meters  is 

based,  for  Class  2,  on  an  assumption  of  f-inch,  and  for  Class  3 

on  -j^-inch  clearance.     For  all  the  other  sizes  the  diaphragms  are 

assumed  to  be  touching  the  bottom.     Therefore,  all  the  meters 

of  this  class  are  sure  to  have  sufficient  immersion  except  Class  2 

(c)  until    the  latter  has  been  opened  and  properly  marked. 


Size  of 
Meter 

Ounces  of  Oil 

Class  2 

Class  3 

3-lt. 

20 

10 

5-lt. 

24 

10 

10-lt. 

34 

16 

20-lt. 

22 

22 

30-lt. 

68 

32 

45-lt. 

38 

38 

60-lt. 

47 

47 

100-lt. 

60 

60 

150-lt. 

98 

98 

200-lt. 

98 

98 

300-lt. 

124 

124 

S-A 

— 

10 

10-  A 



16 

30-A 



32 

60-A 



64 

150-A 

— 

110 

The  method  of  determining  the  above  quantities  of  oil  is  as 
follows,  all  dimensions  being  expressed  in  inches:  Width  of 
diaphragm  chamber,  times  depth  of  chamber,  times  height  of  oil, 
i.  e.,  clearance  of  diaphragm  plus  ^-inch,  divided  by  1.8,  equals 
ounces  of  oil  required  in  each  chamber. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  523 

TREATMENT  AFTER  OILING 

After  introducing  oil  into  a  3,  5  or  10-lt.  meter,  it  should  be 
laid  on  its  outlet  side  for  two  days,  then  for  the  same  time  on  its 
inlet  side,  and  then  stood  on  its  bottom  for  six  days.  Meters 
20  to  100-lt.  inclusive  should  be  laid  on  their  outlet  side  for  ten 
days,  and  then  for  the  same  period  on  their  inlet  side.  Racks 
or  suitable  blocking,  should  be  employed  to  enable  the  sides  of 
the  meters  to  be  kept  in  horizontal  planes.  A  meter  should  be 
slowly  lowered  on  its  outlet  side  to  prevent  a  wave  of  oil  reaching 
the  valve  seats.  The  endeavor  is  to  insure  the  complete  satura- 
tion of  the  diaphragms  to  permit  them  to  attain  their  most 
permanent  condition  before  making  the  check  test  subsequent 
to  the  introduction  of  the  dipping  oil.  On  this  final  check  test, 
the  proof  usually  is  more  nearly  correct  than  that  of  the  check 
test  after  removal  from  service,  for  the  general  effect  of  the  oil  is 
to  make  a  slow  meter  faster,  and  vice  versa;  in  other  words,  to 
bring  the  meter  back  toward  the  condition  of  correct  registration 


Figure  160— Draining  and  Oiling  Table  for  Large  Meters, 
page  524. 


524  METER  WORK 

in  which  it  was  first  set.  A  knowledge  of  this  corrective  effect  of 
the  oil  permits  the  allowance  of  wider  limits  of  error  before  remov- 
ing the  top  and  adjusting  on  the  first  check  test. 

The  preceding  paragraph  refers  only  to  meters  into  which  oil 
is  introduced  the  first  time  upon  diaphragms  which  have  not 
just  been  put  in,  or,  being  old  diaphragms,  have  not  been  exposed 
and  oiled  by  hand. 

A  careful  inspection  of  each  meter  should  be  made  for  oil  leaks 
at  bottom  seams,  corners  and  rivets.  To  render  such  leaks  less 
likely  of  occurrence,  the  bottom  corners  should  be  loaded  with 
solder,  whether  or  not  the  front  and  back  plates  are  removed. 

The  removal  of  liquid  from  a  dipping  meter  brought  in  from 
service  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  make  repairs  locally,  or 
prior  to  shipment  if  repairs  are  made  elsewhere;  or  if  the  amount 
of  liquid  in  the  meter  is  thought  to  be  excessive.  The  only  way 
to  determine  this  is  by  the  increased  weight  and  by  shaking  in 
order  to  judge  by  the  swash.  A  thorough  draining  prior  to  the 
shipment  of  a  meter  reduces  the  possibility  of  oil  finding  its  way 
to  valve  seats. 

EQUIPMENT 

The  tinned  rivets  used  have  a  shank  ^-inch  in  diameter  and 
i-inch  long  under  the  head.  The  diameter  of  the  flat  head  is 
3^-inch  and  of  the  round  head,  j^-inch. 

The  equipment  found  useful  comprises  the  following  articles : 
3  Measuring  Cups,  10-,  16-  and  24-oz., 
12  Special  Funnels, 
2  Gauges  for  determining  height  of  diaphragm,  YS-  and  f-in., 

1  Graduate, 

2  Meter  Column  Pumps, 

1  j-in.  Shoulder  Punch,  with  long  taper, 
1  Scraper, 

1  Scribe  for  marking  height  of  drain  holes, 
1  Draining  and  Oiling  Table  for  small  meters,  Figure  159, 

large  meters,  Figure  160, 
1  60-gal.  Oil  Tank  and  Pump. 

TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 

EXPLANATORY 

The  interdependence  of  the  various  tests  and  the  relation  of 
each  test  to  the  needed  repair  that  it  may  indicate,  will  become 
apparent  after  the  different  tests  and  repairs  have  been  described. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  525 

1 1  will  be  seen  throughout  that  the  one  object  underlying  all  meter 
repairing  and  testing,  after  the  initial  test  for  purposes  of 
recording  has  been  made,  is  to  place  in  condition  for  re- setting, 
as  quickly  and,  with  reference  to  the  ultimate  life  of  the  meter, 
as  economically  as  possible,  every  meter  brought  in  from  service. 
The  text  will  be  easier  to  understand  if  frequent  reference  is 
made  to  the  previous  illustrations  of  the  meter  and  its  action, 
more  particularly  Figures  118  and  120,  pages  431  and  438  respect- 
ively. As  local  conditions  will  determine  the  precise  order  best 
suited  to  any  situation,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  an 
ideal  procedure  from  the  time  of  removal  until  the  meter  is  again 
ready  for  use.  The  principal  tests  and  repairs  will  be  described 
separately,  and  this  will  be  followed  by  a  discussion  of  some 
considerations  influencing  the  location  chosen  for  this  work  and 
the  order  of  work  as  now  observed  in  Philadelphia.  There 
will  be  no  description  in  detail  of  the  dismantling  or  re-assembling 
of  a  meter. 

INSPECTION  OF  NEW  METERS 

Before  entering  into  the  details  of  the  work  on  removed  meters, 
a  few  words  will  be  said  as  to  the  precautions  advisable  to  insure 
the  correctness  of  all  new  meters.  It  has  been  the  good  fortune 
of  the  gas  industry  that  the  manufacture  of  the  gas  meter  has 
been  characterized  always  by  high  principles  and  skilled  methods. 
Therefore,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  a  new  meter,  as 
received  from  the  manufacturer,  is  in  correct  working  order.  At 
the  same  time,  the  gas  companies,  with  a  full  appreciation  of 
their  obligation  to  the  public,  have  always  made  certain  tests  of 
these  new  meters  prior  to  placing  them  in  service.  The  practice 
in  Philadelphia  is  as  follows: 

One  out  of  every  ten  meters  is  given  the  open  test,  consisting, 
as  described  below,  of  a  comparison  between  the  open  and  check 
runs,  and  including  the  check  test  which  shows  the  proof  of  the 
meter.  One-tenth  of  these  meters,  selected  at  random,  are 
tested  for  capacity  under  a  five-tenths  loss  in  pressure,  and  then 
examined  for  defects  in  workmanship  by  taking  off  the  top,  front 
and  back  plate,  thus  exposing  the  working  parts  above  the  table 
top  and  the  diaphragms.  If  the  meters  are  over  the  allowable 
error  on  the  check  or  open  test,  or  if  the  diaphragms  touch  the 
bottom  or  sides  of  the  compartment,  or  if  serious  defects  in  work- 
manship are  discovered,  the  meters  are  returned  to  the  makers. 
At  one  time  every  new  meter  was  given  the  check  test,  and  10 
per  cent  the  open  test.  Experience  proved,  however,  that  the 


526 


METER  WORK 


condition  of  the  meters  as  received  was  too  good  to  warrant  so 
much    testing.     Philadelphia    is    favorably    situated    in    this 


Figure  161— Saturator  Showing  Gas  Inlet  (top)  and  Outlet 
(bottom),  page  527. 


ft  TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  527 

respect,  all  of  its  meters  being  made  within  the  city  and  delivered 
by  wagon.  In  situations  receiving  meters  via  railroad,  more 
extensive  testing  will  probably  prove  advisable. 

To  those  who  know  the  great  care  exercised  to  see  that,  at  all 
times,  both  new  and  removed  meters  register  correctly,  the  folly 
of  governmental  performance  or  supervision  of  this  meter 
testing  work,  and  the  waste  entailed  thereby,  are  hard  to  con- 
template calmly,  and  the  optimist  must  cherish  the  hope  that  it 
will  cease  as  part  of  a  general  advance  in  national  efficiency. 

MEDIUM  USED 

Air  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  medium  generally  used  for  the 
various  tests.  Drawn  from  the  workroom,  it  is  more  convenient 
to  use  than  air  saturated  with  oil  and  water  vapor,  and  much 
more  so  than  gas  similarly  saturated.  There  is  a  growing 
appreciation,  however,  that  after  a  meter  has  once  been  in 
service,  its  condition  is  affected  by  being  brought  in  contact  with 
an  unsaturated  medium,  the  tendency  of  which  is  to  pick  up 
vapors  from  the  meter  interior  and  hence  to  alter  the  condition  of 
the  valves  and  the  diaphragm  leather,  and  to  undergo  a  change 
in  its  own  volume,  all  of  which  will  affect  the  proof  of  the  meter. 

Therefore,  there  is  good  reason  for  the  use  of  saturated  gas  in 
the  check  test  in  order  that  the  latter  closely  represent  the  work- 
ing condition  of  the  meter  at  the  time  of  its  disconnection,  which 
has  been  preserved  by  the  capping  of  the  columns  on  removal. 

Saturated  gas  has  been  used  in  Philadelphia  since  1913  for  the 
check  test  of  every  meter  removed  from  service.  The  gas 
coming  from  the  street  is  passed  through  a  "saturator,"  a  copper 
cylinder  jacketed  with  hot  water.  Water,  admitted  at  the  inlet, 
and  drip  oil,  at  the  outlet  of  the  saturator,  are  vaporized  and 
picked  up  by  the  gas  which  becomes  heated  in  its  passage  through 
the  cylinder.  Tin  cooling  chambers  are  provided  for  reducing 
the  temperature  of  the  saturated  gas  to  that  of  the  proving  room. 
The  gas  pressure  is  utilized  for  raising  the  prover  bell.  After 
passing  through  the  meter,  the  gas  escapes  through  ventilators. 
Figures  161  and  162  are  two  illustrations  of  this  apparatus  in  an 
earlier  form,  with  the  drip  oil  admitted  at  the  inlet. 

In  Philadelphia,  gas  is  also  used  on  meters  brought  in  from 
service,  for  all  other  tests  affecting  diaphragms.  The  meter  being 
still  full  of  gas  at  the  completion  of  the  check  test,  the  continued 
use  of  gas  for  additional  tests  obviates  all  danger  of  explosion. 


528 


METER  WORK 


It    is   believed   that   the   gas   as  drawn  from  the  street  is  less 
harmful  to  the  meter  than  unsaturated  air  would  be. 


Figure  162-Saturator  Showing  Heating  Burners  under  Water 
Jacket,  page  527. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  529 

f 
the  use  of  air. 


.f  j-io  .i  .i  i »  cr    SLJ.1J.S    J.\JJ,JT  ^i  j.  J.\JL  j.vv  o/V 

As  the  use  of  gas  for  the  testing  medium  is  not  very  common 
in  this  country,  the  description  of  the  different  tests  will  assume 

i-V»o    1100    r\f    oi«- 


CHECK  (OR  PROOF)  TEST 
REASON  FOR  TEST 

In  discussing  the  reasons  for  removing  a  meter,  it  was  stated 
that  the  principal  object  was  "  to  insure  the  maximum  of  correct 
registration."  Hence,  it  is  obvious  that  the  first  test  to  be  made 
of  a  removed  meter  is  to  ascertain  its  "proof,"  which  is  the 
accepted  term  used  to  designate  its  condition  of  registration. 
This  proof  test  not  only  indicates  what  has  been  the  registration 
history  of  the  meter  in  the  recent  past,  but  also  serves  as  a  valu- 
able diagnosis  of  its  present  condition  from  which  to  determine 
the  necessary  subsequent  testing  and  repairing. 

The  check  test  is  given  to  every  meter  removed  from  service. 
It  shows  the  accuracy  with  which  the  meter  was  registering  gas 
for  the  consumer  at  the  time  of  removal.  Its  result  is,  therefore, 
of  value  in  dealing  with  consumers,  and  in  tabulating  and  sum- 
marizing meter  tests,  and  also  in  deciding  what  is  needed  in  order 
to  fit  the  meter  again  for  service.  Meters  testing  over  1  0  per  cent 
.wrong  are  sent  to  the  repair  shop.  Those  under  10  per  cent  are 
given  other  tests  at  the  district  shops,  and  if  they  pass,  they  are 
adjusted  and  put  into  O.  K.  stock. 

The  check  test  is  also  given  to  all  meters  that  have  been 
repaired,  as  a  part  of  the  process  of  adjusting  them  to  correct 
registration. 

PROVER 

In  describing,  on  page  417,  the  principle  of  measurement  of  a 
meter,  it  was  shown  that  this  consisted  in  filling  and  emptying 
a  measure  of  standard  volume.  It  easily  is  seen,  therefore,  that 
the  accuracy  of  measurement  may  be  tested  by  passing  a  known 
volume  through  the  meter  and  noting  the  corresponding  move- 
ment of  the  proving  head  pointer  (34,  Figure  120,  page  438). 

The  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is  called  a  "meter  prover," 
Figure  163.  There  is  a  metal  tank,  1,  filled  with  water,  which 
acts  as  a  seal  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas  or  air  from  the  prover 
bell,  2,  a  hollow  metal  cylinder  with  a  dome-shaped  top  and  no 
bottom,  guided  between  three  columns  as  it  rises  out  of  or 
descends  into  the  water.  It  is  raised  by  pulling  down  on  the 
grip,  3,  communicating  by  the  chain,  4,  over  the  wheel,  5,  with 
the  top  of  the  bell.  A  counterbalance  weight,  6,  is  supported 
from  the  cycloid,  7,  and  thus  the  pressure  thrown  by  the  bell 


530 


METER  WORK 


Figure  163— Meter  Prover,  page  529. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  531 

remains  constant,  being  made  independent  of  the  extent  of 
immersion.  The  amount  of  this  pressure  is  determined  by  the 
weight  of  the  counterbalance,  and  usually  is  1.5  inches.  The 
capacity  of  the  bell,  from  a  careful  determination,  is  marked  in 
cubic  feet  arid  decimal  fractions  on  the  vertical  scale,  9.  This 
scale,  in  connection  with  the  pointer,  10,  projecting  from  the 
tank  top,  enables  an  accurate  measurement  of  the  volume  pass- 
ing out  of  the  bell  as  it  descends  into  the  tank.  A  revolving 
valve,  11 ,  communicates  with  the  interior  of  the  bell  by  the  pipe, 
12,  on  which  there  are  two  outlet  cocks,  13,  so  that  the  meter 
to  be  proved  may  be  placed  either  to  the  right  or  left  of  the 
tank.  From  the  cock,  piping  and  rubber  hose  form  the  con- 
nection to  the  meter.  One  thermometer,  14,  measures  the  air 
temperature  at  the  prover,  and  another,  15,  that  of  the  water. 
A  pressure  gauge,  16,  connected  beyond  the  outlet  cock,  shows 
the  pressure  maintained  during  the  test. 

For  a  small  company,  a  prover  with  a  bell  capacity  of  five  cubic 
feet  is  recommended.  A  large  company,  or  one  owning  meters 
larger  than  100-lt.,  will  need  a  10-foot  size.  A  copper  bell  and 
brass  tank  will  prove  most  economical  in  the  long  run.  It  is 
general  practice  to  calibrate  each  prover  at  regular  intervals 
against  a  standard  cubic  foot  bottle.  Details  of  this  operation 
and  of  the  use  of  meter  proving  apparatus  are  given  in  Pamphlet 
No.  48  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 

METER  CONDITION 

The  desire  in  proving  a  meter  being  to  test  it  under  as  close  to 
actual  operating  conditions  as  possible,  it  is  tightly  capped  (see 
page  512)  on  removal.  It  also  should  be  handled  carefully  and 
kept  upright  to  prevent  any  change  in  interior  conditions.  On 
its  receipt  at  the  prover  room,  it  should  be  placed  above  the 
floor  and  out  of  drafts,  and  allowed  to  stand  at  least  five  hours, 
and  preferably  over  night,  before  testing,  in  order  that  its 
interior  may  attain  the  oom  temperature.  Under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, any  further  delay  will  only  tend  to  increase  the 
chance  of  a  change  in  meter  condition,  so  a  safe  rule  to  follow 
is  to  test  not  later  than  the  next  working  day  after  receipt. 
This  point  of  allowing  sufficient  but  not  excessive  time  be- 
tween receipt  and  proving,  is  emphasized,  as  in  the  past  not 
enough  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  requirement  by  some 
companies,  and  carelessness  in  this  respect  gives  tests  of  no 
reliability. 


532  METER  WORK 

TEMPERATURE  REQUIREMENTS 

As  a  difference  of  5  degrees  in  temperature  causes  a  change  of 
about  1  per  cent  in  the  volume  of  a  gas,  it  is  essential  that  there 
be  on  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  measuring  medium  from 
the  time  that  it  leaves  the  prover  bell  until  it  has  passed  through 
the  meter.  To  meet  this  requirement,  the  temperature  of  the  air 
in  the  room,  at  the  prover,  and  of  the  water  in  the  prover  should 
not  differ  by  more  than  one  degree.  The  thermometers  used  to 
measure  these  respective  temperatures  should  be  checked  against 
a  standard  thermometer  and  each  other  annually,  and  the 
working  thermometers  should  agree  within  one  degree  throughout 
the  range  between  60°  and  100°  F. 

The  ideal  temperature  of  a  proving  room  is  the  standard  one  of 
62°  F.,  but  practically  the  only  requirement  is  the  uniformity 
just  described.  Proper  maintenance  of  the  room  temperature 
may  be  obtained  by  adequate  heating  facilities  and  construction. 
It  is  clear  that  there  never  should  be  a  rapid  change  in  this  tem- 
perature, for  this  would  complicate  excessively  the  task  of 
keeping  room,  water  and  meter  temperatures  the  same.  The 
location  of  the  prover  must  also  be  chosen  so  that  the  surrounding 
air  will  be  uniform  in  temperature  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  room. 

To  control  the  water  temperature  most  conveniently  involves 
the  ability  to  deliver  into  the  prover  tank  either  hot  or  cold  water. 
Both  supplies  and  the  draw-off  connection  should  enter  at  the 
bottom.  After  any  change  of  water,  the  entire  contents  should 
be  agitated  until  the  temperature  is  the  same  throughout. 

The  use  of  water  in  the  tank  introduces  a  slight  source  of 
error  through  temperature  changes.  As  the  bell  rises,  water 
clings  to  both  outer  and  inner  surfaces.  Evaporation  from  these 
films  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  from  the  water  surface  within  the 
bell,  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  adjoining  air,  and,  therefore, 
of  the  bell  contents.  If  the  latter  is  used  immediately,  this  will 
result  in  a  slight  expansion  of  the  measuring  medium  as  it  passes 
through  the  meter,  because  the  latter  is  at  the  general  room 
temperature,  and  this  change  in  volume  during  the  passage  from 
the  bell  through  the  meter  is  the  cause  of  the  error  already 
alluded  to.  This  may  be  avoided  by  placing  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water,  a  4-inch  layer  composed  of  a  mixture  of  1|  parts  of 
No.  4  Neutral  and  1  part  of  "long-time  burner  "  oil.  As  the  bell 
rises,  it  is  coated  with  an  oil  film,  the  evaporation  from  which 
may  be  ^  disregarded  because  of  its  low  vapor  tension.  The 
mixture  is  also  sufficiently  viscous  to  adhere  to  the  bell  surfaces 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  533 

for  a  considerable  time  after  submergence,  so  a  prover  in  con- 
stant use  is  uniformly  oil  coated.  The  prover  bell  should  be 
filled,  at  all  times,  when  not  in  use.  Each  morning  the  outside 
surface  of  the  bell  should  be  wiped,  using  clean  muslin  or  cheese- 
cloth, with  a  light  upward  stroke.  If  the  surface  is  of  polished 
metal,  it  should  be  rubbed  lightly  once  a  month  with  a  good 
metal  polish,  and  a  very  thin  film  of  polish  left  on. 

RATE  OF  FLOW 

The  rate  of  flow  of  the  measuring  medium  is  controlled  by  an 
opening  in  a  cap  screwed  on  the  meter  outlet.  The  theory 
underlying  the  adoption  of  any  rate  is  that  it  should  approximate 
the  average  conditions  under  which  the  meter  actually  operated. 
The  assumptions  of  former  years,  which  unfortunately  have  been 
embodied  in  the  regulations  of  many  states  and  municipalities, 
resulted  in  the  adoption,  for  each  size  meter,  of  an  opening  that, 
with  a  pressure  of  1.5  inches  at  the  inlet,  would  pass  per  hour, 
6  cubic  feet  for  each  light  of  the  meter,  this  being  what  was 
formerly  considered  the  meter  capacity.  Column  C  of  the  table, 
Figure  164,  shows,  for  each  size  meter,  what  the  test  rate  would 
be  according  to  this  rule.  For  comparison,  in  Column  B  is 
given  the  actual  capacity  under  five-tenths  loss,  and  it  is  thus 
apparent  that  the  test  rate  for  the  smaller  sizes  is  but  a  small 
per  cent  of  the  capacity,  gradually  increasing  to  practically  100 
per  cent  in  the  larger.  Therefore,  consistency  demands  either 
a  lowering  of  the  latter  rates  or  a  raising  of  the  former.  As 
experience  teaches  that  in  these  days  of  increasing  uses  for  gas, 
the  smaller  meters  are  more  apt  to  be  worked  to  capacity  than 
the  larger  ones,  then  to  make  the  test  rate  approximate  the 
condition  of  use,  figures  as  given  in  Columns  D  or  E,  which 
roughly  represent  the  capacity  under  three-tenths  loss,  should 
be  adopted.  Column  D,  which  is  Philadelphia  practice,  accepts 
the  6-cubic-foot  per  light  rate  for  meters  20-lt.  and  larger. 
However,  in  testing  "A"  meters  at  the  same  rate  as  the  correspond- 
ing case  size,  it  is  not  consistent,  and  in  this  respect  the  practice 
of  some  other  companies,  as  shown  in  Column  E,  otherwise  much 
the  same.,  is  preferable.  Column  F  shows  the  approximate 
diameter  of  the  openings  in  the  caps  used  by  tehse  companies. 

It  has  been  stated  twice  previously  that  the  test  rate  should 
approximate  the  former  operating  conditions.  Of  course,  these 
conditions  vary  greatly,  even  for  the  same  size  of  meter,  for 
different  conditions  of  use.  One  meter  may  work  for  many  hours 
at  a  very  slow  rate,  and  for  a  short  time  at  such  a  high  rate  that 


534 


METER  WORK 


the  majority  of  the  consumption  is  thus  registered.  In  another 
meter  the  conditions  will  be  reversed,  and  in  still  others  will  exist 
all  conditions  between  these  two  extremes.  Therefore,  as  the 
actual  operating  conditions  are  never  known,  the  weight  of  expert 


A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

( 

:heck  Test  Rate 

i 

*Approximate 
Diameter 

Size  of 

Meter 

.05PLoss 

At  6  Ft. 
per  Light 

Philadelphia 
Practice 

Certain  Other 
Companies 

of  Opening 
in  Cap 

3-lt. 

65 

18 

40 

30 

& 

5-lt. 

90 

30 

50 

40 

& 

5-A 

175 



50 

100 

if 

10-lt. 

140 

60 

80 

70 

H 

10-A 
20-lt. 

375 
200 

120 

80 
120 

215 
100 

If 

30-lt. 

280 

180 

180 

160 

££ 

30-A 

875 

— 

180 

575 

|§ 

45-lt. 

315 

270 

270 

215 

A 

60-lt. 

475 

360 

360 

330 

M 

60-A 

1500 

— 

360 

800 

§| 

100-lt. 

600 

600 

600 

575 

|| 

150-lt. 

1015 

900 

900 

800 

§| 

150-A 

3400 

— 

900 

1500 

itC 

200-lt. 

1380 

1200 

1000 

1000 

1 

300-lt. 

1635 

1800 

1500 

1500 

1& 

*  Thickness  of  brass  at  opening,  yg  to  £-inch. 
Figure  164.     Check  Test  Rates,  page  533. 

opinion  is  against  testing  at  more  than  one  rate,  holding  that  the 
extra  expense  involved  is  not  warranted,  because  it  is  impos- 
sible to  prove  that  greater  accuracy  results  from  testing  at  two 
or  more  rates. 

TEST  PROCEDURE 

The  meter  inlet  screw  is  connected  to  the  union  at  the  end  of 
the  rubber  hose,  1 7,  Figure  163.  The  washer  should  be  clean  and 
in  good  condition,  and  excessive  tightening  of  the  union  avoided, 
as  this  is  more  apt  to  cause  leaks  than  to  stop  them.  When  the 
check  test  is  being  made  during  the  repair  of  a  meter,  and  the 
inlet  screw  is  missing,  the  right  sized  screw  should  be  connected 
to  the  hose,  the  shank  inserted  in  the  meter  column  and  putty 
used  for  a  tight  joint.  A  cone-shaped  tin  tube  should  not  be 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  535 

used  at  this  time,  as  it  might  cut  down  the  flow  below  the  check 
test  rate. 

It  is,  of  course,  absolutely  essential  that  all  of  the  air  that  comes 
out  of  the  prover  bell  passes  through  the  meter  outlet;  in  other 
words,  that  no  leaks  exist  in  the  meter  or  its  connection  to  the 
prover.  To  test  this,  the  outlet  cock  is  opened,  and  when  air 
issues  freely  from  the  meter  outlet,  the  latter  is  covered  tightly 
by  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  cock  shut.  If  the  pressure  in  the 
gauge  drops,  there  is  a  leak  somewhere  beyond  the  outlet  cock, 
to  be  found  and  stopped.  Were  the  test  made  by  covering  the 
outlet  as  soon  as  the  cock  was  opened,  the  pressure  gauge  might 
indicate  no  leak,  and  yet  one  might  exist  in  the  meter  and  not  be 
evident,  because  the  meter  was  stuck  and  the  leak  would  not 
show  before  motion  took  place. 

When  the  pressure  test  is  satisfied,  enough  air  should  be  sent 
through  the  meter  to  set  it  moving  freely,  after  its  day  of  inaction 
and  to  insure  the  same  temperature  in  the  meter  as  in  the  prover. 
WThen  meters  undergoing  repair  are  being  tested  with  the  tops 
off,  it  is  found  that  at  least  three  revolutions  of  the  tangent  arm 
are  required.  In  the  check  test  being  described,  the  top  is  on 
and,  therefore,  the  motion  of  the  tangent  arm  is  not  visible,  but 
an  experienced  workman  knows  instinctively  when  the  meter 
reaches  a  normal  working  condition.  Then  the  check  test  cap  is 
screwed  on  the  meter  outlet  and  air  passed  through  until  the 
proving  head  pointer  (better  known  in  this  connection  as  the 
test  hand)  is  over  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  proving  head  circle. 
There  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  difference  of  opinion  whether  the 
test  should  start  at  the  bottom,  top  or  side  of  the  circle,  and  if 
the  latter,  on  the  up  or  down  stroke.  If  the  meter  mechanism 
had  no  backlash  or  lost  motion,  the  choice  of  the  starting  point 
could  have  no  effect  on  the  result  of  the  test,  but  to  avoid  these 
sources  of  error,  the  side  position  is  most  in  favor,  with  the 
weight  of  authority  favoring  the  up  stroke.  The  purpose  of 
screwing  on  the  check  test  cap  before  the  test  hand  is  brought  to 
the  starting  point,  is  to  bring  the  meter  to  a  moderate  speed 
before  the  test  begins. 

The  test  hand  being  over  the  proper  division,  the  bell  of  the 
prover  is  raised  until  the  zero  mark  of  the  vertical  scale  is  slightly 
above  the  pointer.  Then,  by  careful  handling  of  the  revolving 
valve,  air  is  let  put  of  the  bell  until  the  zero  is  just  opposite  the 
pointer.  At  this  stage,  all  the  preliminaries  are  complete,  and 
with  the  opening  of  the  outlet  cock  begins  the  proof  test,  which 


536  METER  WORK 

is  a  measurement  in  two  different  ways  of  the  same  volume  of  air. 
The  first,  which  is  also  the  standard  measurement,  is  the  amount 
which  goes  out  of  the  prover  bell,  as  shown  by  the  movement  of 
the  vertical  scale  down  past  the  pointer.  The  second,  which  is 
the  measurement  being  tested,  is  the  registration  of  the  test  hand 
by  its  movement  over  the  proving  head  circle.  Because  the 
divisions  on  the  circle  are  few  and  those  on  the  scale  numerous, 
it  is  necessary  to  end  the  test  after  one  or  more  complete  revolu- 
tions of  the  test  hand,  and  by  reading  the  exact  position  of  the 
pointer  on  the  scale,  determine  the  character  and  extent  of  any 
error  in  registration,  as  hereinafter  explained.  Therefore,  when 
the  test  hand  has  reached  its  starting  point,  the  outlet  cock  is 
closed.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  necessity  for 
great  accuracy  in  the  start  and  stop  of  a  test  with  reference  to 
the  position  of  the  test  hand  over  the  division  of  the  proving  head 
circle  and  the  prover  pointer  over  the  zero  of  the  scale.  Until 
practice  enables  speed  without  the  sacrifice  of  accuracy,  the 
workman  should  resist  any  temptation  to  fast  work. 

In  making  a  check  test  with  the  top  off,,  the  position  of  the 
tangent  arm,  and  not  of  the  test  hand,  is  the  guide.  The  outlet 
cock  is  closed  when  the  tangent  arm  has  made  the  nearest 
number  of  complete  revolutions  corresponding  to  one  revolution 
of  the  test  hand.  Such  a  test  avoids  any  error  due  to  lost 
motion  in  the  gearing. 

Theoretically,  the  effect  on  the  test  result  of  the  error  of 
observation  for  the  correct  position  of  the  test  hand  at  starting 
and  stopping,  will  be  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  test  hand  included  in  one  test,  and,  therefore, 
some  companies  make  two  revolutions.  There  is  plenty  of  ex- 
perience, however,  to  show  that  results  of  equal  commercial 
accuracy  are  possible  with  one  revolution,  and  so  due  regard  for 
economy  of  time  (and  where  gas  is  used,  of  material)  should 
make  this  the  practice,  especially  in  large  situations. 

With  the  same  idea  of  obtaining  increased  accuracy,  it  is  argued 
that  the  proof  of  the  meter  should  be  based  on  the  average  of  two 
or  more  tests  or  "runs."  What  should  be  considered  as  the 
determining  objection  to  this  proposal  and  the  convincing 
reason  for  one  run  only,  is  that  with  the  use  of  unsaturated  air, 
the  condition  of  the  meter  changes  with  each  run,  and,  therefore, 
the  average  of  more  than  one  run  is  not  nearer  to,  but  further 
from,  the  true  condition  of  the  meter  as  it  was  when  in  service, 
than  is  the  result  obtained  from  the  first  run.  Ordinarily,  each 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  537 

run  gives  a  result  "faster"  than  the  one  preceding,  for  as  the 
vapors  are  absorbed  from  the  diaphragm,  it  becomes  dry  and 
tends  to  shrink.  (See  the  first  "condition"  under  "Fast 
Meters,"  page  516).  This  change  in  the  meter,  due  to  the 
absorption  of  vapors,  has  been  previously  referred  to  in  giving 
the  reasons  for  the  use  of  saturated  gas.  When  employing  the 
latter  medium,  repeated  runs  are  unnecessary  because  the  result 
of  each  run  is  the  same,  due  to  the  unchanged  meter  con- 
dition. 

REPORT  OF  RESULTS 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  check  test,  these  facts  are  known  :  The 
test  hand  has  made  one  or  more  complete  revolutions  equalling  a 
whole  number  of  cubic  feet,  while  the  prover  bell  has  moved 
down  a  distance,  amounting  to,  as  shown  on  the  scale,  either  more 
or  less  than  the  volume  indicated  by  the  test  hand.  This  on  the 
supposition  that  the  meter  is  not  correct,  but  either  fast  or  slow, 
viz.,  registers  either  more  or  less  than  the  true  amount.  Let  us 
assume  that  the  test  hand  moved  2  feet  and  the  prover  1.96  feet 
("cubic"  is  omitted  for  brevity).  Then  the  error  of  the  meter 
expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  volume  actually  passing  out  of 


the  prover,  would    be  ==2.04  per  cent  fast. 

This  expression  of  the  result  as  a  percentage  of  the  volume 
actually  delivered,  hereafter  referred  to  as  Method  "  D,"  gives 
the  only  correct  indication  of  the  accuracy  of  registration  and 
would  be  universally  followed  were  it  not  for  two  conditions. 
The  first  is  as  mentioned  before,  that  the  few  divisions  on,  and 
the  small  size  of,  the  proving  head  circle  make  it  necessary  to 
stop  a  test  after  a  whole  number  of  feet  have  been  registered  by 
the  meter,  so  that  if  the  meter  is  in  error,  a  fraction  more  or  less 
of  this  number  of  feet  has  passed  out  of  the  prover.  Thus,  the 
volume  registered  is  a  whole  number,  while  the  true  volume, 
which  is  the  volume  passed,  can  only  be  expressed  by  the  aid 
of  fractions  or  decimals.  This  has  a  tendency  to  make  the 
volume  registered  (in  the  example  cited,  2.0  feet)  be  regarded  as 

/  ry    AA          1    QA\ 

the  standard  and  the  meter  considered  —  "   2       '  —  X  100  =  2.00 

per  cent  fast.-  This  expression  of  the  test  result  will  be  called 
Method  "  R."  If  it  were  possible  to  end  a  test  after  2  feet  had 
gone  out  of  the  prover,  and  then  read  the  position  of  the  test  hand 


538 


METER  WORK 


to  the  nearest  hundredth,   the  reading  being   2.04,   the    result 


(2.04-2.00) 


2.00 

never  have  to  yield  to 
(Method  "R"). 


XI 00  =  2. 00  per  cent    fast    (Method   "D"),  would 


O04-2.00) 
2.04 


X 100  =  1.96  per   cent   fast 


f  EET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVE.* 

PERCENT 
OF 
tRROR 

FEET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVER 

mctMT 

Of 
ERROR 

FEET 
PASSED 

ACCORDING 
TO  PROVLR 

PERCENT 
OF 
ERROR 

FEET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVE* 

PERCENT 
OF 
ERROR 

60 

+  25.0 

.87 

-f  7.0 

2.1  4 

-6.5 

2.41 

-IT.o 

6  1 

+  24.2 

.88 

+  6.4 

2.15 

-7.0 

2.42 

-17.3 

.62 

+  23.4 

.89 

+  5.8 

2.16 

-  7.4 

2.43 

-17.7 

.63 

+  22.7 

.90 

+  5.3 

2.17 

-  7.8 

2.44 

-18.0 

.64 

+  21.9 

.91 

+  4.7 

2.18 

-8-3 

2.45 

-18.4 

.65 

+  21.  2. 

.92 

+  4.2 

2.19 

-8.7 

2.46 

-18.7 

.66 

+  20.5 

.93 

+  3-6 

2.20 

-  9.1 

2.47 

-19-0 

.67 

+  19.7 

.94 

+  3J 

2.21 

-  9.5 

2.48 

-19.4 

.68 

+  19.0 

.95 

+  2.6 

2.22 

-  ,9.9 

2.49 

-19.7 

.69 

+  18.3 

.96 

+  2.0 

2.23 

-10.3 

2.50 

-20.0 

.70 

+  17.6 

.97 

+  1.5 

2.24 

-10-7 

2.51 

-20.3 

.71 

+  17.0 

.98 

+  I.O 

2.25 

-    I.I 

2.52 

-2O.6 

.72 

+  16.2 

.99 

+  0.5 

2.26 

-    1.5 

2.53 

-20.9 

.73 

+  15.6 

2.00 

±O.O 

2.27 

-    1.9 

2.54 

-21.3 

.74 

+  14.3 

2.01 

-0.5 

2.28 

-   2.3 

2.55 

-21.5 

.75 

+  14.3 

2.02 

-  l.o 

2.29 

-   2.7 

2.56 

-21.9 

.76 

+  13.6 

2.03 

-1.5 

2.30 

-13.2 

2.57 

-22.2 

.77 

+  13.0 

Z.04 

-2.0 

2.31 

-13.4 

2.58 

-22.5 

.78 

+  12.4 

2.05 

-2.4 

2.32 

-13.8 

2.59 

-22.8 

.79 

+  1  1.7 

2.0G 

-2.9 

2.33 

-14.2 

2.60 

-23.1 

.80 

+  1  I.I 

2.07 

-3.4 

2.34 

-14.5 

2.61 

-23.4 

.8  1 

+  10.5 

2.08 

-3.9 

2.35 

-14.9 

2.62 

-23.7 

.82 

+  9.9 

2.09 

-4.3 

2.36 

-15.2 

2.63 

-24.0 

.83 

+  9.3 

2.10 

-4.8 

2.37 

-15.6 

2.64 

-24.2 

.84 

+  6.7 

2.1  1 

-5.2 

2.38 

-16.0 

2.65 

-24.5 

.85 

+  8.1 

2.12 

-5.7 

2.39 

-16.3 

2.66 

-24.8 

.86 

+  7.5 

2.13 

-6.1 

2.40 

-6.7 

2.67 

-25.1 

Figure  165— Percentage  of  Error  Table— 2  Cu.  Ft.  Proving  Head, 
page  542. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 


539 


The  foregoing  reason  is  purely  psychological  and  may  influence 
only  a  few  of  those  who  follow  Method  "  R."  The  more  practical 
reason  is  that  when  the  result  of  a  proof  test  is  to  form  the  basis  of 
an  adjustment  of  the  charge  for  an  amount  of  gas  registered  by 
the  meter  under  test,  then  the  amount  registered  becomes  the 


FE.E.T 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVER 

PERCEJtT 
OF 
ERROR 

FEE.T 
PASSED 
ACCOSDinS 
TO  PROVIR 

PERCENT 

OF 
ERROR 

FEET 

PA55EP 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVCR 

PERCENT 
OF 
ERROR 

FEET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  DROVER. 

PERCENT 
OF 
EREOR 

4.5O 

-HI.  | 

4.79 

+  4.4 

5.08 

-  *-.  6 

5.37 

-69 

4.51 

+  10.9 

4.80 

+  4.2 

5.09 

-  l.ft 

5.38 

-  7.0 

4  52 

-MO.  6 

481 

+  4.  O 

S.  10 

-20 

5.39 

-  7.  Z 

I    4.53 

-MO.  4 

4.82 

+  3.7 

5.1  1 

-2.2 

5.40 

-7.4 

1    4.54 

+  IO.  | 

4.83 

+  3.5 

5.12 

-  2.3 

5.41 

-  7.6 

4.55 

+  9.9 

4.84 

+  3.3 

5.13 

-  2.5 

5.42 

-  7.8 

4.56 

-»-  9.7 

4.85 

+  3.  1 

5.  14 

-  2.7 

5.43 

-  7.9 

4.57 

+  9.4 

4.86 

+  2.9 

5.15 

-  2.9 

5.44 

-8.1 

4.58 

+  9.2 

4.87 

+  2.7 

5.  16 

-  3.  1 

5.45 

-8.3 

4.59 

+  8.9 

4.88 

+  2.5 

5.17 

-  3.3 

5.46 

-8.4 

4.  GO 

+  8.7 

4.89 

+  2.3 

5.18 

-3.5 

5.47 

-  8.6 

j    4.GI 

+  8.5 

4.90 

+  2.0 

5.  1  9 

-  3.7 

5.48 

-8.8 

4.62 

+  8.2 

4.91 

+    .8 

5.20 

-3.9 

5.49 

-8.9 

1    4.63 

+  8.2 

4.92 

+    .G 

5.21 

-  4.0 

5.50 

-S.  1 

1    4.G4 

+  7.8 

4.93 

+    .4 

5.22 

-4.2 

5.51 

-  9.3 

4.G5 

+  7.5 

4.34 

+    .2 

5.23 

-  4.4 

5.52 

-  9.4 

4.66 

+  7.3 

4.95 

+   .0 

5.24 

-  4.6 

5.53 

-  9.G 

4.67 

+  7.  1 

4,96 

+  0.8 

5.25 

-4.8 

5.54 

-  9.8 

4-68 

+  6.8 

4.97 

+  O.G 

5.26 

-  5.0 

5.55 

-9.9 

4.69 

+•  6.6 

4.98 

+  O.4 

5.27 

-  5.  1 

5.5G 

-I0,| 

4-7O 

+  G.4 

4.99 

+  O.2 

5.28 

-  5.3 

5.57 

-10.2 

4.71 

+  6.2 

5.OO 

±0.0 

5.29 

-5.5 

5.58 

-IO.  4 

1    4.72 

+  5.9 

5.01 

-0.2 

5.30 

-  5.1 

5.59 

-10.6 

4.73 

+  5.7 

5.02 

-O.4 

5.31 

-5.8 

5.GO 

-10.7 

4.74 

+  5.5 

5.03 

-0.6 

5.32 

-  GO 

5.61 

-10.9 

4-.  75 

+  5.3 

5.04 

-  O.8 

5.33 

-62. 

5.G2 

-M.O 

4.76 

+  5.0 

5.05 

-  l.o 

5.34 

-  G.4 

5.G3 

-n.  a 

4.77 

+  4.8 

5.06 

-  1.2 

5.35 

-  G  5 

4-.  78 

+  A.6 

5.07 

-  1.4 

5.36 

-  6.7 

Figure  166— Percentage  of  Error  Tabh 
page  542. 


-5  Cu.  Ft.  Proving  Head, 


540 


METER  WORK 


standard,  and  the  error  of  the  meter,  expressed  by  Method  "  R," 
is  an  exact  indication  of  the  adjustment  to  be  made.  If  it  were 
true  that  an  appreciable  per  cent  of  proof  tests  made  bill  adjust- 
ments necessary,  or  even  that  of  the  comparatively  few  meters 
whose  tests  necessitate  such  adjustment,  the  percentage  of  error 


r  EET 

PASSED 

ACCORDING 
TO  PffOVER 

PERCENT 
OP 
E.RROR. 

FEET 
PASSE.D 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROPER 

PIRCEMT 

OF 

ERROR 

FEET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING, 
TO  PROVE!? 

PERCE.HT 
OF 
ERROR 

FEET 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVE.* 

PERCirrr 

OF 
ERROR 

3.00 

+  11.  1 

3.29 

+  7.6 

9.58 

4.4 

3.87 

+   1.3 

3.OI 

+  M.O 

3.30 

+  7.5 

9.59 

4-2> 

9.86 

+  1.2 

3.02 

+  10.9 

9.31 

+  7.  4 

9.60 

4.2 

9-89 

+  1.  1 

3.03 

•HO.  7 

9.32 

+  7.3 

9.61 

4.  1 

9.90 

•f-  I.O 

3.04 

•HO.  6 

9.33 

+  7.  2 

9.62 

4.0 

9.91 

+  O.S) 

3.05 

•HO.  5 

9.34 

+  7.  1 

9.62. 

3.8 

9.92 

+  0.8 

3.OG 

-HO.  4 

9.35 

+  7.0 

9.64 

3-7 

9.93 

+  0.7 

9.07 

HO.  3 

9.36 

+  G.8 

9.G5 

3.G 

9.94 

+  O.6 

\    9.08 

-HO.  i 

9.37 

+  G.7 

9.66 

3.5 

9.95 

fO.5 

3.09 

-HO.O 

9.38 

+  G.6 

9.67 

3.4 

9.96 

+  O.4 

3.10 

9.9 

9.39 

+  6.5 

9.68 

3.3 

9.97 

t  0.3 

3.1  1 

9.8 

9.4O 

+  6.4 

9.G9 

3.2 

9.98 

+  0.2 

9.12 

9.7 

9.41 

+  6.3 

9.70 

3.  1 

9.99 

^  O.I 

3.13 

+  9.5 

9.42 

+  6.2 

9.71 

3.0 

10.00 

±0.0 

3.14 

9.4 

9.43 

+  6.O 

9.72 

2.e 

1  0.01 

-O.I 

3.15 

9.3 

'    9.44 

+  5.9 

9.73 

2.8 

1  0.02 

-0.2. 

9.16 

9.2 

3.45 

+  5.8 

9.74 

2.7 

1  0.03 

-0.3 

9.17 

9.1 

9.46 

+  5.7 

9.75 

2.G 

1  O.O4- 

-0.4- 

9.18 

8.9 

9.47 

+  5.6 

9.  76 

2.5 

1  O.05 

-0.5 

3.19 

8.8 

9.48 

+  5.5 

9.  77 

2.4 

1  o.oe. 

-  O.G> 

3.  2O 

8.7 

3.49 

+  5.4 

9.78 

2.3 

10.07 

-  0.7 

3.21 

8.6 

9.50 

+  5-3 

9.  79 

2.7. 

1  O-08 

-  o.e> 

9.22 

8.5 

9.51 

+  5.2 

9.80 

2.0 

1  O.09 

-  0.9 

9.23 

8.3 

9.52 

5.0 

.    9.  81 

.9 

10.  10 

-1.0 

3.24 

8.2 

9.53 

4.9 

9.82 

.8 

10.  1  1 

-  I.  1 

9.25 

8.1 

9.54 

4.8 

9.  83 

.7 

1  0.12 

-1.2 

9.26 

a.o 

9.55 

4.7 

9.  84 

.G 

IO.I3 

-  1-3 

9.27 

7.9 

9.5G 

4.& 

9.  85 

5 

1  O.I4 

-  1    4 

9.28 

7.6 

9.57 

4.5 

9.86 

.4- 

1  0.  15 

-  1  5 

Figure  167— Percentage  of  Error  Table— 10  Cu.  Ft.  Proving  Head, 
page  542. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 


541 


was  large,  there  might  be  a  valid  argument  for  incorrectly  repre- 
senting the  percentage  of  error  of  all  tests,  and,  therefore,  of  the 
meter  condition,  by  using  Method  "  R,"  in  order  that  in  some 
cases  the  result  could  be  used  for  bill-correcting  purposes.  A 
meter  is,  however,  so  nearly  perfect  as  a  measuring  instrument 


FC.E.T 
PASSED 
ACCORDING 
TO  PRCVER 

FtRCtnT 

OF 
ERROR 

FE.E.T 
PASSED 
ACCORDING. 
TO  PSOVER 

PERCENT 
OF 
ERROR 

FEE.T 
PA55E.D 
ACCORDING 
TO  PROVER 

PERCENT 
OF 
ERROR 

PEtT 
PASSED 
ACCORD  IMG 
TO  PROVER 

PERCENT 
OF 
E.RROR 

IO.16 

-  1.6 

IO.45 

-4.3 

10.74 

-6.9 

.03 

-ao| 

10.17 

-1.7 

10.  46 

-  4.4 

10.75 

-7.  0 

.04 

-  9.4-1 

10.18 

-  1.8 

1C.  47 

-  4.5 

10.76 

-7.  1 

.05 

-9-5} 

10.19 

-  1.9 

10.48 

-4.6 

10.77 

-  1.2. 

.06 

-9.6 

10.20 

-2.0 

10-49 

-  4.7 

10.78 

-7.2. 

.07 

-  3.T 

10.21 

-2.  1 

10.50 

-4.8 

10.79 

-7.3 

.08 

-3.8 

10.22 

-2.2 

10.51 

-4.9 

lo.eo 

-  7.4- 

.09 

-  s>.a| 

10.2.3 

-2.3 

10.52 

-  4.9 

10.81 

-  7.5 

.  IO 

-  9.9 

10.24 

-2.3 

|0.53 

-5-0 

10.82 

-  7.6 

.  1  1 

-10.0 

10.25 

-2.4 

10.54 

-5.  1 

10.83 

-  7.7 

.  IZ 

-10.  I 

10.26 

-Z.5 

10.55 

-5.2 

10.  &A- 

-  7.8 

-  13 

-10.2 

IO.27 

-2-6 

10.56 

-5.3 

io.es 

-  7.8 

.  14 

-10.2 

10.28 

-2..  1 

10.57 

-5.4 

10.86 

-  79 

.  15 

-10.3 

10.29 

-2.8 

10.58 

-5.5 

10.87 

-  8.0 

.  IG 

-10.4 

1  0.30 

-2.£> 

10.59 

-5.G 

IO.88 

-  8>.\ 

.  17 

-105 

10.31 

-3.0 

IO.6O 

-  5.1 

10.69 

-  a.  2. 

.18 

-10.6 

10.32 

-3.1 

IO.GI 

-  5.8, 

10.90 

-8.3 

.  19 

-IO.6 

10.33 

-3.2. 

10.62 

'  5.8 

IO.9I 

-8.3 

.20 

-IO.7 

10.34 

-  3.3 

10.63 

-5.9 

10.  £>Z 

-  8.4 

.21 

-IO.S 

10.35 

-3.4 

IO.64 

-<=>.0 

10,93 

-  Q.S 

.ZZ 

-10.9 

10.36 

-3.5 

10.65 

-  <=>.  I 

IO.94 

-  fi>.6 

.23 

-1  I.O 

10.37 

-3-6 

10.66 

-  <a».2. 

10.95 

-  8.7 

.Z4 

-II.  0 

10.38 

-3.7 

10.  G7 

-6.2> 

10.  9G, 

-  8.8 

.25 

-II.  1 

1  0.39 

-38 

10.  6,6 

-6.4- 

10.97 

—  &.& 

IO.40 

-39 

10.  G9 

-6.5 

10.98 

-  a.9 

10.4-1 

-3.9 

10.70 

-<i.5 

IO.99 

-  9.0 

10.42 

-4.  0 

IO.7I 

-<£>.£> 

1  1  .OO 

-  9.1 

IO.  4-3 

-4   I 

10.72 

-6.7 

1  t  .01 

-  9.Z. 

1  O.  44 

-4.2. 

IO-73 

-6.8 

1   1     02 

-   9.3 

Figure  167  (continued)— Percentage  of   Error  Table— 10  Cu.   Ft. 
Proving  Head,  page  542. 


542  METER  WORK 

that  even  where  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands  in  use,  those 
yearly  found  5  per  cent  or  more  fast  can  be  counted  by  hundreds 
only.  Therefore,  the  practice  of  expressing  the  test  result  by 
Method  "  D,"  and  of  rebating  bills  on  these  results,  while  it  gives 
the  consumer  a  larger  allowance  than  is  actually  due  him, 
involves,  even  in  a  large  situation,  only  negligible  overpayments, 
and  if  the  accounting  office  desires  to  be  exact  in  all  adjustments, 
the  few  additional  calculations  require  little  time.  In  applying 
Method  "  D,"  the  "  Percentage  of  Error"  tables,  Figures  165,  100 
and  167  are  utilized. 

To  show  concretely  how  Method  "R"  does  not  express  cor- 
rectly the  meter  condition,  and  how  great  may  be  its  error  under 
extreme  conditions,  the  example  below  is  given : 

Meter  Reading  =  2.00  ft.     Prover  Reading  =  1.00  ft. 

(2.00 -1. 00)  X 100 

Method  R:    -  —=   50  per  cent  fast. 

2.00 

(2. 00 -1. 00)  X 100 
Method  D :     -  —  =  100  per  cent  fast. 

1.00 

.  The  latter  answer  is  manifestly  correct,  because  the  meter  has 
registered  just  twice  the  actual  volume  passing  through  it.  ^ 

Never  take  for  granted  that  a  certain  size  meter  contains  a 
proving  head  with  a  certain  number  of  feet,  but  make  sure  of  the 
size  of  the  proving  head,  and  obtain  the  error  from  the  proper 
column  of  the  table. 

DISPOSAL  OF  METER 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  proof  test  furnishes  evidence  of  a 
meter's  condition  valuable  in  determining  the  subsequent  "pro- 
cedure in  the  repair  shop.  A  meter  is  said  to  pass  the  check  test 
when  the  registration  is  correct,  or  the  percentage  of  slow  or  fast 
error  does  not  exceed  the  limits  allowed  by  the  company  or  pre- 
scribed by  law.  Most  of  the  state  commissions  allow  2  per  cent 
either  way.  Prior  to  the  advent  of  such  legal  regulation,  good 
company  practice  was  to  consider  any  meter  correct  between  the 
limits  of  2  per  cent  slow  and  1|  per  cent  fast.  The  fact  that  the 
error  of  registration  is  within  allowable  limits  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  no  further  work  is  advisable.  This  is  apparent  from 
the  diagrams  of  test  procedure  given  later.  The  exact  sequence 
of  tests  following  the  check  test  will  vary  according  to  local  condi- 
tions; for  instance,  whether  a  company  does  all  its  own  meter 
repairing,  and  if  so,  at  one  or  more  locations,  or  whether  meters 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  543 

requiring  more  than  minor  repairs  are  shipped  to  another  town. 
These  subjects  will  be  discussed  to  a  greater  extent  later  on. 

If  the  meter  does  not  pass  the  check  test,  but  its  error  is 
within  certain  limits  varying  somewhat  with  different  companies, 
the  top  is  removed  and  the  error  corrected  by  shifting  the 
position  of  the  tangent  post  along  the  tangent  arm.  This  is 
called  "adjusting"  and  is  more  fully  explained  on  page  549. 

If  the  proving  head  pointer  does  not  move  during  the  check 
test,  the  meter  no  longer  registers  and  is  called  a  "Cease  to 
Record."  If  the  meter  does  not  permit  any  air  to  pass  through 
it,  it  no  longer  functions  and  is  a  "Won't  Pass  Gas." 

BURNER  TEST 

On  page  514  it  was  stated  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  the 
removal  of  meters  was  a  "partial  failure  to  register  the  gas 
consumed."  Therefore,  each  meter  brought  in  for  especial 
examination,  or  whose  previous  tests  indicated  the  necessity  for 
repairs  that  would  alter  its  existing  working  conditions,  is  given  a 
"burner  test"  to  determine  its  ability  to  record  at  a  consumption 
rate  of  about  six  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

The  burner  test  is  given  to  those  meters  removed  from  service 
which  test  over  10  per  cent  slow  on  the  check  test,  in  order  to 
ascertain  if  the  meters  will  show  a  movement  of  the  test  hand 
when  passing  gas  at  the  comparatively  slow  rate  required  to 
supply  one  6-foot  burner.  The  test  is  based  on  the  assumption 
that  if  a  meter  is  over  10  per  cent  slow  on  the  check  test,  it  prob- 
ably contains  internal  leaks  which  permit  more  or  less  gas  to 
pass  without  registering.  This  test  is  made  for  the  purpose  of 
imparting  additional  useful  information  to  aid  in  adjusting 
charges  with  consumers  in  cases  of  very  slow  meters. 

The  burner  bar,  A,  Figure  168,  should  be  composed  of  separate 
sections,  upon  which  are  mounted  three  7-foot  Bray  burners,  used 
chiefly  for  purging  purposes,  and  controlled  by  one  cock;  one 
6-foot  Rappleye  burner,  for  use  in  the  burner  test  proper,  and 
one  half-foot  Rappleye  burner,  for  the  slow  motion  test.  A 
piece  of  safety  gauze  is  inserted  in  the  piping  at  each  section,  to 
prevent  flame  travelling  back  and  causing  an  explosion  in 
the  meter. 

The  test  routine  follows: 

Connect  meter  to  burner  bar,  and,  unless  filled  with 
gas,  purge  it  by  turning  on  and  lighting  the  three 
purging  burners  for  the  time  given  in  Column  D  of 


544 


METER  WORK 


Figure  168— A.    Burner  Bar,  page  543.    B.    Works 
Catch  Bar,  page  556. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 


545 


the  table,  Figure  169,  which,  at  their  burning  rate, 
should  cause  one  complete  revolution  of  the  tangent 
arm.  Then  turn  off  the  burners,  and  after  marking 
the  position  of  the  proving  head  pointer  by  a  dot  of 
ink  on  the  index  glass,  light  the  6-foot  burner  and 
observe  whether  the  required  movement  of  the  prov- 
ing head  pointer  occurs  in  the  time  given  in  Column 
E,  which  involves  at  least  one  revolution  of  the  tan- 
gent arm.  If  so,  the  meter  has  passed  the  test.  As 
the  test  is,  essentially,  the  verification  of  a  given 
movement  in  a  given  time,  accurate  observation  is 
essential. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

Size  of 

Time  for 

Meter 

Proving 
Head 

of  Pointer 

Purging 

Burner  Test 

Slow 
Motion  Test 

It.      "A" 

cu.  ft. 

min. 

min. 

hr.     min. 

3 

2 

1/16 

£ 

n 

—       19 

5  or    5 

2 

1/12 

\ 

2 

—       25 

10  "  10 

5 

1/18 

1 

3 

—      42 

20 

5 

1/10 

H 

5 

1         15 

10 

1/20 

5 

1        15 

30  "  30 

5 

1/6 

2* 

8 

2          5 

10 

1/12 

8 

2          5 

45 

10 

1/8 

3* 

14 

3        28 

20 

1/16 

14 

3        28 

60  "  60 

10 
20 

1/5 
1/9 

6 

20 
22 

5          0 
5        34 

100 

20 

1/6 

10 

33 

8        20 

Figure  169.     Burner  and  Slow  Motion  Test  Table,  page  543. 

If  the  pointer  does  not  move  the  required  distance 
in  the  given  time,  but  shows  some  movement,  the  test 
should  be  repeated,  unless  there  has  been  a  previous 
slow  motion  test.  Before  making  this  second  test,  all 
marks  of  the  first  should  be  erased.  If  on  the 
second  try  the  conditions  are  fulfilled,  the  test  is 
considered  passed. 

A  device  of  flat  brass,  known  as  a  proving  head  gauge,  Figure 
170,  is  of  service  in  observing  the  fractional  movement  of  the 


546  METER  WORK 

pointer  in  any  meter  whose  proving  head  is  not  divided  to  show 
the  movement  corresponding  to  a  revolution  of  the  tangent  arm. 
In  using  it,  the  small  hole  is  made  central  with  the  proving  head 
spindle  and  one  leg  of  the  notched  out  division  placed  in  line  with 
the  original  position  of  the  pointer  as  marked  by  the  dot  of  ink. 
In  this  way,  any  motion  may  be  conveniently  measured. 


Figure  170— Proving  Head  Gauge,  page  545. 

The  purging  and  test  table  should  be  posted  under  the  burner 
bar  for  convenience  of  use.  A  clock  showing  seconds  should  also 
be  in  position  for  easy  reading. 

When  starting  the  test,  the  time  it  is  to  be  stopped  should  be 
chalked  either  on  the  inside  of  the  index  box  lid  or  on  the 
gallery  plate. 

If  the  top  is  off  the  meter,  a  piece  of  tin  bent  at  a  right  angle 
should  be  set,  at  the  start  of  the  test,  back  of  and  touching  the 
tangent  arm,  so  as  to  be  knocked  down  by  the  latter  on  the 
completion  of  a  revolution.  This  furnishes  an  easy  method  of 
knowing  whether  the  required  movement  took  place  within  the 
time  allowed. 

There  does  not  seem  any  justification  for  the  practice  that  is 
sometimes  followed  when  there  is  no  movement  with  one  burner, 
of  lighting  burner  after  burner  until  motion  occurs,  with  the  idea 
that  the  exact  rate  at  which  recording  begins  will  be  of  service 
in  rendering  an  estimated  bill,  for  in  the  total  absence  of 
reliable  knowledge  as  to  the  rates  at  which  the  meter  formerly 
worked,  the  company's  best  guide  is  the  consumption  in  previous 
years,  and  the  only  information  it  needs  from  the  burner  test  is 
that  the  meter  does  not  record  under  small  consumption,  and  that 
to  this  may  be  justly  ascribed  any  previous  extremely  low  regis- 
tration while  in  service. 

SLOW  MOTION  (OR  SMALL  FLAME)  TEST 

The  "slow  motion  test"  is  of  great  importance  in  determining 
whether  a  meter  is  in  proper  condition  to  be  put  again  into 
service.  It  should  be  given  to  all  meters  removed  from  service 
which  have  fallen  within  the  "adjustment  limits"  on  their  first 
check  test.  It  determines  delicately  whether  or  not  there  are 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  547 

any  minute  internal  leaks  which  permit  gas  to  pass  without  regis- 
tering. It  may  be  queried,  if  the  meter  tests  "correct"  on  the 
check  test,  why  is  any  slow  motion  test  needed?  The  answer  is, 
that  in  adjusting  the  meter,  the  stroke  of  the  diaphragms  may  be 
altered  so  as  to  counteract  and  obscure  the  effect  of  a  small 
constant  leakage  at  the  uniform  rate  of  speed  of  the  check  test. 
A  meter  so  adjusted  would  show  correct  on  the  check  test, 
whereas  if  the  internal  leak  were  stopped,  the  meter  would  at 
once  show  fast.  If  the  slow  motion  test  is  made  first,  all  internal 
leaks  are  insured  against,  and  the  final  adjustment  is  known  to 
be  correct.  Meters  failing  to  pass  the  slow  motion  test  should 
go  to  the  repair  shop. 

All  meters  that  are  being  fitted  up  after  undergoing  repairs 
should  receive  the  slow  motion  test.  No  meter  should  go  into 
O.  K.  stock  which  fails  to  pass  this  test. 

The  slow  motion  test  differs  from  the  burner  test  only 
in  the  rate  of  gas  flow,  the  one  burner  used  being  adjusted  to 
one-half  a  cubic  foot  per  hour.  All  the  directions  and  precau- 
tions given  for  the  burner  test  apply  equally  to  the  slow  motion 
test,  but  there  is  still  more  reason  for  care  in  marking  the  starting 
and  stopping  position  of  the  proving  head  pointer.  Also,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  man  who  starts  the  test,  completes  it. 
That  this  would  not  necessarily  follow  is  plain  from  the  time 
required  for  the  test  as  given  in  Column  F,  Figure  169.  It  is 
evident  that  this  is  a  very  delicate  test,  and  that  if  leaks  exist  at 
diaphragms  or  valves,  they  will  become  apparent  by  providing  a 
passage  for  this  small  amount  of  gas  passing  through,  without 
causing  any,  or,  at  least,  adequate,  motion  of  the  diaphragms  and, 
therefore,  of  the  tangent  arm. 

It  will  be  noted  throughout  that  in  all  tests  made  with  the 
meter  top  off,  the  unit  of  movement  is  one  revolution  of  the 
tangent  arm.  This  is  so,  because  such  a  movement  corresponds 
to  one  complete  cycle  of  operations  within  the  meter. 

OPEN  TEST 

The  open  test  is  not  made  as  a  part  of  the  process  of  fitting 
again  for  service  those  meters  which,  on  their  first  check  test 
after  removal,  came  within  the  adjustment  limits.  This  test  is 
confined  to  meters  undergoing  repairs,  and  is  thus  a  repair  shop 
test.  It  is  given  to  every  meter  removed  from  service  on  which 
work  has  been  done  that  might  change  the  position  of  the 
valves  with  relation  to  the  diaphragms.  Its  purpose  is  to  insure 


548  METER  WORK 

that  the  valves  are  properly  set  with  reference  to  the  diaphragm 
stroke,  so  that  the  meter,  if  adjusted  to  register  correctly  at 
one  rate  of  flow,  will  register  correctly  at  any  or  all  other  rates 
of  flow.  The  test  consists  in  making  a  trial  of  the  accuracy  of 
registration  at  two  widely  different  rates  of  flow.  A  very  slow 
and  a  very  fast  rate  would  be  the  most  positive  test,  but  as  very 
slow  rates  consume  considerable  time,  the  practice  is  to  make 
the  test  at  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  check  test  (known  as  the 
"check  run")  and  at  the  rate  of  flow  of  a  wide  open  outlet 
(known  as  the  "open  run")  and  to  assume  that  if  the  valves  are 
so  set  as  to  register  the  same  at  these  two  rates,  they  will  so 
register  at  all  other  rates.  The  connections  with  the  meter 
prover  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  insure  a  rate  of  flow  on  the 
open  run  at  least  double  that  on  the  check  run.  On  some  of  the 
larger  meters  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  check  run  at  a 
slower  rate,  by  using  a  cap  with  a  smaller  hole  in  the  diaphragm 
than  the  standard  check  test  hole.  The  process  by  which  the 
mechanism  is  changed  to  accomplish  a  correct  registration  at 
all  rates  of  flow,  is  known  as  "setting  the  valves." 

The  preliminaries  for  this  test  are  in  every  way  similar  to  those 
described  for  the  check  test.  In  addition,  the  short  flag  arms 
are  lifted  off  the  tangent  post,  and  the  tangent  revolved  by  hand 
a  sufficient  number  of  times  for  the  crank  spiral  to  engage  each 
tooth  of  the  horizontal  axle  wheel,  in  order  to  detect  any  binding 
that  may  exist.  Flag  rods  are  next  tried  for  bind  in  stuffing 
boxes  and  to  determine  the  amount  of  lift.  The  flag  arms  are 
then  replaced  on  the  tangent  post  if  the  previous  examinations 
showed  satisfactory  conditions,  care  being  taken  to  oil  the  flag 
arm  bearings  with  No.  4  Neutral  oil,  or  other  good  light  lubri- 
cating oil,  and  to  note  that  the  ends  of  the  short  flag  arms  rest 
flat  on  each  other  and  on  the  shoulder  of  the  tangent  post.  If 
there  is  any  bind  in  the  stuffing  boxes,  it  should  be  remedied 
before  proceeding  with  the  test. 

Then,  with  the  outlet  wide  open,  the  prover  is  started  at  zero 
on  the  scale,  and  a  complete  revolution  of  the  proving  head 
pointer  made.  For  convenience  in  calculating,  the  proof  is 
stated  as  so  many  hundredths  of  a  cubic  foot  passed  by  the 
prover  while  the  meter  is  registering  one  cubic  foot;  as,  for 
example,  if  the  prover  reading  was  1.92  cubic  feet  and  that  of  the 
meter  was  2  cubic  feet,  the  proof,  reduced  to  terms  of  1  cubic 
foot,  would  be  stated  as  192 -i- 2  =96.  This  open  run  is  preceded 
by  a  check  run,  the  result  of  which  is  expressed  in  the  same  way. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  549 

If  the  check  and  open  runs  differ  from  each  other  by  more  than 
0.5,  the  process  known  as  "  setting  the  valves  "  is  required.  This 
is  followed  by  the  process  of  "adjusting,"  in  order  to  bring  the 
proof  to  within  0.5  of  100. 

During  the  runs  required  by  the  "setting  the  valves"  process, 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  opportunity  of  checking  the  correct- 
ness of  the  index.  In  describing  the  measurement  of  gas  flow, 
it  was  said  that  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  horizontal  axle  wheel, 
together  with  the  displacement  capacity  of  the  measurement 
chambers,  determined  the  volume  measured  during  one  revolution 
of  the  horizontal  axle,  and,  therefore,  the  volume  corresponding 
to  a  revolution  of  the  proving  head  pointer;  also,  that  this  volume 
increased  with  the  size  of  the  meter  and  varied  from  two  cubic 
feet  to  one  hundred.  Now,  if  in  a  meter  whose  horizontal  axle 
made  one  revolution  every  two  feet,  was  placed  an  index  provided 
with  a  5-foot  proving  head,  it  is  clear  that  the  meter  would 
register  two  and  a  half  times  the  volume  actually  passing  through 
it.  While  the  installation  of  the  wrong  index  is  of  very  rare 
occurrence,  its  detection  is  extremely  desirable  and  is  absolutely 
certain,  if,  during  one  of  the  runs,  the  workman  is  careful  to 
note  that  the  reading  of  the  prover  scale  equals,  approximately, 
the  number  of  feet  called  for  by  the  lettering  on  the  proving 
head  for  one  revolution. 

ADJUSTING 

"Adjusting"  is  the  process  by  which  those  meters  removed 
from  service  which  came  within  the  "adjustment  limits  "on  their 
first  check  test,  and  which  have  afterward  successfully  passed 
the  pressure  and  slow  motion  tests,  are  again  made  to  register 
correctly.  It  consists  in  altering  the  length  of  stroke  of  the 
diaphragms  so  that  the  volume  displaced  by  each  stroke  will 
correspond  to  the  volume  registered  by  the  index  gearing. 
Originally,  it  was  so  set,  but  in  the  course  of  service,  due  to  wear 
and  what  not,  the  meter  mechanism  has  gotten  out  of  adjustment. 
In  meters  of  the  class  now  under  consideration,  it  is  assumed  that 
nothing  has  happened  to  throw  the  valves  out  of  their  original 
condition  of  harmony  with  the  strokes  of  the  diaphragms,  and 
that,  therefore,  if  the  strokes  of  the  diaphragms  are  adjusted  to 
register  correctly  at  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  check  test,  they  will 
also  register  correctly  at  all  other  rates.  Consequently,  the 
process  of  adjusting  consists  in  moving  the  tangent  post  along  the 
tangent  arm  (thus  altering  the  length  of  the  diaphragm  stroke) 
and  then  making  a  check  test;  then  moving  the  tangent  post 


550 


METER  WORK 


again  and  testing  again,  repeating  these  processes  alternately 
until  the  meter  registers  correctly  on  the  final  check  test,  at 
which  time  the  tangent  post  is  clamped  in  position. 

After  any  motion  of  the  tangent  post,  its  final  position  should 
be  such  that  its  vertical  axis  should  be  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  revolution  of  the  tangent  arm.  Though  the  exact 
extent  to  which  the  tangent  post  has  to  be  shifted  along  the 
tangent  arm  in  order  to  obtain  any  certain  percentage  of  change, 
varies  with  the  different  types  and  sizes  of  meters,  and  can  only 
be  found  out  by  experience  in  working  with  the  different  meters, 
the  following  table  will  serve  as  a  valuable  guide: 

PERCENTAGE  OF  CHANGE  IN  PROOF 
PER  TURN  OF  JAM  NUTS  AND  TANGENT  POSTS 


of  Meter                                              Make 

*StyIe  of 
Tangents 

Per  Cent 
Per  Turn 

3-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

4    to  5 

3-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

2 

S-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

4    to  5 

5-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

2 

5-A 

All 

A 

4 

10-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin  and  American 

A 

4 

10-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

U 

10-lt. 

American 

A 

3    and  4 

10-A 

All 

A 

4 

20-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

4 

20-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

11 

30-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

4 

30-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

H 

30-A 

All 

A 

3 

45-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

4 

45-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

11 

60-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

2    and  3 

60-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

11 

60-A 

All 

A 

3 

100-lt. 

Other  than  Griffin 

A 

2 

100-lt. 

Griffin 

B 

1  and  H 

A  in  this  column  refers  to  that  type  of  tangent  where  the  position 
pi- the  post  is  adjusted  by  turning  the  jam  nuts,  the  post  remaining 
in  vertical  position  during  the  operation.  A  fraction  of  a  turn  of  the 
jam  nuts  on  these  tangents  will  change  proof  a  proportionate  per- 
centage of  a  whole  turn. 

''  B  "  in  this  column  refers  to  that  type  of  tangent  that  has  a  jam  nut 
which  screws  on  the  post  and  a  post  nut  that  must  be  turned  around 
the  arm  to  change  the  diameter  of  the  circle  through  which  the  arm 
moves.  A  fraction  of  a  turn  of  these  posts  cannot  be  made  in 
adjusting  meters. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  551 

This  "adjusting"  is  a  process  that  should  be  done  in  the 
meter  testing  shop  of  every  gas  company,  as  this  practice  saves 
the  expense- of  sending  many  meters  to  a  repair  shop. 

SETTING  THE  VALVES 

"Setting  the  valves"  is  a  process  requiring  greater  skill  and 
experience  than  the  process  of  adjusting.  As  already  explained, 
it  is  required  only  on  those  meters  in  which  some  repair  has 
thrown  the  strokes  of  the  valves  and  of  the  diaphragms  out  of 
harmony.  It  involves  the  altering  of  the  position,  or  angle,  in 
which  the  tangent  arm  is  attached  (usually  soldered)  to  the  top 
of  the  crank.  Similarly  to  the  adjusting,  it  is  a  process  of  trial 
and  error;  first,  a  tentative  setting  of  the  arm,  then  an  open  test 
(open  and  check  runs),  arid  so  on  alternately  until  a  position  of 
the  arm  is  reached  in  which  the  same  registration  is  obtained  at 
the  rate  of  flow  of  the  check  run  as  at  the  rate  of  the  open  run. 
When  this  condition  is  reached,  the  tangent  arm  is  soldered  fast. 
The  meter  is  afterward  "adjusted"  to  register  correctly  on  the 
check  test. 

The  shift  of  the  tangent  arm  is  effected  by  wedging  the  crank 
and  melting  the  solder  joint  by  which  the  tangent  arm  is  attached 
to  the  crank  top,  or  in  some  modern  types,  where  there  is  no  solder 
joint,  by  screw  adjustment.  Any  shift  changes  the  open  proof 
about  twice  as  much  as  the  check  proof.  If  the  meter  proves  less 
on  the  open  than  on  the  check  run,  to  correct  it,  the  tangent  arm 
should  be  shifted  in  the  direction  in  which  it  travels:  and  if  the 
open  proof  is  greater  than  the  check  proof,  the  tangent  should 
be  shifted  against  its  travel. 

If  the  open  proof  is  less  than  the  check  proof,  the  difference 
between  the  two,  added  to  the  check  proof,  or  twice  the  difference 
added  to  the  open  proof,  will  be  the  proof  to  be  expected  after 
the  two  runs  have  been  equalized  by  a  proper  shift  of  the 
tangent  arm.  For  example: 

96  open  100  check 

_8  _J: 

104  equalized  proof  104 

As  this  represents  104  hundredths  of  a  cubic  foot  passed  by  the 
prover  while  the  meter  is  registering  1  cubic  foot,  this  meter  will 
be  slow  when  the  two  runs  are  equalized. 

If  the  open  proof  is  greater  than  the  check  proof,  the  difference 
between  the  two  subtracted  from  the  check  proof,  or  twice  the 


552  METER  WORK 

difference  subtracted  from  the  open  proof,  will  give  the  equalized 
proof,  as  in  the  example  below: 

100  open  96  check 

_8  _4 

92  equalized  proof    92 

From  what  has  gone  before,  it  is  evident  that  this  meter  will  be 
fast  when  the  proof  is  equalized. 

After  shifting  the  tangent  arm  in  accordance  with  the  above 
directions,  an  open  run  is  made.  If  this  does  not  show  the 
equalized  proof  indicated  by  the  previous  calculation,  another 
shift  is  given  to  the  tangent  arm  and  the  process  of  shift  and 
open  run  continues  until,  on  open  run,  the  equalized  proof  is 
obtained.  Then  a  check  run  is  made,  and  this  will  always  agree 
with  the  open  run,  except  in  the  rare  event  of  there  being  an 
inside  leak  which  has  escaped  the  slow  motion  test.  Such  a 
meter  would  be  set  aside  for  repair. 

When  the  routine  as  just  described  results  in  the  equalized 
proof  on  both  open  and  check  runs,  if  this  proof  is  not  equal  to 
100,  it  must  be  made  so  by  altering  the  position  of  the  tangent 
post  along  the  tangent  arm;  i.  e.,  by  adjusting  the  meter.  As 
the  stroke  of  the  diaphragms,  and,  therefore,  the  volume 
passed  by  the  meter  for  the  same  registration  of  the  proving  hand, 
increases  with  the  distance  of  the  tangent  post  from  the  crank, 
measured  on  the  tangent  arm,  it  is  clear  that  when  the  equalized 
proof  is  greater  than  100,  as  in  the  first  example,  to  decrease  this 
proof,  which  means  to  decrease  the  volume  passed  by  the  meter 
for  the  same  movement  of  the  test  hand,  the  tangent  post  should 
be  moved  in  on  the  tangent  arm.  Conversely,  to  raise  to  100 
the  proof  of  the  second  example,  the  tangent  post  must  be 
moved  out. 

Having  moved  the  tangent  post  as  thought  necessary,  an  open 
run  is  made,  and  the  process  of  move  and  test  is  continued  until 
the  open  run  is  within  0.5  of  100.  Adjusting  is  ordinarily  done 
by  using  the  check  test,  but  in  this  process  of  setting  the  valves, 
the  repair  shop  workman,  having  just  satisfied  himself  that  the 
meter  proves  the  same  on  the  open  and  check  runs,  usually  avails 
himself  of  the  greater  speed  of  the  open  run  in  adjusting  the 
meter  to  100.  Having  brought  it  so  on  the  open  run,  he  makes 
a  check  run,  and  if  the  proof  of  the  meter  on  the  latter  is  within 
0.5  of  its  proof  on  the  open  run,  and  also  within  0.5  of  100,  the 
meter  is  accepted  as  having  its  valves  properly  set,  and  as  being 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  553 

in  correct  adjustment,  and  the  flag  arms  wired  to  the  tangent 
post.  If  the  check  run  falls  outside  of  the  permitted  limits,  a 
new  calculation  is  made,  based  on  the  last  check  and  open  runs, 
another  shift  given  to  the  tangent  arm,  and  the  adjusting 
operation  repeated. 

An  experienced  workman  does  not  follow  exactly  the  routine 
above  described;  he  takes  short  cuts.  After  shifting  the 
tangent  arm  on  the  crank  as  much  as  he  thought  necessary,  he 
would  then  move  the  tangent  post  along  the  arm  in  order  to 
bring  the  equalized  proof  to  100;  all  this  before  making  the  first 
open  run.  The  information  available  as  to  the  proper  change  of 
the  post  is  so  accurate  that  it  always  may  be  safely  assumed  that 
any  error  resulting  in  the  open  run  made  after  such  procedure, 
is  due  to  the  adjustment  of  the  arm  on  the  crank. 

It  sometimes  will  happen  that  after  an  equalized  proof  has 
been  obtained,  the  meter  operates  with  a  jerky  motion.  This 
indicates  either  that  the  flag  arms  are  out  of  division,  or  the 
valves  are  not  properly  connected  so  as  to  move  symmetrically 
on  their  seats,  or  perhaps  both  of  these  faults  exist.  With  such 
a  condition,  the  testing  stops  and  the  meter  is  examined  as 
described  under  "Fitting  Up."  Any  necessary  adjustment  of 
the  flag  arms  would  be  made  at  once,  but  if  the  valves  needed 
re-connecting,  the  meter  would  be  returned  to  the  fitter  up. 

PRESSURE  TEST 

The  previous  tests  have  been  to  check  the  accuracy  of  the 
measuring  mechanism.  The  pressure  test  is  to  determine  the 
existence  of  any  leaks  in  the  case  or  table  of  the  meter.  It 
should  be  given  to  all  meters  removed  from  service  that  have 
come  within  the  "adjustment  limits"  on  their  first  check  test. 
It  is  given  also  to  all  meters  undergoing  repairs  as  it  is  part  of 
the  process  of  fitting  the  meters  again  for  service.  It  insures 
that  there  are  no  leaks  from  the  meter  case  or  columns  into  the 
atmosphere,  or  if  the  top  is  off  the  meter,  through  the  table  from 
below  to  above.  It  usually  should  precede  the  slow  motion  test. 

The  pressure  commonly  used  is  9  inches  of  water  column. 
When  working  with  air,  this  pressure  is  conveniently  obtained 
from  a  compressor  (beer  pump)  operated  by  the  pressure  in  the 
water  mains.  The  compressor  delivers  into  a  30-gallon  boiler, 
which  feeds  through  a  small  holder  weighted  to  throw  9  inches 
pressure,  or  through  a  pressure  governor.  There  is  a  cock  between 
the  boiler  and  the  holder,  and  another  on  the  outlet  of  the  latter. 


554  METER  WORK 

A  hose  connection  leads  from  this  to  the  meter,  and  there  is  an 
arch  pressure  gauge  in  this  line. 

If  the  meter  top  only  has  been  removed,  the  test  for  the  tight- 
ness of  its  replacing  is  made  as  follows :  A  small  hole  is  punched 
in  the  top.  Into  this  is  inserted  the  conical  end  of  a  tin  tube 
fastened  to  the  hose  connection,  putty  being  used  to  make  a  tight 
joint.  Both  columns  of  the  meter  are  left  open.  The  outlet  cock 
from  the  holder  is  opened,  and  closed  when  the  pressure  ceases 
to  rise.  Any  subsequent  loss  of  pressure  indicates  a  leak,  which 
is  located  with  soapsuds,  as  described  later  on. 

To  test  the  columns  and  the  body  of  the  meter  below  the 
gallery,  the  pressure  line  is  connected  to  the  inlet  column  and  a 
pet  cock  screwed  on  the  meter  outlet.  This  cock  is  opened  and 
also  the  outlet  cock  from  the  holder,  and  air  allowed  to  enter  the 
meter  through  a  |-inch  hole  in  a  tin  disc  placed  in  the  pressure 
line.  After  the  proving  head  pointer  has  made  one-fourth  of  a 
revolution,  showing  that  there  is  a  clear  passage  through  the 
meter,  first  the  pet  cock  and  then  the  holder  outlet  cock  is  closed. 
If  the  pressure  as  shown  by  the  arch  gauge  drops,  the  outlet  cock 
is  again  turned  on  and  the  leak  search  begun. 

Any  congealed  condensation  should  be  carefully  scraped  from 
the  meter  and  the  spot  investigated  with  a  sharp-pointed  tool  for 
a  possible  hole.  If  the  top  is  off,  first  search  for  the  leak  in  the 
case  itself.  After  repairing  any  leak  thus  found,  if  a  leak  still 
exists,  test  around  the  caps  of  the  stuffing  boxes.  The  suds  for 
this  purpose  should  be  of  a  soap  such  as  "Ivory"  or  Fairbanks' 
"Fairy,"  that  will  not  injure  the  wool  packing.  Wipe  off 
carefully .  after  testing.  Any  leaks  found  at  stuffing  boxes 
should  be  repaired  temporarily  with  soft  putty. 

In  its  use  of  gas  for  meter  testing,  Philadelphia  has  found  the 
pressure  raising  device,  or  "inspirator,"  shown  in  Figure  171,  an 
inexpensive  and  effective  instrument.  As  the  illustration  shows, 
it  is  designed  on  the  principle  of  the  steam  injector.  A  jet  of 
water  A-inch  in  diameter,  at  main  pressure,  located  in  the  run 
of  the  "suction  tee,"  is  directed  through  a  nipple  of  £-inch  pipe, 
and  entrains  gas  entering  through  the  side  outlet  of  the  suction 
tee.  A  proper  water  seal  is  provided,  and  the  gas  pressure  is 
controlled  by  a  governor.  The  extent  to  which  this  pressure 
may  be  raised  will  be  proportional  to  the  water  pressure  available. 
At  15  pounds  water  pressure,  16  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  can  be 
raised  to  46  inches.  No  storage  tank  is  required,  for  the 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 


555 


Figure  171— Inspirator,  page  554. 


556  METER  WORK 

pressure  is  quickly  raised  as  soon  as  the  water  is  turned  on,  and 
the  flow  is  kept  up  until  the  completion  of  the  test. 

WORKS  CATCH  TEST 

§  Any  meter  removed  for  "works  catch,"  or  which,  on  check  test, 
is  thought  to  bind  and  is  not  over  10  per  cent  in  error,  is  tested 
for  this  binding  or  "catching"  immediately  following  the  check 
test.  The  meter  is  connected  to  a  "works  catch"  bar,  B,  Figure 
168,  provided  with  one  6-ft.  burner  and  five  open-flame  Jumbo 
burners,  each  of  the  latter  consuming  about  15  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  and  their  flames  are  watched  for  any  fluctuation  during  at 
least  one  revolution  of  the  tangent.  If  no  fluctuations  are 
observed,  the  test  is  repeated,  using  the  6-ft.  burner  only.  If  on 
either  test  there  is  a  fluctuation,  the  meter  is  set  aside  for  opening 
and  repair. 

PREPAYMENT  METER  TESTS 
OPEN  CUT-OFF  VALVE 

There  are  three  repair  shop  operations  peculiar  to  prepayment 
meters  that  will  be  mentioned  at  this  point.  The  first  is  the 
necessity  of  increasing  the  opening  of  the  cut-off  valve  if  its 
existing  opening  will  not  pass  sufficient  gas  to  make  the  check 
test.  This  should  be  done  by  the  use  of  a  dummy  coin,  unless 
for  any  reason  the  coin  cannot  be  inserted  in  the  slot  part 
(2,  Figure  127,  page  448),  or  if  the  meter  was  removed  for  a 
special  test  "money  wrong,"  which  means  there  is  some  evidence 
that  the  valve  is  not  opened  to  the  proper  extent  for  each  coin 
deposited.  In  the  first  case,  the  slot  part  should  be  removed, 
and  then  the  price  wheel  (2,  Figure  128)  is  turned  with  the 
fingers  until  the  credit  dial  pointer  shows  a  credit  of  25  cents, 
after  which  the  slot  part  is  replaced.  In  the  second  case,  it  is 
important  that  the  buying  mechanism  be  left  undisturbed  at  this 
time,  and,  therefore,  first,  the  slot  part  is  removed,  care  being 
taken  to  see  that  the  50-tooth  wheel  (3,  Figure  127)  is  not  turned. 
Then  the  price  wheel  is  turned  with  the  fingers,  as  above  de- 
scribed. 

TEST  BUYING  MECHANISM 

The  directions  that  follow  apply  to  the  mechanism  shown  in 
Figures  127  to  129. 

Turn  the  handle  all  the  way  back  and  shake  it  to  be  sure  no 
coin  is  left  in  the  slot  part.  If  the  position  of  the  credit  dial 
pointer  is  such  that  75  cents'  worth  can  be  bought  without 
sending  the  pointer  beyond  the  "Stop"  line,  buy  three  times 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  557 

with  a  dummy  coin,  each  time  watching  the  credit  dial.  If  the 
pointer  moves  the  proper  distance  as  measured  with  the  credit 
dial  gauge,  the.  mechanism  is  O.  K.  If  the  credit  dial  shows 
that  75  cents'  worth  cannot  be  bought  without  the  pointer 
going  beyond  the  "Stop"  line,  remove  the  slot  part  and,  by 
turning  the  price  wheel  with  the  fingers,  run  the  gearing  back 
until  this  condition  is  remedied. 

If  the  insertion  of  a  coin  is  prevented  by  an  obstruction  in  the 
slot  part,  take  off  the  latter  and  turn  50-tooth  wheel  to  see 
whether  slot  will  clear.  If  not,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove 
brass  plate  on  back  of  slot  part,  thus  enabling  access  to  interior. 
After  replacing  plate,  adjust  coin  carrier  if  necessary,  by  moving 
50-tooth  wheel,  to  enable  coin  to  drop  in  slot.  Then,  holding 
slot  part  in  hand,  insert  coin  and  turn  handle  twice  in  succession, 
to  insure  that  coin  carrier  is  in  alignment  with  slot.  Before 
replacing  slot  part,  examine  gears  for  defective  teeth.  After 
part  is  replaced,  make  buying  test  already  described. 

CLOSE  CUT-OFF  VALVE 

Remove  the  slot  part,  and  with  the  fingers  turn  the  price  wheel 
back  very  carefully  until  you  feel  the  valve  seat.  Then  turn  in 
the  opposite  direction  for  two  teeth,  to  prevent  undue  strain  on 
the  valve-closing  mechanism.  Never  blow  into  a  meter  to  test 
for  tightness  of  cut-off  valve. 

FITTING  UP 

"Fitting  up"  is  the  technical  term  used  to  describe  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  correct  position  of  the  valves  relative  to  their 
valve  seats  and  to  the  diaphragms,  as  shown  in  Figures  123  to 
126,  pages  444  to  447.  The  first  step  is  to  attach  the  valve  by 
the  valve  arm  to  the  throw  of  the  crank;  revolve  the  crank  by 
hand,  and  see  whether  the  opening  of  the  diaphragm  port  when 
the  valve  is  at  the  end  of  the  forward  stroke,  equals  the  opening 
of  the  case  port  at  the  end  of  the  backward  stroke.  If  not — and 
this  is  rarely  the  case  with  meters  undergoing  repairs — the  valve 
wrist  is  shifted  on  the  valve  wire  until  the  desired  conditions  are 
secured.  The  required  90°  angular  distance  apart  of  the  valves  in 
the  revolution  of  the  crank,  is  obtained  by  the  position  of  the 
valve  seats  and  guides,  which  makes  the  two  lines  of  travel  at 
right  angles  to  each  other. 

After  both  valves  have  been  correctly  connected  with  reference 
to  their  valve  seats,  the  next  step  is  to  see  whether  the 


558  METER  WORK 

relations  of  the  flag  arms  with  the  flag  rod  and  the  tangent 
arm  are  such  as  to  give  the  necessary  simultaneous  condi- 
tion of  diaphragms  and  diaphragm  chambers  shown  on  page 
433.  One  of  these  is  when  the  back  diaphragm  is  filled,  i.  e., 
fully  extended,  and  the  back  valve  at  midstroke  (see  Figure  124). 
When  the  valve  is  in  this  position,  the  tangent  arm  should 
point  toward  the  back  of  the  meter  at  a  very  slight  angle  toward 
the  outlet  side.  The  experienced  workman  is  able  to  judge 
before  moving  the  valve  whether  or  not  the  tangent  arm  will 
come  to  the  right  position.  If  not,  he  places  the  valves  at 
midstroke,  wedges  the  crank  fast  and  shifts  the  tangent  arm  on 
the  crank  as  may  be  necessary. 

To  extend  fully  the  back  diaphragm,  the  workman  moves  the 
back  long  flag  arm  as  far  as  it  will  go  freely.  In  that  position 
the  long  flag  arm  will  be  about  parallel  to  the  back  gallery  plate, 
and  it  should  be  possible  to  line  up  the  short  flag  arm  with  the 
tangent  arm  as  already  placed.  The  free  end  of  the  short 
flag  arm  should  not  reach  as  far  as  the  tangent  post,  because  it 
must  be  remembered  the  short  flag  arm  is  in  the  position  it  would 
assume  with  the  diaphragm  fully  extended,  and,  therefore,  it 
should  be  beyond  any  position  it  can  take  when  its  free  end  is  over 
the  tangent  post.  Expressed  in  another  way,  it  always  should 
be  possible  after  the  tangent  arm,  with  the  flag  arms  in  position, 
has  been  revolved  to  the  point  where  one  diaphragm  has  reached 
the  limit  of  its  outward  stroke,  to  lift  the  corresponding  short 
flag  arm  off  of  the  post  and  move  it  out  along  the  line  of  the 
tangent  arm,  before  the  diaphragm  reaches  full  extension.  This 
possibility  of  diaphragm  travel,  in  addition  to  that  occurring 
when  the  flag  arm  is  on  the  tangent  post,  is  necessary  to  prevent 
any  strain  on  the  flag  rod  and  to  allow  for  any  future  adjusting 
of  the  tangent  post. 

The  condition  of  the  back  diaphragm  entirely  empty  and  the 
back  valve  at  midstroke  (see  Figure  126)  is  tested  by  moving 
the  tangent  arm  through  half  a  revolution.  Again  the  short 
flag  arm  should  line  up  with  the  tangent  arm,  but  this  time  the 
latter  is  pointing  away  from  the  short  flag  arm,  and,  therefore, 
when  the  diaphragm  is  entirely  empty,  the  free  end  of  the  flag 
arm  should  extend  beyond  the  tangent  post,  to  insure  the  same 
leeway  for  the  emptying  stroke  as  that  already  described  for  the 
filling  stroke.  If  the  conditions  as  described  for  both  these 
strokes  are  not  fulfilled,  the  position  of  the  long  flag  arm  with 
relation  to  the  flag  rod  must  be  changed  by  unmaking  and  then 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  559 

re-making  their  solder  joint  attachment  until  the  desired  results 
are  attained. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  correctness  of  the  front  flag  arm,  when 
the  front  diaphragm  is  in  the  positions  shown  in  Figures  123  and 
125,  is  established  or  secured.  With  the  front  diaphragm  empty, 
the  front  long  flag  arm  will  be  about  parallel  with  the  side  of  the 
meter.  Then  both  sets  of  flag  arms  are  attached  to  the  tangent 
post.  The  correct  positions  of  the  tangent  arm  on  the  crank  and 
of  the  post  on  the  tangent  arm  are  tested  later,  as  described  under 
"Setting  the  Valves"  and  "Adjusting,"  but  in  practice  it  is  found 
that  as  a  result  of  the  fitting  up  operations,  there  is  usually 
little  or  no  correction  required  in  these  two  particulars. 

From  the  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fitter-up  takes  the 
meter  after  the  diaphragms  are  in,  and  adjusts  all  of  the  moving 
parts  so  that  they  work  properly  together.  His  work  in  con- 
necting the  valves  so  that  they  move  symmetrically  on  their 
seats  is  done  with  sufficient  accuracy,  so  that  after  inspection, 
the  valves  are  permanently  closed  in.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the 
fitter-up  works  without  using  a  meter  prover,  his  "setting  of  the 
valves"  and  his  "adjustments"  are  necessarily  only  tentative, 
and  are  afterward  tested  out  -by  the  men  who  operate  the  meter 
provers,  as  already  described. 

LOCATION  OF  WORK 

Of  the  tests  previously  described,  the  check  test  has  in  some 
cases  been  made  at  consumers'  houses.  As  a  general  practice, 
this  is  most  unwise,  for  accuracy  is  almost  impossible  of  attain- 
ment because  of  the  difficulty  of  controlling  temperature  condi- 
tions. For  those  companies,  however,  having  in  use  meters 
500-lt.  and  larger,  tests  of  these  sizes  in  place  will  often  result  in 
acceptable  economies  by  showing  that  the  error  of  registration 
does  not  warrant  removal.  In  such  a  test,  a  10-A  meter,  well 
seasoned  under  the  usual  service  conditions  and  checked  fre- 
quently for  accuracy,  replaces  the  prover,  and  is  connected  to 
the  outlet  of  the  large  meter  by  rubber  hose.  From  its  outlet, 
hose  conveys  the  gas  to  a  large  appliance  where  it  may  be  burned. 
The  tightness  of  all  valves  and  connections  may  be  determined 
by  a  proper  manipulation  of  the  inlet  and  outlet  valves  of  the 
large  meter,  and  of  a  cock  on  the  outlet  of  the  test  meter  located 
beyond  a  U  gauge.  Before  the  test,  both  meters  should  be 
purged  thoroughly. 

The  remaining  tests  and  all  the  repairs  are  made  either  in  a 
repair  shop  belonging  to  the  company,  or,  especially  where  the 


METER  WORK 


I     27    Put  in  O.  K.  Slock        | 

Figure  172.     Tests  of  Non-Dipping  Meters  at  District  Shop. 

.  n^?T^'~in  r(£ding  thi?  table,  the  central  vertical  row  of  lines  joining  the  tests  or  operations 
is  not  lettered.     The  two  side  rows  are  lettered  .4  and  B  respectively,  to  show  where  they  merge 
th» Mt  heaaVH          mafn  r?W'   ,  F?r  example  processes  5  and  6  in  the  central  row  are  made  on 
:tt-nand  group  of  meters  (A )  and  are  followed  by  process  7 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING 


561 


company  is  a  small  one,  for  reasons  of  economy,  adjusting  and 
the  minor  repairs  only  may  be  made  by  the  company,  and  meters 
requiring  more  extensive  work  sent  to  the  repair  shop  of  a  large 
company  or  of  a  meter  manufacturer.  In  Philadelphia,  it  has 
proved  cheapest  to  do  adjusting  and  to  make  minor  repairs  at 


|  1.  Classify  test  tag  (*2  or   »  3)              | 

1 

[  2.  Open  valve  (if  necessary) 

Q^ri 

I  5.  Pump  columns    1 

|      M,,rr   th.m    10'~r    F.ist   or    Slow     |                 |         Over   \%   Fast   or   1%   Slow         | 

|       Within    I'"    F.ist    or    l'"t    Slow      ] 

1                                                                                        1 

|  4.  Make  burner  test,  if  over  10%  slow  |                         |  6.   Drain   if  necessary       | 

1  6.  Drain  if  necessary       | 

|                                                                                        | 

1 

|  6.   Drain     |                                           I  10.  Solder  in  temporary  rivets         | 

|  10.  Solder  in  temporary  rivets        | 

[                                                                                         P 

1 

|  8.   Remove  test  tag     |                                            |  20.  Take  off  top      1 

111    9*  pressure  on  bottom        | 

1                                                                                  1 

1 

|  9.  Send  to  Meter  House           )                              |  11.  V  pressure  on  bottom       ] 

|,2.  Examine  screw,     | 

1 

1 

j  12.  Examine  screws      ] 

|  13.  Repair  if  necessary    | 

1 

1 

|  13.  Repair'  if  necessary         | 

|  14.  Test  buying  mechanism      | 

1 

1 

|  14.  Test  buying  mechanism      | 

|  19   Slow  motion  test       | 

1 

1  If  meter  has  not  1      1      If  meter  has     I 
[     been  drained     |      |      been  drained      | 

|  10.  Slow  motion  test       | 

bcra  dnhtari                been  drained 

u,  in  o. 

|  16.  Sweat  in  rix«.  | 

|,6.S«.,inriveu| 

1 

1 

1—  |  21.  Check  test  ard  adjust    | 

I—  \  25.  CW  cut-off  valve  by  hand   | 

I 

| 

|  22.  Put  on  top         | 

|S    Remove  ,„,,  a,       | 

1 

!*»•'.,.         * 

1  23.  9*  pressure  bottom  and  top    | 

1 

|  24.  SdAraplMtMt  hi  top  | 

|  27.  Put  in  0   K   flock      | 

1 

|  25    Close  cut-off  valve  by  hand  | 

1 

|  8.  Remove  test  UK 

|  26    Paint          \ 

[  27    Put  in  0   K-  Stork     | 

Figure  173.     Test  of  Dipping  Meters  at  District  Shop. 


562 


METER  WORK 


I  >9.  Slow  motion  test  1 
15.  Put 

T_ 

oil  leaks  |  *  Meters  purchased,  or 

having  had  new  diaphragms 
within  one  year,  are  cleaned 
and  adjusted  if  not  damaged 
necessitating  the  removal  of 
the  back  and  front. 

t  Special  repairs  com- 
prise new  sides,  bottom, 
gallery  plates,  columns, 
screws,  etc. 

0  M  eters  60-lt .  and  larger 
have  oil  put  in  before  they 


JK  : 


Figure  174.     Tests  of  Meters  at  Main  Repair  Shop. 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  563 

each  of  the  district  shops.  This  has  enabled  the  placing  back  in 
service  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  meters  removed,  without  under- 
going the  expense  of  their  transfer  to  the  central  repair  shop. 
The  number  of  meters  that  can  be  satisfactorily  cared  for  at  each 
district  shop  has  been  appreciably  increased  by  their  practice 
of  setting  aside  meters  requiring  certain  repairs  beyond  the  skill 
of  the  district  employees.  This  work  is  done  by  a  visiting 
repairer,  who  comes  to  each  district  shop  from  the  main  repair 
shop  as  occasion  demands.  This  method  is  not  available  to 
companies  whose  repair  shop  is  not  in  the  same  city. 

The  exact  apportionment  of  testing  and  repairing  as  between 
two  such  repair  locations  will  vary  according  to  local  condi- 
tions. In  discussing  the  order  of  work  as  followed  in  Philadel- 
phia, its  apportionment  will  become  apparent. 

ORDER  OF  WORK 

Figures  172,  173  ano)  174  show,  in  tree  form,  the  order  of 
operations, —  the  first  two  in  the  district  shop,  and  the  last  in 
the  main  repair  shop.  The  nondipping  test.s,  Figure  172,  have 
come  to  an  end  with  the  complete  conversion  of  all  the  meters, 
but  are  included  for  the  benefit  of  any  company  passing  through 
a  conversion  period. 

The  order  shown  for  the  tests  has  proved  to  be  the  one  now 
requiring  the  least  handling  of  meters.  In  the  future,  as  has 
often  occurred  in  the  past,  the  desirability  of  a  special  investiga- 
tion or  of  a  change  in  the  existing  policy  of  handling  and  testing 
may  alter  the  present  arrangement.  To  facilitate  any  revision, 
there  is  a  separate  instruction  card  calling  for  each  operation. 
These  are  called  "  Order-of-Test  Cards,"  and  may  be  put  in  any 
sequence  desired.  Each  operation  is  described  in  detail  on  type- 
written sheets,  and  there  is  cross  reference  between  the  sheets 
and  the  cards. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  numbers  have  been  assigned  to 
each  operation  shown  in  the  trees,  and  some  of  these  operations 
are  commented  on  below  under  their  numbers. 

(1)  At  this  point  the  meter  is  assigned  to  its  proper  class, 
1,  2  or  3,  for  the  information  of  the  workmen  introducing  oil  and 
riveting  the  oil  holes. 

(3)  In  Figure  174,  "Proof  Test"  means  either  a  check  test 
leading  to  an  adjustment,  or  a  "setting  the  valves,"  depending  on 
the  nature  of  the  repair  that  has  been  made  to  the  meter. 


564  METER  WORK 

(4)  On  nondipping  meters,  the  burner  _  test  follows  the 
check  test,  in  order  to  determine  most  economically  those  meters 
which  will  not  pass  the  test  and  which,  therefore,  must  be  sent  to 
the  main  repair  shop.  Also,  any  meter  which  fails  on  any  district 
shop  test  is  at  once  given  the  burner  test  and  sent  to  the  main 
repair  shop. 

(14)  This  test  is  made  immediately  after  the  check  test,  on 
any  meter  for  which  it  is  necessary  to  open  the  valve,  except  a 
"money  wrong." 

(19)  All  meters  failing  to  pass  this  test  should  be  given  the 
burner  test  and  then  sent  to  the  repair  shop.      This  test,  on  non- 
dipping  meters,  follows  putting  in  the  oil,  because  it  has  been 
found  that,  after  the  oil  has  been  in  for  the  time  required  by  (17) 
and  (18),  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  meters  which  would  not 
pass  the  slow  motion  test  without  oil,  are  made  O.  K.  by  the 
fact  that  the  oil  has  closed  the  pores  of  the  leather. 

(20)  The  instructions  for  this  operation  are  as  follows: 
Scrape  off  paint   from  seams  and   apply  flux  to 

exposed  solder.  Use  soldering  iron  that  does  not 
show  any  heat  color,  as  a  very  hot  iron  might  cause 
an  explosion  by  lighting  vapors  from  the  columns  or 
partly  opened  seams.  Tilt  meter  so  that  melted 
solder  will  not  fall  inside.  Make  sure  that  all  solder 
is  off  before  attempting  to  remove  top,  as  hacking  or 
prying  off  the  top  should  never  be  done  as  this  will 
spring  the  gallery  plates  out  of  shape. 

After  the  top  is  off,  tin  the  top  flanges,  being  careful 
to  keep  solder  out  of  index  gearing.  Float  solder 
around  the  base  of  the  meter  screw  to  make  a  tight 
joint  between  the  base  of  the  screw  and  the  body  of 
the  meter.  Be  careful  not  to  let  solder  run  into 
column,  nor  to  heat  screw  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
injure  the  sweated  joint  between  the  screw  and 
column.  Straighten  out  any  dents  in  top,  tin  the 
edges,  and  run  solder  out  of  test  hole. 
(22)  The  instructions  for  this  operation  are  as  follows: 
See  that  flag  arms  are  connected  to  tangent  post 
and  pin  or  wire  properly  fastened  in  tangent  post 
hole;  also,  that  all  exposed  bearings  and  cups  in 
stuffing  box  caps  are  well  oiled.  If  gallery  plate  is 
sprung  out  of  shape,  straighten  by  holding  a  stout 


TESTING  AND  REPAIRING  565 

wooden  strip  against  top  flange  and  tapping  with 
mallet  or  hammer.  If  top  flanges  are  bent,  straighten 
with  flat-nose  pliers. 

Hold  top  in  position,  and  if  necessary,  tap  it  with  a 
small  hammer  until  it  touches  the  flanges  at  every  - 
point.  Then  tack  it  on  and  put  flux  on  parts  to  be 
soldered.  Solder  on  tight,  and  be  careful  to  prevent 
solder  from  dropping  inside,  especially  when  working 
above  the  index.  For  this  reason,  do  not  use  too  hot 
an  iron,  too  much  flux,  nor  tip  the  meter  very  far 
back.  Put  a  fillet  of  solder  at  the  base  of  the  meter 
screw,  following  the  same  precautions  as  when 
removing  top. 


SECTION  III 

FORMS  AND  RECORDS 

CHAPTER  LI 

SHOP  RECORDS 
EXPLANATORY 

The  records  that  will  be  described  briefly  are  those  in  use  in 
Philadelphia,  with  its  several  district  and  one  main  repair  shop. 
With  perhaps  minor  variations  to  suit  local  conditions,  they  are 
applicable  to  any  situation.  The  value  of  the  card  forms  and  of 
the  record  by  meter  number  of  location  and  of  repair,  has  been 
demonstrated  thoroughly.  (Here  and  elsewhere  throughout  this 
Manual,  all  "card"  forms,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  of  Standard 
Library  Bureau  size,  \iz.,  approximately  3  by  5  inches.  Also, 
though  spoken  of  as  cards,  they  are  usually  printed  on  paper 
thin  enough  to  allow  for  carbon  copies.) 

COMPANY  NUMBER 

Every  meter  should  have  a  company,  as  well  as  a  maker's, 
number.  The  company  number  badges  should  be  furnished  in 
serial  numbers  to  the  meter  maker  for  soldering  to  the  front 
gallery  plate  before  shipment.  This  location  enables  the  badge 
to  remain  on  the  meter  during  all  subsequent  repairs,  thus 
absolutely  identifying  that  particular  meter  from  the  date  of 
purchase.  The  use  of  the  company  number  avoids  any  duplica- 
tion of  meter  numbers  in  the  records,  as  might  happen  if  maker's 
numbers  were  used  and  meters  bought  from  more  than  one 
ma,ker.  It  also  enables,  for  most  companies,  the  use  of  numbers 
containing  four  or,  at  most,  five  digits,  as  against  six  or  seven 
digits  in  the  maker's  numbers. 

(566) 


SHOP  RECORDS  567 

SHIPPING  LIST 

Meters  shipped  between  different  shops  or  testing  stations  are 
accompanied  by  a  shipping  list,  showing  date  of  shipment, 
company  number,  size  and  kind  of  each  meter.  In  a  shipment 
from  the  main  repair  shop  to  the  district  shop,  the  meter  index 
is  also  shown.  In  preparing  these  lists  and  all  other  meter 
records,  great  care  should  be  taken  in  writing  and  checking  the 
company  number  and  index  reading.  At  the  receiving  point, 
the  shipping  list  is  checked  with  the  accompanying  meters, 'and 
any  mistake  is  immediately  taken  up  by  letter  with  theshipping 
point.  This  insures  the  correctness  of  all  records. 

DISTRICT  REPAIR  SHOP 
METER  STOCK  CARD 

In  each  district  shop  is  kept,  for  each  meter  in  the  district 
stock,  a  meter  stock  card,  showing  the  date  the  meter  was 
received,  the  size,  kind,  number  and  index.  These  cards  are 
originated  as  meters  are  received  from  service  or  from  the  main 
repair  shop,  and  are  cancelled  when  the  meters  are  sent  out  of 
the  district  stock  to  the  main  repair  shop,  or  to  be  placed  in 
service;  in  the  latter  case,  after  the  completed  meter  order 
cards  have  been  returned.  By  this  record  the  exact  district 
meter  stock  may  be  quickly  determined  at  any  time,  and  a 
check  had  on  the  meter  information  shown  on  completed  "Set"  or 
"Change"  cards.  When  meters  are  shipped  from  the  district  shop 
to  the  main  repair  shop,  the  shipping  list,  as  made  out  from  the 
meters,  is  checked  with  the  stock  cards. 

From  time  to  time,  inventories  are  taken  of  the  meters  in 
district  stock.  Any  failure  to  account  for  every  meter  shown 
by  the  shipping  list  or  stock  cards  as  received  in  the  district, 
results  in  a  search  for  the  missing  meter,  the  number  of  which 
is,  of  course,  known.  This  search  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
information  shown  on  the  location  card  for  that  particular  meter. 

METER  TEST  SHEET 

The  result  of  a  check  test  of  a  meter  in  the  district  shop  is 
entered  in  duplicate  on  a  "Meter  Test  Sheet,"  and  the  original 
sheet  sent  to  the  main  repair  shop  the  following  morning,  in 
order  to  furnish  the  earliest  possible  information  about  the  test 
of  removed  meters. 


568 


METER  WORK 


(3    CO.'SNO.                                      SIZE 

J?    Rem.bv                                                      District 

l_    For 

0)   From                                                         Street 

Ei-S)ate  Rem.                                 Index 

**vx 
£      Class  No. 

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Sent  to  M,  H, 

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g 

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Figure  175.— Meter  Test  Tag,  page  568. 

METER  TEST  TAG 

To  every  removed  meter,  a  "Meter  Test  Tag,"  Figure  175,  is 
attached.  It  provides  a  record  for  every  district  repair  shop 
operation,  and  remains  with  the  meter  until  all  such  work  is 
complete,  after  which  it  is  forwarded  to  the  main  repair  shop. 
Here  it  is  filed  by  company  number  for  six  years,  for  possible 
future  reference,  after  the  information  opposite  "  Date  Removed" 
and  "Index"  has  been  posted  on  the  "Meter  Location  Card" 


SHOP  RECORDS 


569 


SIZE  ., 

Co.  NO.                                  MAKER. 

BY  WHOM 

NATURE  OF  REPAIR 

DATE 

REPAIRED 

PURCHASED: 

Figure  176.— Meter  Repair  Card,  page  571. 

and  that  referring  to  certain  tests,  in  the  "Meter  Tests  Book," 
as  hereafter  described. 

MAIN  REPAIR  SHOP 

METER  RECORD  BOOK — REPAIR  CARD— LOCATION  CARD 
As  each  new  meter  is  received  from  the  maker,  the  company 
number,  size,  kind,  maker's  name  and  number,  and  date  of  pur- 


Co.  NO. 


Figure  177.— Meter  Location  Card,  page  571. 


570 


METER  WORK 


if 

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Figure  178.— Meter  Tests  Book,  page  571. 


SHOP  RECORDS  571 

chase  is  entered  in  a  "Meter  Record  Book."  This  data  is 
copied  upon  a  "Meter  Repair  Card,"  Figure  176,  which  is  filed 
numerically  by  the  company  number  of  the  meter.  Each  sub- 
sequent repair  or  shipment  is  entered  on  the  proper  repair  card. 

A  "Meter  Location  Card,"  Figure  177,  containing  the  same 
information  as  the  meter  record  book,  is  written  up  at  the  same 
time  as  the  repair  card.  It  also  is  filed  by  company  number, 
and  on  it  is  entered  the  information  called  for  each  time  the 
meter  is  set  or  removed.  Both  sides  of  the  card  are  used. 

When  a  meter  is  condemned,  lost,  sold,  destroyed,  or  con- 
verted from  an  ordinary  to  a  prepayment,  the  fact  is  entered  in 
the  three  records  just  mentioned.  (A  meter  after  conversion  is 
given  a  new  company  number  and  treated  as  a  new  meter.)  It 
is  readily  seen  that  the  complete  history  of  any  meter  is  imme- 
diately accessible.  The  "Meter  Record  Book"  should  be  stored 
in  a  fireproof  place,  containing,  as  it  does,  the  data  for  starting 
new  card  records  in  case  the  latter  are  destroyed  or  lost. 

METER  TESTS  BOOK 

The  information  required  by  the  "Meter  Tests  Book,"  Figure 
178,  is  obtained  from  the  meter  test  tag.  The  exact  check  test 
results  are  entered  in  the  appropriate  columns.  One  book  is 
used  for  slow  errors  only,  and  another  book  for  fast  errors  and 
for  "correct,"  "won't  pass  gass"  and  "cease  to  record"  meters. 

Monthly  totals  are  obtained,  and  from  these  the  yearly  sum- 
mary is  prepared.  This  includes  the  average  error  of  slow  and 
of  fast  meters,  and  the  average  net  error  of  all  meters. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECORDS 

A  chronological  book  record  of  company  number  only  is  kept 
of  the  meters  set  each  day.  This  practice  was  started  July  1, 
1914.  As  Philadelphia  is  working  under  a  five-year  change  rule, 
the  record  began  to  be  of  use  in  the  spring  of  1919.  Then 
the  numbers  shown  as  set  in  July,  1914,  were  looked  up  on  the 
corresponding  meter  location  cards,  and  for  each  meter  for  which 
there  was  no  subsequent  record  of  removal,  a  "Change"  card  was 
written  and  these  orders  executed  about  July,  1919.  In  this 
way,  month  by  month  the  periodic  renewals  will  be  made. 
Without  this  chronological  record,  it  was  necessary  to  look  over 
all  of  the  meter  location  cards  and  note  down  the  numbers  of 
meters  that  had  been  nearly  five  years  in  service. 

Meters  which  for  any  reason  are  not  removed  on  a  "five-year 
change"  order,  are  ordered  out  again  at  intervals  of  six  months 


572  METER  WORK 

until  the  change  is  effected,  and  in  the  meantime,  a  special  record 
is  kept  of  them  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  their  being  forgotten. 

A  list  of  locations  from  which  rusted  meters  have  been  removed 
in  each  district  after  four  years  or  less  of  service,  is  made  out  at 
the  main  repair  shop  each  month  and  forwarded  to  the  district 
superintendent  for  his  attention. 

Other  records  show  meters  owned,  in  use,  condemned, 
causes  of  removal,  reasons  for  sending  meters  to  the  main  repair 
shop,  cost  of  repairs,  and  any  other  useful  information,  including 
the  results  of  experiments  and  investigations  made  from  time  to 
time.  From  these  records,  any  marked  change  in  practice  or 
conditions  at  any  shop  is  quickly  seen,  and  any  advisable  altera- 
tion in  the  method  of  testing  or  handling  meters  may  then 
be  made. 


CHAPTER  LII 

METER  ORDER  CARDS 

The  preceding  chapter  touched  upon  the  care  taken  by  the 
distribution  department  to  preserve  an  individual  history  of 
each  meter  and  a  record  of  all  meters  in  stock  at  any  time. 
The  principal  reason  for  these  records  is  the  vital  importance 
to  'a  gas  company  of  having  easily  available  and  accurate  meter 
data.  It  is  essential  that  the  information  on  the  Meter  Location 
Card,  Figure  177,  be  correct.  Errors  affecting  company  number 
or  location  may  cause  considerable  annoyance  and  expense,  and 
those  involving  registration  may  result  in  injustice  to,  and  cause 
dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of,  consumers.  Again,  if  a  meter  is 
set  and  a  record  of  the  installation  lost,  there  is  a  probability  of 
considerable  loss  of  revenue  before  the  meter  can  be  found. 

For  the  above  reasons,  it  is  quite  imperative  that  no  meter 
work  should  be  done  except  from  a  proper  order  card.  This 
order  card  will  be  either  a  "Set,"  Figure  179,  "Change,"  Figure 
180,  or  "Remove"  card,  Figure  181,  and  should  be  serially 
numbered  to  enable  the  easy  detection  of  the  loss  of  a  card,  as 
explained  on  page  576. 

Each  card  as  issued  by  the  commercial  department  should 
be  in  triplicate.  The  triplicate  is  held  as  a  check  to  insure  the 
return  of  the  original  order,  which,  with  the  duplicate,  is  sent  to 
the  distribution  department.  The  original  goes  with  the 
fitter,  the  duplicate  being  held  in  the  shop  until  the  completion 
of  the  work  and  the  return  of  the  original  to  the  commercial 
department. 

A  "Set"  card  should  be  issued  by  the  commercial  department 
only.  "Remove"  and  "Change"  cards,  however,  frequently 
must  be  issued  (originated)  by  the  distribution  department  in 
order  to  give  prompt  service  to  the  consumer.  When  a  card  is 
thus  originated,  it  is  issued  in  duplicate  by  the  distribution 
department,  which,  on  completion  of  the  work,  sends  the 

(573) 


574 


METER  WORK 


LOCATION  
NAME 

ORDINARY  SET 

AP'T 

owrrmcT 

REGISTER 

METER   OF 

DER    NO. 

CO.'S 

REMARKS 

3° 

•   PAGE  

iCT  I 

SET 

ROUTE  BOOK  _. 
LOC.BOOKFOLIOO  _ 

DAT*  

Figure  179.— Meter  Set  Card,  page  573. 

original  tc  the  commercial  department,  and  at  that  time  it  is 
numbered.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  check  afforded  by 
the  duplicate  held  in  the  shop,  prevents  the  loss  of  originated 
orders,  and,  therefore,  makes  unnecessary  any  notice  to  the 
commercial  department  of  an  originated  order  other  than  the 
receipt  by  them  of  the  unnumbered  completed  card. 

For  each  meter  sent  out  with  a  fitter,  the  meter  number,  size 
and  kind  is  charged  against  him,  as  per  the  stock  cards  removed 
trom  hie,  on  a  sheet  left  in  the  shop.  On  executing  the  meter 


METER  ORDER  CARDS 


575 


ORDINARY  CHANGE 


8  R  E 

|0N ." .., .     r--n.rj.  -.     J.  .-.--. 

NAME. 

DISTRICT  TYPE  OF  PROPERTY  DATE  4.  TIME  METER  ORDER  NO. 

FOLIO 
REASON 

METER  SET  METER  REMOVED 

CO'B 

PACE. 

SIZE. 

HBO 

RKS CALL _ ROUTE  BOOK 

CHANGED 

BY DATE... — _ LOC.  BOOK  FOLIO. 

Figure  180.— Meter  Change  Card,  page  573. 
ORDINARY   REMOVE 

LOCATION | JpTT 

FLOOR 
NAME. 

DISTRICT  METER  ON   '    T"  DATE   &  TIME  METER  ORDER  NO. 

HEASO>  75U5 ^ 

CO-B  KEY 

NO. 

MOVED 
SIZE TO 

SIKV 

RtMOVC°  ROUTE  BOOK 

IOC.  BOOK  FOLIO 


Figure  181. — Meter  Remove  Card,  page  573. 

order,  the  fitter  fills  in  the  blank  spaces  on  the  order  card,  this 
including  meter  index  and  company  number,  and  signs  his  name 
with  date.  On  the  return  of  his  cards  to  the  shop,  the  completed 
"Set"  cards  and  any  unused  meters  should  equal  the  meters 
with  which  he  is  charged.  Any  discrepancy  is  looked  up  imme- 
diately. As  an  additional  check  against  each  meter  set,  the 
stock  card  referring  to  that  meter  is  compared  with  the  "Set"  or 
"Change"  card,  after  which  the  stock  card  is  destroyed.  If  the 


576  METER  WORK 

description  on  the  stock  card  tallies  with  the  description  on  the 
order  card,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  consider  the  information  on 
the  latter  to  be  correct. 

After  a  comparison  has  been  made  with  the  duplicate  held  by 
the  shop,  the  completed  meter  cards  are  returned  promptly  to 
the  commercial  department,  where  the  index  and  other  desired 
information  is  entered  in  the  consumers'  ledger  and  the  tripli- 
cates are  destroyed.  The  cards  are  then  forwarded  to  the  main 
repair  shop,  where  they  are  filed  for  a  period  of  six  years  by 
serial  order  number,  after  the  serial  number,  size,  index,  date 
and  address  have  been  entered  on  the  location  card  for  each 
meter  in  question.  In  the  case  of  removed  meters,  there  is  a 
check  on  the  information  already  posted  from  the  meter  test  tag. 

Each  commercial  office  sends  a  daily  report,  on  a  special 
form,  to  the  main  repair  shop,  showing  the  serial  order  numbers, 
together  with  the  nature  of  the  order  and  the  address,  of  all  meter 
orders  issued  by  the  office  during  the  preceding  day.  As  the 
meter  cards  are  received  at  the  main  repair  shop,  their  numbers 
are  checked  off  on  these  daily  reports.  The  failure  to  receive 
any  meter  card  is  thus  disclosed  by  an  unchecked  number,  and  a 
search  is  started  after  60  days.  This  necessity  for  accounting  for 
every  meter  card  issued  affords  a  check  on  both  the  distribution 
and  the  commercial  department,  and  insures  the  receipt  of 
every  card  by  the  main  repair  shop  and  the  correct  history  of 
every  meter  on  the  location  card. 

In  order  to  know  the  total  number  of  meters  set  and  removed 
each  month,  the  daily  sets  and  removals  are  listed  in  duplicate 
in  each  district.  The  original  of  each  list  is  sent  to  the  com- 
mercial department  with  the  corresponding  meter  cards,  and 
thus  any  loss  of  cards  may  be  detected.  The  duplicates  are 
kept  until  the  end  of  the  month,  at  which  time  a  count  is  made 
of  the  number  of  meters  set  and  removed  and  in  stock,  as  shown 
by  the  stock  cards,  and  the  totals,  entered  by  sizes,  on  the 
monthly  meter  report  and  sent  to  the  main  repair  shop  to  be 
summarized  by  districts  and  forwarded  to  the  commercial 
department. 

From  what  has  been  written  in  this  and  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  it  is  quite  apparent  that  numerous  checks  are  had  on 
the  meter  index,  and  a  careful  and  complete  history  kept  of 
repairs  and  of  the  locations  at  which  each  meter  has  been  set 
during  its  existence.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  a  new  meter, 
from  the  date  of  its  purchase  to  its  setting  and  subsequent 


METER  ORDER  CARDS 


577 


removal  and  return  to  the  .main  repair  shop,  until  it  is  again 
ready  for  shipment  to  a  district  shop,  there  are  the  following 
records  showing  the  company  number  and  index: 

Record  Shows 

Record  Book  .      .      .      .      .      .  Number 

Location  Card Number  and  Index 

Repair  Card    .      .      .*•,•   .      .      ;.     .      .'     .      Number 

Shipping  List Number  and  Index 

Stock  Card  (originated)         .      .      ,      . 
Set  Card    .      .      .      .';„  ,-.    .  .  -.-     .      .      . 
Consumers'  Ledger    . 
Location  Card  (checked  with  original  entry) 

Consumers'  Ledger 

Stock  Card  (originated) 

Remove  or  Change  Card 

Test  Sheet .      .      . 

Test  Tag    .      .      .      . 

Shipping  List 

Location  Card 

The  question  of  the  correct  reading  of  a  meter  as  set  or  removed, 
often  arises  after  the  index  has  been  changed  either  through  use 
or  repair.  It  is  quite  important  in  such  cases,  involving,  as  they 
do,  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the  consumer  and  the  com- 
pany, that  the  latter  should  have  in  its  possession  sufficient 
evidence  to  prove  the  correctness  of  the  reading  as  originally 
taken.  Below  is  shown  the  evidence  available  with  the  system 
of  records  already  described : 

For  a  "Set"  card  there  is  the  entry  on  the  — 

"Remove"  card,  if  meter  had  been  removed  from 
another  location  previous  to  set. 

Test  tag. 

"Set"  card  (checked  against  stock  card). 

Consumers'  ledger. 

Location  card. 
For  a  "Remove"  card  there  is  the  entry  on  the  — 

"Remove"  card  (checked  against  stock  card). 

Test  tag  (checked  against  meter). 

Consumers'  ledger. 

Location  card. 

"Set"  card,  if  no  change  in  index  had  been  made  in 
the  shop,  and  meter  had  been  set  before  the 
question  of  reading  arose. 


578  METER  WORK 

In  addition  to  "Set,"  "Change"  and  "Remove"  cards,  other 
cards  are  required  for  other  phases  of  meter  work.  A  "Turn-on" 
card  is  used  when  the  meter  is  already  in  position  but  shut  off. 
A  "Shut-off"  card  is  used  when  the  meter  is  permanently  shut 
off  and  allowed  to  remain  in  position.  A  "Change-of-Name" 
card  is  used  when  an  application  for  gas  is  received  from  a  new 
tenant,  and  no  "Shut-off"  card  has  been  issued  for  the  meter 
affected.  The  information  on  the  above  three  cards  is  required 
by  the  commercial  department  for  the  correct  rendering  of 
bills.  These  cards  are  filed  by  that  department. 

In  every  case  where  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  the  meter,  certain 
data  is  entered  on  any  orders  held  by  the  workman.  This  data 
furnishes  information  useful  to  the  commercial  department  in 
checking  consumption  and  meter  locations. 

Numerous  other  forms  and  records  are  needed  in  connection 
with  meter  work,  but  they  are  not  mentioned  here,  for  the 
intention  has  been  to  avoid  too  much  detail,  and  to  show,  in  a 
general  way,  only  a  system  competent  to  secure  correct  meter 
records. 

The  meter  order  cards  illustrated  in  this  chapter  are  those  used 
for  ordinary  meters  in  a  situation  owning  both  ordinary  and 
prepayment  meters.  The  corresponding  cards  for  prepayment 
meters  have  the  prefix  "Prepaid,"  and  are  printed  in  red  ink. 


PART  VIII 

HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

Under  this  heading  will  be  given  certain  dimensions  thought 
indispensable  in  fixture  construction,  and  the  general  specifica- 
tions which  should  govern  the  installation  of  housepiping  and 
fixtures.  The  method  of  enforcement  and  the  system  of  inspec- 
tions described  are  those  in  use  in  Philadelphia,  and  are  intended 
merely  as  a  general  guide.  Under  maintenance  of  housepiping, 
complaint  work  not  relating  to  fuel  or  illuminating  appliances 
will  be  described.  In  connection  with  this  subject,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  report  of  the  American  Gas  Institute's 
Committee  on  Gas  Housepiping  as  printed  on  page  1014 
of  the  1916  Proceedings. 


SECTION  I 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PIPING  AND 
FIXTURES 


CHAPTER  LIII 

PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS 
EXPLANATORY  AND  HISTORICAL 

The  gas  piping  in  a  building  is  the  final  extension  of  the 
distribution  system  that  begins  at  the  holder  outlet  and,  through 
mains  and  services,  conveys  the  gas  to  and  through  the  meter,  at 
the  outlet  of  which  it  enters  the  interior  piping  most  commonly 
and  conveniently  known  as  housepiping.  It  is  shown  on  page  63, 
in  describing  the  design  of  a  new  main  system,  that  the  chief 
determinant  for  the  size  of  pipe  chosen  is  the  loss  in  pressure 
available  over  the  distance  considered.  The  design  of  a  house- 
piping  system  is  governed  similarly  by  the  difference  between 
the  pressure  available' at  the  meter  outlet  and  that  required  at 
the  burner.  There  is  no  difference  between  the  case  of  a  main 
and  that  of  a  definite  line  of  housepiping,  bfut  the  problems 
presented  by  general  housepiping  are  different  and  not  so 
simple. 

The  above  problem  is  one  that  faces  every  gas  company,  and 
upon  its  proper  solution  largely  depends  the  satisfactoriness  of 
supply.  It  is  made  more  difficult  through  the  prevailing 
ignorance  of  the  public  on  physical  matters  generally.  It  is 
such  ignorance  that  prevents  the  average  person  from  appre- 
ciating that  gas,  though  invisible,  occupies  space,  and  for  the 
same  loss  in  pressure  the  volume  of  gas  delivered  will  vary  with 
the  diameter  of  the  pipe.  Most  people  who  have  an  insufficient 
water  supply  understand  that  either  the  available  pressure  or  the 
size  of  their  water  piping,  or  both  of  these  reasons,  cause  the 

(581) 


582  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

trouble,  but  the  majority  of  gas  consumers  attribute  an  unsatis- 
factory supply  of  gas,  especially  in  the  form  of  light,  to  a  lack  of 
quality  instead  of  to  the  usual  true  cause, — insufficient  quantity. 
Consequently,  they  are  not  apt  to  notify  the  gas  company  of 
their  trouble  because  they  suspect  the  company  of  deliberately 
supplying  an  inferior  product.  For  this  reason  there  is  nothing 
more  inimical  to  satisfactory  service  than  the  existence  of 
piping  too  small  to  convey  the  gas  required  through  it.  The 
company  may  have  a  splendid  system  of  mains  and  services  and 
every  consumer  have  ample  pressure  at  his  meter  outlet,  but  if 
the  majority  of  the  buildings  contain  piping  of  inadequate  size, 
the  service  can  not  be  satisfactory. 

The  foregoing  has  attempted  to  make  clear  both  the  necessity 
of  proper  housepiping  and  also  the  impelling  reason  for  each 
company  to  strive  in  every  possible  way  to  secure  such  house- 
piping  in  its  area  of  supply.  In  some  situations,  either  indirectly 
through  municipal  officials,  or  directly  through  their  own 
inspectors,  the  companies  have  full  control  and  are  able  to 
obtain  their  requirements  by  the  power  of  otherwise  refusing  a 
supply.  In  other  places,  persuasion  alone  is  possible,  and  in 
these  communities  many  consumers  pay  the  penalty  of  their 
own  ignorance  and  the  parsimony  of  the  builder.  For  our 
present  purpose,  however,  we  assume  that  the  gas  company  has 
the  requisite  power,  and  will  proceed  to  discuss  the  form  in 
which  it  should  convey  its  requirements  for  pipe  sizes,  this 
being  the  general  housepiping  problem  already  referred  to. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  pressure  available  at  each  meter 
outlet  will  enable  a  drop  of  0.4  inch  through  the  housepiping. 
Then,  for  any  definite  system  of  housepiping,  the  correct  par- 
ticular solution  would  be  obtained  by  selecting  such  increasing 
sizes  of  pipe,  starting  from  the  farthest  outlet  and  proceeding 
to  the  meter,  as  would  give  throughout  the  entire  length  approxi- 
mately the  same  drop  in  pressure  through  each  unit  of  distance. 
If  the  extreme  distance  from  the  farthest  outlet  to  the  meter  is 
100  feet,  the  uniform  loss  in  pressure  should  be  0.4  inch  divided 
by  100,  or  0.004  inch  for  each  foot  of  run.  Knowing  the 
amount  of  gas  desired  at  each  point  of  consumption,  the  correct 
pipe  sizes  will  be  readily  shown  by  the  computer.  Such  an 
individual  solution  for  each  building  is,  however,  out  of  the 
question  under  the  conditions  that  obtain  in  practice,  where  the 
pipe  sizes  must  be  determined  by  the  average  plumber  to  whom 
the  use  of  a  computer  would  present  insuperable  difficulties. 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS 


583 


Fortunately,  the  great  majority  of  piping  systems,  while  differ- 
ing in  small  particulars,  are,  in  their  general  features,  so  uniform 
that  it  is  possible  to  provide  adequate  and  fairly  consistent  regu- 
lations for  an  entire  community,  in  such  a  form  as  may  be 
generally  understood  by  the  workmen  for  whose  use  they  are 
intended;  thus  leaving  only  a  small  minority  of  buildings  for 
which  individual  solutions  are  desirable. 

The  first  general  form  of  housepiping  table  is  given  in  "King's 
Treatise  on  the  Science  and  Practice  of  the  Manufacture  and 
Distribution  of  Coal  Gas,"  Volume  III,  page  33,  as  quoted  below: 
"The  following  are  the  sizes  and  lengths  of  iron, 

lead  or  composition  tubes  to  be  used,  according  to 

the  number  of  lights: 


A 

B 

C 

D            I             E 

Pressure    Drop 

(Inches  of  Water) 

Internal 

Greatest 

Number 

For 

For  Greatest 

Diameter 
of  Tubing 

Length 
Allowed 

of  Burners 
Allowed 

Fifty  Feet 
of  Run 

Length 
Allowed 

I- 

20' 
30' 

3 
6 

.125' 
.125' 

.05' 
.07' 

F 

40' 

50' 

12 

20 

.160' 

.16' 

i' 

70' 

35 

.125' 

.17' 

ur 

100' 

60 

.125' 

.75' 

U' 

150' 

100 

.125' 

.40' 

2' 

200' 

200 

.125' 

.54' 

"Tubing  j-inch  bore  is  not  allowed  to  be  used 
under  any  circumstances." 

The  text  in  quotation  marks  and  Columns  A,  B  and  C  of  the 
above  table  are  quoted  verbatim.  Columns  D  and  E  have  been 
added  for  the  convenience  of  further  explanation.  The  pressure 
drop  in  both  is  obtained  by  a  computer,  assuming  an  hourly 
consumption  of  5  cubic  feet  per  burner  and  a  specific  gravity  of 
.46  for  the  coal  gas  universally  supplied  50  years  ago.  Column  D 
shows  that  for  each  size  of  pipe,  the  allowable  loss  in  pressure  for 
each  50-foot  run  is  0.125  inch,  excepting  only  J-inch  size,  when 
the  loss  is  0.16  inch.  The  consumption  allowed  for  this  size  is  the 
one  inconsistent  feature  of  the  table,  and  to  be  uniform  with  the 
other  sizes,  the  greatest  number  of  burners  allowed  should  have 
been  17. 

It  is  evident  that  King's  table  would  have  the  general  effect 
of  limiting  the  loss  of  pressure  in  housepiping  to  0.125  inch  per 


584 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


50  lineal  feet,  so  that  in  200  feet  the  drop  would  not  exceed  0.5 
inch.  While  this  drop  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  usually 
available  for  housepiping,  it  will  be  seen  later  that  200  feet  is 
more  than  twice  the  average  distance  in  the  usual  system  of 
piping  between  the  farthest  outlet  and  the  meter,  and,  therefore, 
the  maximum  number  of  burners  allowed  for  each  size  of  pipe 
was  wisely  chosen.  Also,  in  determining  the  greatest  length 
allowed,  it  is  clear  that  the  author  of  the  table  had  in  mind  the 
necessity  of  limiting  the  total  possible  drop  in  any  one  system, 
and,  therefore,  in  each  pipe  size. 

TABLE  FOR  HOUSEPIPING 
PROPOSED  BY  RESEARCH  COMMITTEE 


\  4    i    g 

Loss  of  pressure  assumed  1/10-inch  of  water  for  50  feet  of  pipe, 
d  =  diameter  in  inches. 

F=  pressure  in  inches  of  water. 
=  length  of  pipe  in  feet. 

g   =  specific  gravity  of  gas  compared  with  air. 
Q  =  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour, 
"g"  assumed  to  be  .680. 
"d"  and  "1"  assumed.     "Q"  calculated. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

Diameter 
of  Pipe 

1    " 

H" 

H;; 

H 

4  " 

Length 
of   Pip- 

Cu.  Ft. 
of  Gas 
Per  Hour 

Pressuie  Drop 
(Inches  of  Water) 

For 

Fiftv  Feet 
of  "Run 

For    Greatest 
Length 
Allowed 

20' 
30' 
50' 
70' 
100' 
150' 
200' 
300' 
450' 
600' 

11 
22 
60 
127 
222 
349 
718 
1253 
1977 
4059 

.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 
.10" 

.04" 
.06" 
.10" 
.14" 
.20" 
.30" 
.40" 
.60" 
.90" 
1.20" 

"The  third  column  gives  the  maximum  duty  per  hour  for 
pipe  of  the  length  and  diameter  given. 

"No  greater  length  of  pipe  should  be  used  than  is  given  in 
the  table;  e.  g.,  the  maximum  length  of  1-inch  pipe  allowable 
under  any  circumstances  is  70  feet,  and  it  should  not  be  expected 
to  carry  over  127  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour." 

King's  table  was,  at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  such  a  step  in 
advance  that  it  was  universally  accepted  where  regulation  of 


PIPING  SPECIFIC  A  TIONS  585 

housepiping  was  attempted,  and  even  in  later  years,  with  the 
adoption  of  a  modified  form,  there  has  been  no  departure  from 
the  maximum  allowable  lengths.  In  this  country  King's  table 
was  the  only  authority  until  after  the  1898  meeting  of  the 
American  Gas  Light  Association,  at  which  the  standard  on 
page  584  was  adopted.  For  present  convenience,  it  is  not  shown 
in  the  exact  form  printed  on  page  75  of  Volume  15  of  the 
Association's  Proceedings,  and  Columns  D  and  E  have  been 
added  for  comparison  with  the  preceding  table. 

This  Association  table  was  designed  for  the  use  of  straight 
carburetted  water  gas,  and  does  not  allow  as  much  drop  per 
lineal  foot  as  does  King's  table.  The  effect  of  both  of  these 
changes  is  to  reduce  by  30  per  cent  the  allowable  consumption 
through  a  given  size  pipe.  (All  this  on  the  previous  assumption 
that  each  burner  in  King's  table  should  be  taken  as  the  equivalent 
of  5  cubic  feet  per  hour.)  Such  a  decrease  was  amply  justified  in 
view  of  the  tremendous  cheapening  in  the  cost  of  small  piping 
since  the  publication  of  King's  table,  and  of  the  prospect,  plainly 
evident  even  in  1898,  that  after  a  system  of  housepiping  had 
been  designed  and  completed  for  the  outlets  as  planned,  the 
increasing  use  of  gas  for  fuel  purposes  would  result  in  a  much 
larger  demand  at  certain  outlets  than  could  be  then  foreseen. 

As  soon  as  much  thought  was  given  to  the  application  of  either 
of  the  two  preceding  tables  to  the  control  of  housepiping  through- 
out a  community,  it  was  evident  that  they  were  faulty  in  certain 
respects.  These  faults  may  be  understood  better  if  we  follow  a 
plumber  in  proceeding  to  determine  the  size  of  housepiping. 
He  would  start  from  the  farthest  point  and  work  to  the  meter. 
This  point  would  be  for  him  an  opening  in  the  piping,  or,  in  other 
words,  an  "outlet,"  and  not  a  burner  as  in  King's  table  nor  a 
certain  number  of  cubic  feet  as  in  the  Association  table.  There- 
fore, the  model  table  should  show  gas  quantity  in  "outlets." 
In  fixing  on  the  size  and  allowable  length  of  piping  from  the 
first  to  the  second  outlet,  the  plumber  would  have  no  trouble, 
but  as  he  proceeded  toward  the  meter  and  for  each  successive 
outlet  passed,  had  to  include  its  consumption  in  the  gas  which 
was  to  flow  through  the  particular  piece  of  pipe  whose  size  was 
to  be  determined,  his  difficulties  in  working  from  either  of  the 
two  old  tables  would  increase.  What  he  needs  is  a  table  in  such 
a  form  as  to  show  at  once  the  size  of  pipe  required  for  any 
desired  number  of  outlets.  Such  a  table  is  thr.t  which  has  been 
in  use  in  Philadelphia  for  18  years,  and  which  is  now  given. 


586  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

PIPING  SCHEDULE 

SIZES 

REQUIRED  SIZES  OF  PIPING  FOR  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  AND  NUMBERS  OF  OUTLETS 

Size  of  Pipe  in  Inches 

No-,*                 |         j         |         !         ii         11          2          2\  3  4 
Outlets                                                  Length  of  Pipe  in  Feet 

1  20   30   50   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

2  27   50   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

3  12   50   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

4  50   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

5  33   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

6  24   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

7  18   70   100   150   200   300  400  600 

8  13   50   100   150   200   300  400  600 

9  44   100   150   200   300  400  600 

10  35   100   150   200   300  400  600 

11  30    90   150   200   300'  400  600 

12 25    75   150   200   300  400  600 

13  21    60   150   200   300  400  600 

14  18    53   130   200   300  400  600 

15  16    45   115   200   300  400  600 

16  14    41   100   200   300  400  600 

17  12    36    90   200   300  400  600 

18  32    80   200   300  400  600 

19  29    73   200   300  400  600 

20  27    65   200   300  400  600 

21  24    58   200   300  400  600 

22  22    53   200   300  400  600 

23  20    49   200   300  400  600 

24  18    45   190   300  400  600 

25  17    42   175   300  400  600 

30  12    30   120   300  400  600 

35  22    90   270  400  600 

40  17    70   210  400  600 

45  13    55   165  400  600 

50  45   135  330  600 

65  27    80  200  600 

20    60  150  600 

33  80  360 

'  • : 22  50  230 

15  35  160 

28  120 

..21  90 

250  u  59 

300  ...  7,0 

350 .;;;        29 

400  22 

600 1:::::::::::::;::-:::::::  ::::  II 

If  any  outlet  is  larger  than  |  inch,  it  must  be  counted  as  more 
than  one,  in  accordance  with  the  schedule  below: 

Size  of  outlet  in  inches..    J       I       1       1|       1|        2        2J  3  4 

Value  in  |-m.  outlets ...    2       4       7       11       16       28       44  64  112 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS  587 

A  comparison  of  the  three  tables  will  show  at  once  the  more 
expanded  form  of  the  latest  one.  In  an  article,  "Notes  on 
Housepiping,"  in  the  American  Gas  Light  Journal  of  February 
2,  1903,  page  162,  there  is  a  discussion  of  the  differences  between 
the  table  (in  a  less  expanded  form)  and  the  Association  table. 
Some  of  the  statements  there  made  will  be  repeated  here.  The 
Philadelphia  table  accepts  the  limiting  lengths  of  the  previous 
tables,  and  also  the  constant  of  1350.  The  other  lengths  are 
obtained  by  assuming  10  cubic  feet  per  outlet,  a  specific  gravity 
of  .65  (for  Philadelphia  conditions),  a"  section  "  drop  of  0.04  inch, 
and  a  limiting  drop  of  0.10  inch  in  30  feet.  (A  "section"  is  the 
length  measured  from  one  branch  or  point  of  junction  to  another, 
disregarding  elbows  or  turns.)  This  last,  it  will  be  noted,  is 
greater  than  in  either  of  the  older  tables,  but  it  is  fully  compen- 
sated for  by  the  fac.t  that  in  practice  each  outlet  will  not  require 
10  cubic  feet  and  the  maximum  length  of  a  section  is  seldom 
used.  It  is  in  its  use  of  sections  that  the  Philadelphia  table 
sharply  differentiates  itself  from  the  two  preceding  forms,  and 
becomes  more  suitable  for  the  design  of  large  systems,  which  are 
unduly  penalized  by  the  older  tables.  As  the  loss  in  each  sec- 
tion is  limited  to  0.04  inch,  in  a  10-section  house  the  maximum 
drop  would  be  0.4  inch.  In  Philadelphia,  the  average  house 
does  not  contain  10  sections,  nor  are  all  of  the  sections  located 
in  the  main  line  between  the  furthest  outlet,  or  the  largest  out- 
let or  number  of  outlets,  and  the  meter.  Because  the  limit  of 
pressure  drop  is  0.1  inch  in  30  feet,  the  section  length 
may  be  never  less  than  12  feet,  and  this  results,  as  is  quite  de- 
sirable, in  causing  the  change  in  pipe  size  to  occur  generally  at 
branch  or  outlet  fittings,  because  the  average  distance  between 
outlets  in  adjoining  rooms  is  more  than  12  feet.  Though  be- 
cause of  the  rule  for  section  loss,  the  Philadelphia  table  allows, 
in  most  cases,  a  shorter  length  of  pipe  than  is  permitted  by 
the  Association  table,  yet  in  practical  working,  as  will  be  seen 
later  on,  this  does  not  result  in  increased  pipe  sizes  throughout  a 
building. 

In  compiling  the  table,  the  standard  maximum  lengths  for 
each  size  pipe  were  placed  in  the  line  opposite  "1"  outlet,  and 
were  continued  down  the  table  for  increasing  outlets  until,  for 
each  size  of  pipe,  a  smaller  length  was  required  to  satisfy  the 
rule  of  no  section  drop  greater  than  0.04  inch.  For  instance, 
to  find  the  length  of  f-inch  pipe  suitable  for  five  outlets,  $-inch 
is  set  at  50  cubic  feet,  and  it  is  found  that  a  0.04  inch  drop  is 


588 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


obtained  with  33  feet,  which  is,  therefore,  the  maximum  length 
allowable,  and  not  50  feet.  Continuing  in  this  way  for  f-inch, 
when  we  reach  nine  outlets,  and  therefore  set  f-inch  opposite 
90  cubic  feet,  we  discover  0.04  at  10  feet,  but  as  0.1  inch  is  at  24 
feet,  we  cannot  allow  the  use  of  10  feet  of  f-inch  pipe  for  nine 
outlets,  as  this  would  cause  a  pressure  drop  exceeding  0.1  inch 
in  30  feet. 

To  compare  the  practical  application  of  the  Association  and 
the  Philadelphia  tables,  the  following  examples  for  actual  house- 
piping  plans  are  given: 

PLAN  I 


i) 


No.  of 
Outlets 

Length 
of  Pipe 

Ske  c 

f  Pipe 

Pressur 
(Inches  c 

5   Drop 

f  Water) 

1 

20'     7" 

i 

| 

.008" 

.008" 

2 

4'    2" 

I 

| 

.007" 

.007* 

3 

2'    1" 

3 

\ 

.004" 

.009" 

5 

2'  11" 

1 

| 

.006" 

.006" 

6 

6'    4" 

3 

.011" 

.011" 

7 

8'    8" 

1 

3 

.006" 

.020" 

8 

2'    7" 

1 

2 

.004" 

.008" 

9 

2'    9" 

1 

1 

.005" 

.005" 

10 

25'    0" 

1 

1 

.028" 

.028" 

75'    7" 

.079" 

.102" 

PLAN  II 


A 

B 

C 

I 

) 

E 

F 

No.  of 
Outlets 

Length 
of  Pipe 

Size  o 

f  Pipe 

Pressur 
(Inches  C 

e  Drop 
f  Water) 

1 

11'  6^ 

¥ 

.017" 

.017" 

2 

11'  6§ 

i" 

.017" 

.017" 

3 

11'  6^ 

I* 

.005" 

.038" 

4 

11'  6^ 

1" 

.009" 

.009" 

5 

9'    $ 

f" 

.011" 

.011" 

8 

2'0 

i  * 

.004" 

.007" 

9 

4'  3 

l  " 

.006" 

.006" 

10 

4'  \\ 

i  " 

.007" 

.007" 

11 

2"  1 

1  " 

.005" 

.005" 

16 
17 

3'  5 
2'  7 

H" 
U" 

.004" 
.004" 

.004* 
.004" 

18 

7'  3 

U" 

.009" 

.009" 

19 
20 

0'8 
5'  2 

H" 

.003" 
.008" 

.003" 
.008" 

86'  8f  * 

.109" 

.145" 

PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS 


589 


PLAN  III 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

No.  of 
Outlets 

Length 
oi  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

Pressure   Drop 
(Inches  of  Water) 

1 

7'     0' 

i* 

1* 

.011' 

.011' 

2 

9'     2' 

i* 

i* 

.013' 

.013' 

4 

5 

9'  10' 
11'    3' 

t: 

}' 

.008" 
.013' 

.008' 
.013' 

10 

8'    8' 

1  ' 

.010' 

.010' 

17 

11'    0' 

iy 

li* 

.010' 

.010' 

20 

4'    4' 

u* 

H" 

.008' 

.008' 

61'    3' 

.073' 

.073' 

PLAN  IV 


A 

B 

C           |          D 

E          |          F 

No.  of 

Outlets 

Length 
of  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

Pressure   Drop 
(Inches  of  Water) 

1 

7'  0" 

1                            1 

.011' 

.011' 

2 

9'  3' 

I 

i 

.013' 

.013' 

3 

8'  6' 

..i 

.005' 

.028' 

5 

7'0' 

2 

i 

.008' 

.008' 

6 

3'  r 

| 

i 

.005' 

.005' 

8 

8'  6' 

1 

1 

.009' 

.040' 

23 

8/6I 

H 

Ij 

.007' 

.016' 

27 

ll 

1 

.004' 

.006' 

45 

8'  6' 

2 

15 

.007' 

.025' 

49 

2 

2 

.003' 

.003' 

68 

8'  6'y 

2 

2 

.013' 

.013' 

72 

2 

2 

.004' 

.004' 

90 

8!6' 

2£ 

.008' 

.008' 

94 

2' 

.003' 

.003' 

112 

8'  6' 

2i 

2 

.012' 

.012' 

116 

1'  6* 

2J. 

2 

.004* 

.004* 

134 

8'  6' 

3 

2> 

.008' 

.017' 

154 

14'  6' 

3 

3 

.015' 

.015' 

180 

I'O' 

3 

3 

.004' 

.004' 

203 

9'  2' 

4 

3 

.006' 

.017' 

205 

15'  8' 

4 

3 

.008' 

.030' 

209 

32'  3' 

.    4 

4 

.016' 

.016' 

448 

8'  6' 

6 

4 

.004' 

.016' 

182'  3" 

.177' 

.3H' 

In  each  table,  the  outlets  in  Column  A  are  those  supplied  by 
the  sections  of  pipe  whose  length  is  given  in  Column  B. 
Column  C  shows  the  sizes  of  pipe  required  by  the  Association 
table  for  the  section  in  question,  and  Column  E,  the  corre- 
sponding loss  (in  inches  of  water)  of  pressure  through  the 
section.  Columns  D  and  F  show  the  same  data  for  the  Phila- 


590  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

delphia  table.  Plan  I  is  for  a  five  to  seven-room  house,  of 
which  several  thousand  are  built  in  Philadelphia  every  year. 
Plans  II  and  III  are  the  larger  houses,  of  eight  to  twelve 
rooms,  while  Plan  IV  is  of  a  very  large  apartment  house. 
In  none  of  the  four  plans  is  the  drop  allowed  by  the  Phila- 
delphia table  too  much,  and  yet  the  latter  table,  it  will  be 
noted,  allows,  in  several  cases,  the  use  of  smaller  pipe  than 
does  the  Association  table.  Plan  IV  illustrates  very  well  the 
unnecessary  rigor  of  the  Association  table,  as  the  latter  requires 
one  section  of  6-inch  and  three  of  4-inch,  compared  with  the 
two  sections  only  of  4-inch  necessary  to  comply  with  the 
Philadelphia  table,  and  yet  the  total  drop  for  the  latter  table  is 
only  slightly  over  three-tenths  of  an  inch. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  SIZE   DATA 
In  using  the  schedule,  the  following  rules  should  be  observed: 

(a)  No  piping  between  the  meter  and  the  first  branch  line 
should  be  smaller  than  f-inch, 

(b)  No  piping  should  be  smaller  than  f-inch. 

(c)  No  independent  line  in  the  cellar  or  on  the  first  floor,  from 
the  meter  to  a  gas  range  should  be  smaller  than  1  inch,  but  when 
the  range  is  supplied  from  the  housepiping,  a  f-inch  outlet  will 
suffice.     Above  the  first  floor,  an  independent  line  from  the  meter 
to  a  gas  range  on  an  upper  floor  should  be  not  smaller  than  f-inch. 
No  pipe  laid  under  ground  should  be  smaller  than  lj  inches. 
No  pipe  extending  outside  of  the  main  wall  of  a  building  should 
be  smaller  than  f-inch. 

(d)  No  ceiling  outlet  where  the  height  of  the  ceiling  is  20  feet 
or  more,  should  be  smaller  than  f-inch. 

(e)  Piping  for  any  type  of  room  heater,  except  gas  logs,  over 
18  inches  in  length,  and  where  line  does  not  exceed  9  feet  in  length, 
should  be  not  less  than  ^-inch.     For  similar  installations  with  line 
exceeding  9  feet,  the  size  should  be  not  less  than  f-inch,  but  a 
short  vertical  pipe  through  the  floor  may  be  |-inch.     In  other 
cases,  and  where  the  housepiping  is  to  supply  fuel  appliances 
other  than  ranges,  the  hourly  consumption  of  the  appliance 
should  be  used  in  determining  the  proper  size  of  piping.     In  any 
case,  the  capped  outlet  should  be  not  more  than  2  inches  nor 
less  than  5^-inch  above  the  floor  level. 

(j  )  Never  supply  gas  from  a  smaller  size  pipe  to  a  larger  one. 
This  does  not  apply  to  the  case  of  a  small  pipe  inside  of  a  building 
supplying  one  outside  of  a  building,  which  has  been  made  large  as 
per  rule  (c). 

_  (g)  When,  in  following  the  requirements  of  the  schedule, 
2-inch  pipe  or  larger  is  required,  and  objectionable  cutting  of 
joists  will  be  necessary,  and  it  is  believed  the  quantity  of  gas  to 
be  consumed  is  less  than  that  contemplated  in  the  table,  a  reduc- 
tion in  piping  size  should  be  considered. 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS  591 

USE  OF  SCHEDULE 

(h)  In  determining  the  sizes  of  piping,  always  start  at  the 
extremities  of  the  system  and  work  toward  the  meter. 

(i)  The  lengths  of  piping  to  be  used  in  each  case  are  the 
lengths  measured  from  one  branch  or  point  of  junction  to  another, 
disregarding  elbows  or  turns.  Such  lengths  will  be  hereafter 
spoken  of  as  "sections,"  and  are  ordinarily  of  one  size  of  pipe. 
There  are  only  two  reasons  for  which  a  change  in  size  of  piping 
should  be  allowed  in  a  section:  first,  where  the  length  of  a 
section  is  greater  than  the  length  allowed  for  the  outlets  being 
supplied;  as,  for  example,  if  a  section  supplying  two  outlets 
is  33  feet  long,  2  /  feet  of  this  could  be  ^-inch,  and  the  remaining 
6  feet,  f-inch;  second,  where  the  required  length  for  the  outlets 
being  supplied  will  cause  a  violation  of  rule  (j)  unless  the  size 
is  changed. 

(j)  If  the  exact  number  of  outlets  under  consideration 
cannot  be  found  in  the  schedule,  take  the  next  larger  number. 
For  example,  if  27  outlets  are  required,  the  next  larger  number 
in  the  schedule,  which  is  30,  should  be  taken. 

(£)  For  any  given  number  of  outlets,  do  not  use  a  smaller 
size  pipe  than  the  smallest  size  in  the  schedule  for  that  number 
of  outlets.  Thus,  to  supply  17  outlets,  no  smaller  size  pipe  than 
1  inch  may  be  used,  no  matter  how  short  the  section  may  be. 

(/)  In  any  piping  plan,  in  any  continuous  run  from  an 
extremity  to  the  meter,  there  should  not  be  used  a  longer  length 
of  any  size  pipe  than  shown  for  that  size  in  the  line  opposite 
1  outlet :  as  50  feet  for  f-inch,  70  feet  for  1-inch,  etc.  Exceptions 
to  this  rule  are:  first,  when  larger  piping  than  called  for  by  the 
schedule  is  run  in  following  (k) ;  second,  when  fitter  voluntarily 
runs  a  larger  size  than  is  necessary;  as,  for  example,  if  three 
outlets  are  to  be  supplied  by  60  feet  of  piping,  instead  of  50  feet 
of  f-inch  and  10  feet  of  ^-inch  being  required,  the  entire  60  feet 
may  be  of  f-inch  piping.  When  two  or  more  successive  sections 
work  out  to  the  same  si  ;e  of  piping,  and  their  total  length  or  sum 
exceeds  the  longest  length  shown  for  that  size  piping,  the  change 
in  size  to  a  larger  pipe  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  limiting 
length  has  been  reached.  For  example,  if  five  outlets  are  to 
be  supplied  through  30  feet  of  piping,  and  then  these  five  and 
one  more,  making  six  in  all,  through  24  feet  of  piping,  it  would 
be  found  by  the  schedule  that  five  outlets  through  30  feet  re- 
quire |-inch  piping,  and  that  six  outlets  through  24  feet  require 
f-inch  piping,  but  as  the  sum  of  the  two  sections,  30  plus  24 
equals  54,  is  4  feet  longer  than  the  amount  of  f-inch  piping  that 
may  be  used  in  any  continuous  run,  the  24-foot  section  must 
be  changed  from  f-inch  to  1  inch,  4  feet  from  the  end  nearest 
the  meter. 

INSTALLATION  REQUIREMENTS 

MAINS  OR  RISERS 

Where  there  is  only  one  vertical  main  in  a  building,  it 
should  extend  to  a  point  within  24  inches  (measured  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction)  of  a  vertical  line  from  the  head  of  the  service. 


592  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

i 

If  the  service  has  not  been  installed,  its  location  should  be 
decided  upon,  so  that  the  vertical  main  can  be  properly  located 
and  plans  made. 

Where  a  building  is  to  be  occupied  by  more  than  one 
tenant,  the  company  should  set  as  many  meters  as  there  are 
separate  consumers,  but  each  meter  should  be  located  within 
sight  of  the  end  of  the  service;  therefore,  for  every  separate 
meter  desired,  a  riser  should  be  provided.  These  risers  may 
drop  to  the  basement  at  whatever  points  in  the  building  are 
most  convenient,  a  clear  space  of  not  less  than  3  inches,  however, 
being  maintained  between  any  two  of  these  vertical  pipes. 
Risers  which  drop  at  points  in  the  building  that  are  not  in  the 
proximity  of  the  proposed  location  of  the  meters,  should  be 
extended  horizontally.  The  distance  from  the  service  at  which 
these  risers  should  terminate  will  vary  with  different  buildings. 

A  riser  should  never  be  located  in  a  window  box  (the  space  be- 
tween the  inside  finish  and  the  outside  wall  at  either  end  of  a  bulk 
window)  nor  come  down  an  exposed  wall,  nor  be  within  2  feet  of  the 
latter  if  there  is  an  inside  partition  or  wall  that  may  be  used ;  if 
none  is  available,  it  should  come  down  near  a  chimney  on  the  ex- 
posed wall.  A  riser  should  not  extend  more  than  3  inches,  nor 
less  than  2  inches,  below  the  bottom  of  the  joist.  If  the  riser  must 
be  extended  horizontally,  in  order  to  terminate  as  specified, 
a  tee,  with  plug  looking  down,  should  be  put  on  the  bottom 
of  the  vertical  pipe,  and  should  end  in  such  a  place  that 
beams,  girders,  heater  pipes,  etc.,  to  be  put  up  subsequently, 
would  not  prevent  making  connections  to  the  meter.  Where  it 
is  necessary  to  offset  the  riser,  due  to  the  projection  of  the 
foundation  wall  beyond  the  house  wall,  such  offset  should  be 
made  by  using,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  offset,  a  45°  elbow,  placed 
so  as  .to  bring  the  riser  clear  of  the  edge  of  the  foundation  wall 
and  at  the  lower  end  a  Y  fitting  with  a  plugged  outlet  looking 
down.  The  dropping  of  a  riser  down  to  the  ledge  of  the  foun- 
dation wall  and  the  use  of  a  90°  elbow  to  come  out  is  not  good 
practice. 

BUILDING  SERVICES 

The  preceding  paragraphs  describe  the  regulations  proper  for 
a  situation  where  most  of  the  dwellings  are  one-family  houses, 
and  where  the  comparatively  few  apartment  houses  are  three 
stories  or  less  and  do  not  average  over  six  separate  apartments. 
In  a  city  where  apartments  are  the  rule,  and  are  of  many 
stories,  and  each  contains  a  large  number  of  separate  families, 


PIPING  SPECIFIC  A  TIOXS  593 

the  economic  advantages  of  a  "building  service"  rising  pipe, 
containing  unmeasured  gas  and  serving  as  a  continuous  supply 
to  many  apartments,  outweighs  the  advantage  to  the  gas  com- 
pany of  locating  each  meter  within  sight  of  the  service  head. 
The  use  of  prepayment  meters,  and  in  many  cases,  the  inability 
of  each  tenant  to  gain  access  to  the  cellar,  are  also  decisive 
reasons  why  cities  of  apartment  houses,  such  as  New  York, 
Chicago,  etc.,  need  different  meter  location  rules  from  Phila- 
delphia. The  rules  in  use  in  these  cities  are  readily  obtainable 
from  the  local  gas  companies. 

The  existence  of  loft  buildings,  occupied  by  many  tenants, 
each  requiring  a  separate  gas  supply,  is  also  an  adequate  reason 
for  a  "building  service"  in  these  buildings.  The  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Committee  on  Gas  Housepiping  for  "building 
services"  are  given  below. 

SIZE 

The  gas  company  should  be  consulted  as  to  the  size  of  a 
building  service. 

LOCATION 

Under  all  conditions  the  building  service  should  terminate 
within  3  feet  of  the  proposed  location  of  the  street  service. 

HEADER 

When  it  is  necessary  to  set  more  than  two  meters  together,  a 
building  service  header  should  be  supplied,  with  an  opening  for 
each  meter,  which  openings  should  be  not  less  than  18  inches 
apart. 

OPENING 

The  opening  in  a  building  service  should  be  on  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  riser  which  it  is  to  supply,  and  not  less  than  18  inches 
from  it. 

GRADING 

A  building  service  should  be  graded  to  the  street,  and  in  any 
horizontal  run,  the  tee  left  turned  up,  so  that  any  condensation 
forming  in  the  pipe  may  run  to  the  street  and  not  to  the  meter. 

COVERING 

A  building  service  exposed  to  freezing  temperatures  should  be 
properly  protected,  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  gas  company. 
If  insulating  covering  is  used,  it  should  be  incombustible. 


594  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

OUTLETS 

CEILING 

Ceiling  outlets  should  project  not  more  than  2  inches,  nor  less 
than  f-inch,  and  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  ceiling,  and 
firmly  secured. 

WALL 

Wall  outlets  should  project  not  more  than  f-inch,  nor  less 
than  f-inch,  and  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  and 
firmly  secured. 

MANTEL 

An  outlet  for  a  mantel  or  fireplace  should  project  1|  inches 
above  the  finished  bottom  of  the  fireplace,  and  be  located  6  inches 
from  the  back  and  left-hand  side  of  the  fireplace. 

ILLUMINATION 

Outlets  for  illumination  should  not  be  placed  in  any  location 
where  good  practice  forbids,  and  the  gas  company  should  reserve 
the  right  to  reject  any  piping  where  the  outlets  are  placed  in 
unsatisfactory  locations. 

FUEL 

If  the  pipe  has  been  run  under  and  up  through  the  floor,  the 
outlet  should  be  3  inches  above  the  floor  and  2  inches  clear  of 
the  baseboard.  If  in  the  kitchen  the  pipe  has  been  run  over- 
head and  down  the  wall,  the  outlet  should  be  3  feet  from  the 
floor,  and  should  project  2  inches  horizontally  from  the  wall. 
If  in  other  rooms  the  pipe  has  been  run  overhead  and  down, 
the  outlet  should  be  on  the  baseboard  3  inches  above  the  floor, 
and  unless  a  drop  tee  or  ell  is  used,  should  be  2  inches  clear  of 
the  baseboard. 

ACCESSIBILITY 

It  is  important,  for  the  purposes  of  cleaning  and  repairing, 
that  .the  piping  be  as  accessible  as  possible. 

In  buildings  of  the  ordinary  construction,  with  flooring  of 
single  thickness  laid  across  the  joists,  and  with  ceilings  lathed 
and  plastered  below  the  joists,  the  horizontal  piping  should  be 
located  parallel  to  and  just  under  the  floor  boards,  passing  over 
the  joists,  which  should  be  notched  as  little  as  possible;  and 
where  the  pipes  are  of  large  sizes,  the  joists  should  be  notched 
near  their  points  of  support  in  order  to  weaken  them  the  least. 

In  buildings  where  the  floors  are  so  constructed  that  piping 
placed  under  them  would  be  difficult  and  expensive  to  uncover, 
such  as  tile,  mosaic,  parquetry,  double  or  diagonal  flooring,  etc., 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS  595 

the  piping  should  not  be  so  placed  if  it  can  be  avoided ;  in  some 
cases,  the  piping  may  be  left  exposed  below  the  ceiling;  in  case 
the  beam,  girders  or  joists  are  to  be  left  exposed,  the  piping  may 
be  placed  in  an  angle  and  concealed  by  moulding;  in  case  the 
piping  must  be  concealed  in  the  floor,  it  should  not  be  located 
at  the  bottom  of  beams  or  joists  which  are  lathed  and  plastered 
to  form  the  ceiling,  but  placed  above  the  supporting  beams, 
just  under  the  floor  covering,  in  grooves  formed  in  the  material 
on  which  the  floor  covering  is  laid,  or,  in  case  of  cement  floors, 
imbedded  in  the  cement.  In  some  cases,  the  beams  may  be 
notched,  or  iron  beams  drilled  through  their  webs,  near  their 
points  of  support. 

Vertical  pipes,  if  they  must  be  concealed,  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  located  in  hollow  partitions,  in  preference  to  being 
placed  in  the  studding  or  lathing  back  of  the  plaster  on  masonry 
walls. 

It  is  good  practice,  where  pipes  pass  through  masonry  walls 
and  concrete  floors,  to  have  them  incased  in  a  pipe  of  such 
diameter  as  to. give  a  clearance  of  j-inch  all  around. 

PROTECTION 

When  necessary  to  imbed  a  pipe  in  direct  contact  with  neat 
cement  or  ordinary  concrete,  black  pipe  may  be  used.  If 
cinders,  salt,  sea  water,  or  other  substance  which  has  a  corrosive 
action  on  the  piping,  is  to  be  used  in  the  fabrication  of  the  cement 
or  concrete,  or  if  the  concrete  or  cement  in  which  the  pipe  is  laid 
is  to  be  exposed  to  brine,  acid,  pickling-bath  liquor,  or  other 
liquids  of  a  corrosive  nature,  or  if  the  pipe  is  to  be  in  contact 
with  composition  flooring  or  similar  structural  material,  the 
piping  should  be  made  up  of  pipe  and  fittings  both  galvanized, 
and  should  be  painted  with  two  coats  of  a  pure  red-leaded 
paint,  a  bituminous  paint,  or  an  equivalent  protective  coating. 
It  is  preferable  that  it  also  be  wrapped  or  coated  with  an  approved 
material  for  protection  against  corrosion. 

SUPPORT 

In  buildings  constructed  with  wooden  floor  joists  and  wooden 
framework  in  partitions,  the  piping  should  be  rigidly  supported 
by  hooks,  or  straps,  which  are  nailed  or  screwed  to  woodwork, 
or,  in  the  case  of  masonry  walls,  to  wooden  plugs  inserted  in 
these  walls.  These  points  of  support,  for  vertical  and  for 
horizontal  piping,  should  be  spaced  as  follows: 


596  HCUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

Size  Horizontal  Vertical 

of  Pipe  Piping  Piping 

|  6'  10' 

V  10' 

lj   or  larger  10'  Every  floor  level 

Where  piping  is  not  located  sufficiently  close  to  the  wood- 
work to  admit  of  secure  fastening,  additional  wooden  strips, 
spaced  in  accordance  with  the  preceding  table,  should  be  provid- 
ed. These  strips  should  be  supported  at  their  ends  by  nailing  or 
screwing  to  wooden  cleats,  which  in  turn  are  nailed  or  screwed 
to  the  joists  or  studding. 

In  buildings  where  iron  beams,  concrete  or  tiling  enter  into 
the  construction  of  floors  or  partitions,  the  piping,  whether 
concealed  or  exposed,  should  be  supported  rigidly,  and  in  the 
most  accessible  location  possible. 

The  fittings  that  are  back  of  all  outlets,  whether  ceiling 
outlets  or  side  wall  outlets,  should  be  firmly  and  rigidly  attached 
by  flanges,  hooks  or  straps  to  the  framework  of  the  building. 
If  there  is  no  adequate  support  located  back  of  the  point  where 
the  outlet  is  desired,  a  strap  should  be  provided,  supported  as 
described  above. 

SLOPE 

The  piping  should  slope  toward  the  meter,  or  toward  an  outlet 
from  which  condensation  can  be  removed  if  necessary;  or  it  may 
be  laid  level.  Piping  should  not  be  installed  with  a  perceptible 
sag,  as  condensation  might  collect  there.  It  is  especially 
important  that  underground  piping  be  laid  in  such  a  way  that 
condensation  may  be  readily  removed. 

JOINTING 

White  lead  or  other  jointing  material  should  be  used  sparingly, 
to  avoid  clogging  the  pipe.  Jointing  material  always  should 
be  put  on  the  male  thread  and  not  in  the  fitting.  Gas  fitters' 
cement  should  not  be  used. 

OBSTRUCTIONS 

The  piping  should  be  free  from  obstructions.  Every  piece  of 
pipe  should  be  stood  on  end  and  thoroughly  hammered,  and 
also  blown  through,  before  being  connected.  After  being  con- 
nected, all  piping  should  be  blown  through  from  the  last  outlet 
on  each  floor  to  the  lower  end  of  the  riser,  to  make  sure  it  is  clear. 
No  piping  should  be  coated  or  painted  until  inspected  and 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS  597 

passed.     Long  screws,  or  right  and  left-hand  couplings,  instead 
of  unions,  should  be  used  in  concealed  work. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

All  branches  should  be  taken  from  the  sides  or  top  of  the  run- 
ning line,  and  not  from  the  bottom. 

Bending  pipe  to  form  outlets,  or  for  other  purposes  as  approved 
by  the  company,  should  be  permitted.  In  bending  pipe  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  does  not  kink.  Pipe  excessively  flattened, 
or  bent  to  less  than  the  radii  given  below,  will  not  be  permitted. 

Size  of  Minimum 

Pipe  Radius  of  Bend 


\y  10" 

2  "  14" 

INSPECTION  REQUIREMENTS 

After  piping  has  been  installed,  it  should  be  inspected  and 
tested  by  the  proper  authorities  in  accordance  with  the  rules  in 
Chapter  LV,  qualified  by  the  following  requirements: 

In  joining  new  extensions  to  xold  piping,  the  fitter  should 
examine  carefully  the  sizes  of  that  portion  of  the  old  piping 
through  which  the  gas  will  flow  on  its  way  to  the  extension,  in 
order  to  make  sure  that  it  is  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  the  new 
outlets  in  addition  to  the  old  ones.  If  the  sizes  of  the  old  piping 
are  not  in  exact  accordance  with,  but  do  not  differ  widely  from, 
the  requirements  of  the  schedule,  connection  may  be  made 
thereto. 

A  system  of  2new  piping  that  is  to  be  joined  to  a  system  of  old 
piping,  thus  constituting  an  extension  to  the  old  piping,  requires 
the  regular  first  inspection  before  being  joined  to  the  old  piping. 
After  the  certificate  is  issued  on  this  first  inspection,  and  the  new 
piping  is  connected  to  the  old  piping,  another  inspection  should 
be  made,  in  which  the  whole  enlarged  system  of  piping  will  be 
required  to  stand  a  pressure  of  6  inches  of  water  column,  showing 

1  The  term  "old  piping"  designates  all  piping  found  on  the  premises  when  the  existing  job 
is  undertaken,  and  it  may  or  may  not  have  gas  in  it;  or  it  may  or  may  not  have  been  previously 
inspected. 

2  The  term  "new  piping"  designates  only  that  piping  that  is  installed  as  a  part  or  all  of  the 
existing  job. 


598  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

no  drop  in  10  minutes.  This  applies  whether  or  not  any  fixtures 
are  on  the  old  or  new  systems  of  piping. 

Where  the  work  has  consisted  of  the  blowing  out  of  an  old 
system  of  piping,  the  removal  and  replacement  of  some  parts  of 
it,  the  insertion  of  some  new  piping  in  place  of  old  piping,  or  the 
extensions  to  new  outlets  where  each  extension  consists  of  a  line 
of  pipe  to  only  one  new  outlet,  as  distinguished  from  an  extension 
consisting  of  a  system  of  piping  which  leads  to  more  than  one 
new  outlet,  the  third  inspection  only  should  be  required. 

When  these  classes  of  work  are  contemplated,  it  is  advisable 
that  the  fitter  test  the  old  system  of  piping  for  leaks  before 
estimating  on  the  cost  of  the  work. 

PIPING  PLAN 

When  the  housepiping  is  inspected  by  the  local  gas  company 
and  it  is  required  that  a  plan  be  submitted  showing  the  proposed 
layout  with  length  and  sizes,  the  company  should  supply  to  the 
fitters,  a  form  for  this  purpose,  printed  on  white  cross  section 
paper,  9  by  15  inches,  with  f-inch  ruling.  This  form  is  shown  in 
Figure  182. 

EXPLANATION  OF  ASSUMED  PLAN 

Beginning,  Figure  183,  at  the  point  1,  which  is  farthest  from 
the  meter,  piping  1  A,  being  4  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying 
the  (one)  outlet  1,  should  be  f-inch.  Piping  2  A,  being  1  foot 
long  and  supplying  the  (one)  outlet  2,  should  also  be  f-inch. 
Piping  A  B,  being  12  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (two)  out- 
lets 1  and  2,  should  be  ^-inch. 

Piping  3  D,  supplying  the  (one)  outlet  3,  and  being  24  feet  long, 
exceeds  the  maximum  length  of  f-inch  permitted  to  supply  one 
outlet,  and,  therefore,  the  distance  3  C  should  be  composed  of 
20  feet  of  f-inch,  and  the  remaining  distance  C  D  should  be 
composed  of  4  feet  of  ^-inch.  Piping  4  D,  being  8  feet  long,  and 
supplying  the  (one)  outlet  4,  should  be  f-inch.  Piping  D  B, 
being  1  foot  long,  and  supplying  the  (two)  outlets  3  and  4,  should 
be  £-inch. 

Piping  B  E,  being  25  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (four) 
outlets  1  to  4  inclusive,  should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  5  E,  being  7  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (one)  outlet  5, 
should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  EG,  being  30  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (five) 
outlets  1  to  5  inclusive,  cannot  be  composed  entirely  of  f-inch, 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS  599 

as  only  50  feet  of  f-inch  is  permitted  in  a  continuous  run  to  the 
meter,  and  as  25  feet  has  been  already  used  in  the  section  B  E, 
therefore,  the  distance  E  F  should  be  composed  of  25  feet  of 


PIPING    PLAN 
DRAW    PLAN    ON    OTHER    SIDE 
ADDRESS     OF    JOB 


.   NAME 
PLUMBER'S 


ADDRESS 


.  NAME 
ILDER'S         J 


BUILDER'S 
OR  OWNER'S  ) 


IMPORTANT    INSTRUCTIONS 

SEND  THIS  PLAN  TO  THE  DISTRICT  SHOP  LOCATED  IN  THE  SAME   DISTRICT 
IN  WHICH  THE  WORK  IS  DONE. 

ALWAYS  GIVE  THE  NUMBER  FOR  A  CORNER  ADDRESS. 

IN  PREPARING  A  PLAN,  THE  FOLLOWING  INSTRUCTIONS  SHOULD  BE  STRICTLY 
ADHERED  TO: 

(A)  Vertical  Piping  should  be  shown  parallel  to  the  Short  Side  of  the  Sheet. 

(B)  Piping  through   the  length  of  the  Building  should   be    shown    parallel    to    the 
Long  Side  of  the  Sheet. 

(C)  Piping    across    the    width    of    the    Building    should    be    shown    diagonally    on 
the  Sheet. 

(D)  State   Length   and   Size  of  each  Section  of   Piping.     A  Section  designates    the 
Length   of    Piping  existing    between    Outlets,    Fittings    and    Points    of    Changes 
in  Piping  Sizes. 

(E)  On    Horizontal    Piping,    mark    the    Length    under    the    Line,    and    Size    over 
the  Line. 

(F)  On   Vertical   Piping,  including    Drops,  mark    the    Length  to   the    Right    of    the 
Line,  and  the  Size  to  the  Left  of  the  Line. 

(G)  Mark  each  Outlet  X,  and  in  the  case  of  a  Plugged  Outlet,  state  its  Size. 
(H)     Plan  should  be  Folded  on  Dotted  Line. 


Figure  182.—  Housepiping  Sheet,  page  598. 


600  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

f-inch,  and  the  remaining  distance  F  G  should  be  composed  of 

5  feet  of  1-inch. 

Piping  6  G,  being  similar  to  5  E,  should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  G  H,  being  1  foot  long,  and  supplying  the  (six)  outlets, 
1  to  6  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch,  because,  ev,°n  though  f-inch, 
according  to  the  schedule,  is  permitted  to  supply  six  outlets,  the 
maximum  amount  of  f-inch  permitted  has  already  been  used 
in  the  distance  B  F. 

Piping  7  J,  being  15  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (one)  outlet  7, 
should  be  f-inch.  Piping  8J,  being  3  feet  6  inches  long,  and 
supplying  the  (one)  outlet  8,  should  be  f-inch.  Piping  J  K, 
being  3  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (two)  outlets  7  and  8,  should 
be  f-inch.  Piping  9  K,  being  4  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying 
the  (one)  outlet  9,  should  be  f-inch.  Piping  K  H,  being  25  feet 
long,  and  supplying  the  (three)  outlets  7  to  9  inclusive,  exceeds 
the  maximum  length  of  f-inch  permitted  to  supply  three  cutlets, 
and,  therefore,  the  distance  K  L  should  be  composed  of  12  feet 
of  f-inch,  and  the  remaining  distance  L  H  should  be  composed 
of  13  feet  of  f-inch. 

Piping  H  N,  being  19  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (nine) 
outlets  1  to  9  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch. 

Piping  10  M,  being  12  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the 
(one)  outlet  10,  should  be  f-inch.  Piping  11  M,  being  7  feet 

6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the   (one)   outlet   11,  should   be 
f-inch.     Piping  M  N,  being  7  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (two) 
outlets  10  and  11,  should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  N  O,  being  1  foot  6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the 
(eleven)  outlets  1  to  11  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch. 

Piping  12  O,  being  9  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  i^one)  outlet 
12,  should  be  finch. 

Piping  O  Q,  being  3  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the 
(twelve)  outlets  1  to  12  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch. 

Piping  13  Q,  being  23  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the 
(one)  outlet  13,  exceeds  the  maximum  length  of  f-inch  permitted 
to  supply  one  outlet,  and,  therefore,  the  distance  13  P  should  be 
composed  of  20  feet  of  f-inch,  and  the  remaining  distance  P  Q 
should  be  composed  of  3  feet  6  inches  of  f-inch. 

Piping  Q  R,  being  5  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (thirteen) 
outlets  1  to  13  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch. 

Piping  14  R,  being  4  feet  6  inches  long,  and  supplying  the  (one; 
outlet  14,  should  be  f-inch. 


PIPING  SPECIFICATIONS 


601 


Piping  RS,  being '3  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (fourteen) 
outlets  1  to  14  inclusive,  should  be  1-inch. 


Figure  183,-Piping  Plan,  page  598. 


602  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

Piping  15  S,  being  1  foot  long,  and  supplying  the  (one)  outlet 
15,  should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  S  U,  being  18  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (fifteen) 
outlets  1  to  15  inclusive,  exceeds  the  maximum  length  of  1-inch 
permitted  to  supply  15  outlets,  and,  therefore,  the  distance  S  U 
should  be  composed  of  two  sizes  of  piping,  1-inch  and  lj-inch, 
and  as  32  feet  of  1-inch  pipe  have  been  already  run  from  H  to  S, 
and  a  total  of  44  feet  of  1-inch  is  allowable  to  supply  point  H 
(nine  outlets),  the  difference  between  these  amounts,  or  12  feet 
of  1-inch  pipe,  is  only  permitted  to  be  run  from  S  to  T,  the 
distance  T  to  U,  or  6  feet  of  the  18  feet  required,  being  composed 
of  If-inch  pipe. 

Piping  16  U,  being  5  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (one) 
outlet  16,  should  be  f-inch. 

Piping  U  V,  being  15  feet  long,  and  supplying  the  (sixteen) 
outlets  1  to  16  inclusive,  and  also  the  plugged  1-inch  outlet  17, 
which  counts  as  seven  outlets,  making  a  total  of  23  outlets, 
should  be  l^-inch. 


CHAPTER  LIV 

FIXTURE  SPECIFICATIONS 

NEW  FIXTURES 

DEFINITION 

The  term  "new  fixtures"  as  here  used,  designates  fixtures  that 
have  never  had  gas  through  them. 

SPECIFICATIONS 

The  specifications  printed  below  are  those  adopted   by  the 
American  Gas  Institute  in  1916. 

SPECIFICATION   FOR   GAS   FIXTURES 

GENERAL 

Gas  fixtures  should  be  of  such  mechanically  good  construction 
that  proper  installation,  operation  and  maintenance  will  be 
assured  without  encountering  any  special  difficulty. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  design  of  the  fixture,  so  that 
no  portion  of  it  interferes  with  ready  access  to  any  nut  or  screw  • 
which  may  be  necessary  to  get  at  for  the  purpose  of  adjustment. 
Brass  pipe  or  tubing  should  be  either  seamless  drawn  or 
brazed;  in  either  case,  of  best  quality  to  allow  bending  and 
threading  without  splitting. 

The  thickness  of  walls  of  brass  pipe  or  tubing  should  be  not 
less  than  No.  18  B.  &  S.  gauge  (0.04030  inch),  except  when  it  is 
used  as  casing  or  covering  for  iron  pipe,  in  which  case  it  should 
be  not  less  than  No.  22  B.  &  S.  gauge  (0.02534  inch).  Both  of 
these  gauges  are  subject  to  the  usual  gauge  tolerance  of  plus  or 
minus  0.002  inch.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
having  tubing  which  runs  the  full  gauge. 

(NOTE.  —  While  No.  18  gauge  is  very  generally  in 
use,  it  is  believed  that  it  is  very  much  better  to  use 
No.  17  gauge.  This  is  not  because  the  18-gauge 
tubing  is  not  strong  or  rigid  enough,  but  because 
when  threads  are  cut  on  it,  there  is  not  sufficient 
metal  to  be  sure  that  a  good  joint  is  made.  If  the 
18-gauge  always  ran  full  size,  or  a  little  over  size, 
there  would  be  no  objection  to  its  being  used,  but  as 
it  is  necessary  to  allow  some  variation  in  the  gauge 
of  tubing,  it  is  thought  that  No.  17  gauge  should 
be  specified.) 
Iron  pipe  should  be  of  the  American  standard  size. 

(603j 


604  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

1.    SIZE  OF  THREADS 

'  (a)  All  threads  on  brass  tubing  should  be  straight  threads 
to  conform  to  the  standard  specifications  adopted  by  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  1915. 

(b)  All  pipe  threads  for  iron  pipe  should  be  the  standard  iron 
pipe  size.     (Briggs  standard.) 

(c)  When  brass  tube  and  iron  are  connected,  the  thread 
should   be   gas-fixture   size,   brass  tubing   thread   on   both   the 
brass  and  the  iron,  but  it  is  recommended  that,  where  possible, 
instead  of  connecting  the  parts  in  this  manner,  a  brass  bushing 
be  used,  threaded  on  the  outside  with  a  standard  I.  P.  S.  thread 
to  screw  into  the  iron  body,  the  bushing  being  tapped  on  the 
inside   with  a  straight   gas-fixture   size,   brass  tubing  tap,   for 
the  connection  of  the  brass  tube. 

2.     ASSEMBLING  REQUIREMENTS 

(a)  Joints  of  the  stems  or  arms  at  the  body  should  be  well 
threaded  and  depend  on  the  thread   for  strength.     All  joints 
connecting  tubing  to  cocks  or  nozzles  should  be  threaded  where 
possible,  and  brazed. 

(b)  The  threaded  portion  of  pendant  body,  or  manifold,  for 
fixture  stem  to  be  of  such  depth  that  in  no  case  will  the  stem 
come  in  contact  with  the  arms.     The  pendant  body  should  be. 
threaded  for  at  least  four  full  threads,  both  for  the  stem  and  arms. 

(c)  Fixture  arms  should  not  extend  into  the  pendant  body,  or 
manifold,  for  a  greater  distance  than  the  threaded  portion  of 
the  manifold. 

(d)  If  the  arms  of  the  pendant  are  straight,  then  the  pendant 
body,  or  manifold,  should  be  drilled  in  such  a  way  that  the  arms 
will  be  perpendicular  to  the  stem. 

(e)  The  burner  nozzle,  or  nipple,  to  have  a  ^-inch  iron  pipe, 
male  thread.     The  length  of  this  threaded  portion  should  be  not 
less  than  3Vinch  and  not  more  than  ^-inch,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  thread  should  be  recessed  so  that  the  burner  will  make  a 
neat,  tight  joint,  with  the  finished  end  of  the  arm  immediately 
before  the  threaded  portion. 

(/)      The  axes  of  the  burner  nozzles  should  be  vertical. 

(g)  Special  precautions  should  be  taken  in  the  construction 
to  prevent  the  obstruction  of  the  gas-ways  by  foreign  matter, 
such  as  gas  fitters'  cement,  solder,  or  other  jointing  material,  or 
metal  chips.  The  ends  of  tubing  should  be  reamed  to  remove 
burrs.  When  duplex  tubing  is  used,  care  should  be  exercised 
to  prevent  faulty  alignment  of  the  gas-ways. 

(h)  Gas  fitters'  cement  should  not  be  used  on  any  part 
'  of  the  fixture  where  it  may  be  affected  by  the  heat  from  the 
burners.  When  solder  is  used,  it  should  be  of  such  a  mixture 
that  it  will  not  be  affected  by  the  heat  from  the  burners. 

(i)  Fixtures  for  use  out  of  doors,  or  in  exposed  situations, 
should  be  provided  with  suitable  drips,  or  means  for  the  con- 
venient removal  of  condensation  from  any  part  of  the  fixture  in 
which  such  condensation  may  accumulate.  Independent  pilot 
lines  in  outdoor  fixtures  should  be  not  smaller  than  f-inch  iron 
pipe  size. 


FIXTURE  SPECIFICATIONS  605 

(j)  Globe  holders  should  be  of  such  construction  and  weight 
that  they  will  support  properly,  without  sagging  or  bending,  any 
globe  or  shade  with  which  they  are  intended  to  be  used.  They 
should  be  readily  and  rigidly  attached  to  the  fixture  arm  or 
portable  stand,  and  held  in  place  by  screwing  down  the  burner, 
or  by  other  means.  They  should  provide  a  good  seat  for  all 
parts  of  the  globe  with  which  they  are  supposed  to  be  in  contact. 
Eyelets  should  be  inserted  where  screws  are  used  for  holding  the 
globe,  these  eyelets  to  be  of  such  a  size  that  they  will  provide  at 
least  three  full  threads. 

(k)  When  a  fixture  has  two  cocks  at  the  body,  the  cocks 
should  be  so  placed  that  the  keys  will,  at  all  times,  be  at  least 
1  inch  apart  in  the  clear. 

3.     GOOSE  OR  STORK  NECK 

(a)  The  thread  on  a  fixed  portion  of  a  goose  or  stork  neck 
should  be  not  less  than  ^-inch  in  length,  and  should  be  threaded 
with  i-inch  I.  P.  S.  thread. 

(b)  The  ground  joint  between  the  fixed  and  movable  portions 
should  have  a  bearing  surface  of  not  less  than  1  inch,  and  the 
diameter  of  the  small  end  of  the  ground  joint  should  be  not  less 
than  f-:nch. 

(c)  The  joint  should  be  thoroughly  and  properly  ground 
and  not  merely  tool  finished.     It  should  be  perfectly  gas  tight, 
without  grease,  under  a  pressure  of  8  inches  water  column.     The 
joint  may  be  tested  for  satisfactory  grinding  by  wiping  the  plug 
and  body  free  from  grease  and  putting  on  the  plug  a  small 
quantity  of  dry  red  lead  or  chalk.     The  plug  when  turned  in  the 
body  should  then  show  neither  high  nor  low  places. 

(d)  It  should  be  possible  to  lock  the  movable  part  to  the 
fixed  part  by  a  bayonet  lock,  or  approved  means. 

4.    CASING  I 

Where  casing  is  used  it  should  be  cut  to  an  exact  length 
so  that  the  joints  may  be  made  up  tight,  without  marring  or 
jamming  the  parts  of  the  fixture  at  either  end  of  the  casing. 

5.    CHAIN  PULLS 

(a)  Where  a  by-pass  chain  passes  through  a  part  of  the 
casing  or  an  ornament  of  the  fixture,  the  opening  through  which 
the  chain  passes  should  have  an  eyelet,  or  similar  means,  to 
prevent  the  links  of  the  chain  from  catching  on  the  edges  of  the 
opening.     If  a  rod  is  used  in  place  of  a  chain,  the  eyelet  may  be 
omitted. 

(b)  If  a  chain  pull  is  to  be  used,  a  sample  of  such  chain 
should  be  submitted  for  examination  and  approval. 

6.     COCKS  ON  PORTABLE  STANDS 
A  portable  stand  should  not  have  a  cock  as  part  of  the  stand. 

7.    SWING  JOINTS 

The  committee  desires  to  go  on  record  as  being  opposed  to 
the  use  of  brackets  ha\ing  swing  joints.     It  is  felt  that  in  prac- 
all  cases  they  are   unnecessary,  and    thev   are   without 


606  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

doubt  a  source  of  much  annoyance  and  expense,  unless  well  con- 
structed and  properly  installed  and  used.  The  use  of  swing 
joints  is  being  noticeably  lessened,  but  because  there  is  still  some 
demand  for  fixturestof  this  type,  the  following  suggestions  should 
be  carefully  followed : 

(a)  In  fixtures  having  swing  joints,  the  swing  joint  should 
be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  specification  for  the  gas 
fixture  cock  in  so  far  as  that  specification  may  cover  the  plug, 
the  gas-way  and  the  lock  nut  and  jamb  nut.     It  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  in  no  case  shall  the  diameter  of  the  plug  at  the  small 
end  be  less  than  f-inch.     In  no  case  shall  the  gasway  around  the 
plug  be  less  than  £-inch  wide  and  ^-inch  deep. 

(b)  Fixtures  having  swing  joints  should  be  so  made  that 
the  arms  of  the  fixture  will,  at  all  times,  be  in  parallel  horizontal 
planes  and  the  construction  should  be  sufficiently  heavy  so  that 
the  arms  will  maintain  substantially  these  positions  when  a  lamp 
of  any  weight  up  to  2\  pounds  is  attached.     (The  deflection 
with  a  weight  of  2j  pounds  should  be  not  over  J-inch.)     Excep- 
tion:    Fixtures  which  are  intended  to  revolve  in  planes  other 
than  horizontal  planes,  need  not  conform  with  this  clause  of 
the   specification,    but   should    be   submitted    for   examination 
and  approval. 

(c)  Swing  joints  should  be  so  assembled  that  the  weight  of 
the  fixture  has  a  tendency  to  seat  the  plug  in  the  body. 

8.     CENTER  CONTROL  COCKS 

(a)  A  center  control  cock,  which  is  the  cock  used  for  con- 
trolling the  supply  of  gas  to  a  fixture  having  two  or  more  arms, 
and  which  may  or  may  not  be  at  the  same  time  a  by-pass  cock, 
should  have,  in  all  cases,  a  te-inch  gasway,  and  in  other  dimen- 
sions should  conform  with  the  gas   fixture  cock  specification 
appended  hereto. 

(b)  If  this  center  control  cock  has  lever  arms,  these  arms 
should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  permit  of  easy  operation  of  the 
cock  so  that  neither  the  arms,  nor  the  rods,  nor  the  chains, 
operating  the  cock,  come  in  contact  with  the  body  arms  or  other 
parts  of  the  fixture. 

9.     GREASE 

The  grease  used  on  cocks,  or  swing  joints,  should  not  contain 
resin,  rubber,  paraffine  or  similar  substance.  When  the  cocks 
are  exposed  to  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  a  by-pass  cock  over  an 
inverted  incandescent  lamp,  the  grease  should  be  made  of 
a  good  quality  of  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  and  graphite,-in  propor- 
tions of  about  1  pound  of  graphite  to  1  pint  of  oil.  This  grease 
is  also  preferred  for  use  with  all  cocks.  Where  this  lubricant 
is  not  used,  a  satisfactory  grease  is  one  made  of  pure  beeswax 
and  a  good  quantity  of  tallow  lard,  in  about  the  proportions  of  3 
parts  of  beeswax  to  2  J  parts  of  tallow  or  lard.  It  is  recommen- 
ded that  a  small  quantity  of  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  be  added 
to  make  the  grease  thinner. 


FIXTURE  SPECIFICATIONS 


607 


10.     SIZES  OF  PIPE  OR  TUBING  USED  IN  FIXTURE  STEMS 


Maximum  No. 
of  Lights 

When 
Made 
of 
Iron 
Pipe 

When 
Made 
of 
Brass 
Tub    g 

When  made 
of  Brass 
Chain 
Gasway  Down 

Size  of  Gasway 
through  Cork 

Ci 

sod 
I 

Un- 
Cased 

Both 
Sides 

Centre 
or  One 
Side 

23*  and  under  
35*  and  under  
Over  33"  &  under  42" 
Over  42"  &  under  72" 
Any  length  to  42*... 
Any  length  42"-72*. 
Any  length  42*-72*. 
Any  length  42  "-72". 
Any  length  42"-72". 

1 
2 
2 
2 
4 
4 

12 

20 

\ 

\ 

1 

! 

NOTE.  —  When  made  of  duplex  tubing,  the 
area  of  the  main  gasway  should  be  equivalent  to 
the  area  of  the  corresponding  brass  pipe  size  in 
the  above  table. 

Fixtures  not  covered  above,  or  having  a  drop  of 
more  than  6  feet,  or  having  more  than  20  lights, 
use  size  of  piping  according  to  the  company's  piping 
rules. 

(6)  "Length  of  Stem"  is  understood  to  be  the  distance  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  stiff  joint  to  the  lowest  point  of  the  pendant. 
In  the  case  of  wall  brackets  which  carry  more  than  one  burner, 
the  sizes  given  in  the  table  are  correct,  except  that  no  pipe 
smaller  than  J-inch  should  be  used.  In  brackets  which  carry 
more  than  one  burner,  the  "Length  of  Stem  "  is  understood  to  be 
the  distance  from  the  stiff  joint  to  the  point  where  the  arms 
diverge. 

(c)  Sizes  of  pipe  or  tubing  to  be  used  in  one-piece  or  harp 
pendants: 


Number  of 
Lights  not 
Exceeding 

Harp 
(Maximum  Size  18*x  12*) 

Stem 
(Maximum  Length  36") 

Iron 
Pipe 

Brass 
Tubing 

Iron 
Pipe 

Brass 
Tubing 

3 

5 

* 
* 

p 
it 

» 
• 

• 
» 

11.    SIZES  OF  PIPING  OR  TUBING  FOR  ARMS 

(a)  Arms  of  pendants,  or  of  wall  brackets,  i.  e.,  those  parts 
which  carry  gas  for  only  one  burner,  should  be  made  not  smaller 
than  the  following  sizes: 


608 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


Length  of  Arm 

When  Made  of 
Iron    Pipe 

When 
Made  of 
Brass  Pipe 

?;; 
I" 

Cased 
f  " 

1" 
1" 

Uncased 

r 

12"  and  under 
Over  12"  to  and  including  18" 
Over  18"  to  and  including  24" 
Over  24" 

NOTE.  —  When  over  24  inches  in  length,  the 
arms  should  be  properly  supported  by  some  means 
other  than  their  attachment  to  the  wall  outlet  in 
case  of  a  bracket,  or  the  body  in  case  of  an  arm. 

(b)  "Length  of  Arm"  is  understood  to  be  a  distance  meas- 
ured as  follows: 

In  pendants — a  straight  line  from  the  center  of  the  stem  to  the 
center  of  the  burner  nozzle. 

In  stemless  wall  brackets,  like  stiff  brackets,  or  single  swing  or 
double  swing  brackets,  carrying  but  one  burner — a  straight  line 
from  the  stiff  joint  to  the  center  of  the  burner  nozzle,  measured 
when  the  bracket  has  its  maximum  reach.  / 

In  stemmed  wall  brackets — a  straight  line  from  the  point  of 
divergence  of  the  arm  to  the  center  of  the  burner  nozzle. 

(c)  In  the  case  of  cast  wall  brackets  or  cast  arms,  the  area  of 
the  gasway  in  stems  or  arms  should  be  not  less  than  the  area  of 
the  equivalent  pipe,  or  tubing  specified  in  Section  11,  Par.  (a) 

12.    COCKS 

All  cocks,  including  arm  cocks,  center-control  cocks,  lantern 
cocks,  or  any  shut-off  cock,  should  be  made  in  accordance  with 
the  "Specification  for  Gas  Fixture  Cocks."  By  "shut-off  cock" 
is  meant  any  cock  intended  to  be  used  for  completely  shutting  off 
the  gas  supply  to  a  burner  or  burners. 

SPECIFICATION   FOR   GAS   FIXTURE   COCKS 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  specification  shall  in  any  way 
govern  the  design  of  fixture  cocks,  except  in  so  far  as  the  dimen- 
sions given  may  govern  the  size.  The  accompanying  drawing 
(Figure  184)  which  is  on  a  large  scale,  is  merely  conventional, 
and  is  intended  to  show  only  the  dimensions  referred  to  in  the 
specification. 

(1)  The  material  of  both  plug  and  body  should  be  free  from 
all  defects,  and  of  such  grade  that  constant  use  will  not  cause 
excessive  wear. 

(2)  The  end  of  the  plug  should  have  two  flat  sides  for  the 
washer,  and  two  nuts — a  main  nut  and  a  jamb  nut — should  be 
used  instead  of  a  tail  screw  (Boston  type).      The  plug  and  the 
male  thread  on  the  end  of  the  plug  should  be  made  preferably  of 
one  piece;    if  made  of  two  pieces,  the  nipple  forming  the  male 
thread  on  the  end  of  the  plug  should  be  screwed  and  sweated 
with  hard  solder  into  the  plug. 

(3)  The  bearing  surface  for  the  washer  on  the  cock  body 
should   be  not  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  diameter  of  the 
washer.     The  washer  should  wear  evenly  on  the  face  of  the  body. 


FIXTURE  SPECIFICATIONS 


609 


Ttl 
3 


Figure  184.— Standard  Philadelphia  Fixture  Cock,  page  60S. 


610  IIOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

(4)  The  plug  should  stop  at  90°  in  either  direction  when 
shut  off,  but  when  the  cock  in  question  is  a  main  by-pass  cock,  it 
may  be  a  quarter-turn  cock.     The  plug  should  be  carefully  tool- 
finished,  and  thoroughly  and  properly  ground.     It  never  should 
be  left  in  the  tool-finished  state.      The  question  of  thorough 
•grinding  is  of  great  importance;  any  sign  of  insufficient  grinding 
will  lead  to  the  rejection  of  the  cock.     The  cock  should  be  per- 
fectly gas  tight,  without  an  excess  of  grease,  under  a  pressure 
of  8  inches  of  water  column,  while  the  plug  may  be  turned  by 
hand.     The  cock  may  be  tested  for  satisfactory  grinding  by 
wiping  the  plug  and  body  free  from  grease,  and  putting  on  the 
plug  a  small  quantity  of  dry  red  lead,  or  chalk.     The  plug  when 
turned  in  the  body  should  then  show  neither  high  nor  low  places. 

(5)  For  turned  cocks,  the  thickness  (F)  of  the  body  wall  at 
the  gasway  should  be  not  less  than  ^-inch.     For  cast  cocks,  the 
thickness  of  the  body  wall  at  any  point,  including  the  part  that 
forms  the  miter,  should  be  not  less  than  ^j-inch. 

(6)  The  tapered  hole  through  the  body  should  be  recessed  at 
the  small  end  to  a  diameter  at  least  0.003  inch  larger  than  the 
diameter  of  the  small  end  of  the  plug;   this  is  done  to  prevent 
the  formation  by  wear  in  grinding  of  a  shoulder  in  the  small  end 
of  the  tapered  hole  in  the  body. 

(7)  The  gasway  through  both  the  body  and  the  plug  should 
be  not  less  than  |-inch  diameter.      The  gasway  in  the  plug 
should  register  with  the  gasway  in  the  body. 

(8)  Neither  of  the  two  distances  (B)  provided  to  take  up  for 
wear,  should  be  less  than  ^-inch. 

(9)  Neither  of  the  two  bearing  surfaces  (C)  on  either  side  of 
the  gasway,  should  be  less  than  A -inch  in  length. 

(10)  The  distance  (D)  provided  to  take  up  for  wear,  should  be 
•  not  less  than  ^j-inch. 

(11)  The  seal  between  the  gasways  in  plug  and  body,  when 
the  key  is  hard  over,  should  be  not  less  than  ^-inch  in  length. 

(12)  The  stop  pin  (A)  should  be  either  screwed  or  driven  into 
place.     If  a  driven  pin  is  used,  it  should  be  made  of  soft  annealed 
metal. 

(13)  Diameter  of  the  stop  pin:     If  a  driven  pin,  not  less  than 
A-inch;  if  a  screwed  pin,  not  less  than  &-inch.     No  portion  of 
any  ft-inch  diameter  pm  should  extend  below  the  miter,  i.  e 
below  the  line  M  N. 

(14)  Length  (H)  of  the  stop  pin  should  be  not  less  than  ^-inch. 

(15)  The  key  and  the  gasway  should  be  straight  on  the  axis 
ol  the  body  when  gas  is  on. 

(16)  The  key  and  the  plug  should  be  formed  preferably  of 
one  piece  of  metal;    if  not,  the  two  pieces  should  be  attached 
firmly  by  sweating  with  hard  solder. 


FIXTURE  SPECIFICATIONS  611 

OLD  FIXTURES 

DEFINITION 

The  term  "old  fixtures,"  as  used  here,  designates  fixtures 
that  have  had  gas  in  them  before. 

GENERAL 

In  general,  old  fixtures  equipped  with  cocks  that  will  not  turn 
all  the  way  around,  should  be  approved  if  they  appear  strong 
enough  to  support  the  burners  with  which  they  are  equipped, 
have  sufficient  gasway  to  supply  the  necessary  gas,  and  pass 
the  regular  third  inspection  pressure  test. 


CHAPTER  LV 

INSPECTIONS 
REASONS  FOR  INSPECTION 

New  piping  and  fixtures  should  conform  to  the  specifications 
already  given.  To  insure  this,  and  to  make  sure  that  the  piping 
and  fixtures  are  properly  installed,  the  local  company  should 
reserve  the  right  to  take  fixtures  apart  at  anytime,  and  to 
refuse  to  pass  them  if  they  are  not  constructed  in  accordance 
with  good  workmanship,  and  the  following  system  of  inspection 
should  be  established : 

FIRST  INSPECTION 
TEST 

The  first  inspection  is  principally  one  of  sight,  and,  therefore, 
when  the  inspection  is  applied  for,  it  is  all  important  to  have 
the  piping  in  view.  It  consists  of  an  examination,  by  the 
company's  inspector,  of  the  system  of  piping,  after  the  installa- 
tion has  been  completed  and  before  it  has  been  inclosed  out  of 
sight;  and  also  a  test  of  the  piping  while  it  is  exposed,  under  a 
pressure  of  3  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  6  inches  of  mercury 
column.  The  column  should  show  no  drop  for  a  period  of 
10  minutes.  To  obtain  this  inspection,  the  fitter  should: 

Screw  caps  on  every  outlet,  so  that  the  inspector  can  make 
the  pressure  test.  Omission  of  caps  or  use  of  cement  to  plug 
piping  (either  at  the  bottom  of  the  riser  or  at  any  outlet) 
should  be  sufficient  cause  for  the  inspector  to  refuse  to  pass  the 
inspection. 

Test  the  piping  with  his  own  pump  and  gauge  before  re- 
questing inspection. 

Notify  the  local  company. 

Accompany  this  notice  with  a  plan  of  piping,  prepared  as 
shown  in  Figure  182.  Sheets  of  standard  size  for  these  draw- 
ings should  be  furnished  by  the  local  company,  free  of  charge, 

(612) 


INSPECTIONS  613 

and  the  company  should  reserve  the  right  to  reject  plans  not 
submitted  on  these  sheets.  One  plan  should  be  accepted 
for  an  entire  operation,  providing  the  piping  in  each  house  is 
the  same  and  there  is  not  too  long  an  interval  between  the 
completion  of  the  first  and  last  house. 

When  the  piping  is  to  remain  exposed  permanently,  and 
is  to  be  used  for  fuel  purposes  only,  first  inspection  only  should 
be  required.  If  piping  is  exposed  and  is  to  be  used  for  illumi- 
nating purposes  only,  or  for  fuel  and  illuminating  purposes,  and 
the  applicant  who  installed  the  piping  is  also  to  install  the 
fixtures,  the  first,  second  and  third  inspections  may  be  combined 
in  one  inspection. 

The  first  inspection  may  be  omitted  if  the  building,  or  a 
portion  of  the  building,  that  is  being  piped  is  occupied.  This 
omission  is  made  in  order  to  avoid  undue  inconvenience  to  the 
occupant;  but  where  the  fitter  can  arrange  to  leave  all  the 
piping  exposed  for  a  long  enough  period  to  permit  of  the  first 
inspection,  and  at  the  same  time  not  unduly  inconvenience  the 
occupant,  he  should  do  so.  Buildings  that  are  furnished  but 
not  occupied  should  not  be  accepted  as  occupied. 

Caps  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  outlets  until  the  fix- 
tures are  hung.  The  caps  are  necessary  in  order  to  protect 
the  threads  of  outlets,  and  to  prevent  obstructions  from  entering 
the  piping.  Builders  should  insist  on  this  practice  being  fol- 
lowed by  fitters. 

When  a  gas  log  or  any  kind  of  fireplace  heater  is  to  be 
installed,  the  supply  line  should  be  run  to  the  point  where  the 
cock  will  be  placed,  before  requesting  first  inspection. 

CERTIFICATE 

If  the  first  inspection  certificate  is  granted,  the  piping  may  be 
inclosed.  After  all  danger  of  injury  to  the  piping  by  the  building 
construction  is  passed,  the  fitter  should  apply  for  the  second 
inspection. 

If  the  first  inspection  certificate  is  refused,  the  cause  of 
the  refusal  should  be  explained  to  the  applicant,  and  he  be 
required  to  remedy  the  defects  while  the  piping  is  still 
visible. 

If  the  piping  is  approved,  the  following  certificate  should  be 
given : 


614  HGUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

First  Inspection  Certificate 
This  is  to  certify  that  a  preliminary  inspection  has  been  made 

of   the   piping   at    No ..Street,   for 

outlets,  before  the  piping   was  inclosed  out   of   sight, 

and  it  was  found  to  comply  with  our  specifications. 

As  there  is  some  danger  that  damage  may  be  done  to  the 
piping  during  the  various  stages  of  construction,  a  request  for 
second  inspection  should  be  made  after  the  piping  has  been 
closed  in. 

Company. 


SECOND  INSPECTION 
TEST 

The  second  inspection  is  principally  one  of  pressure,  and 
before  it  is  applied  for,  all  carpenter  and  other  building  work 
that  might  disturb  the  piping  must  be  finished.  It  consists  of 
a  test,  by  the  company's  inspector,  of  the  system  of  piping, 
under  a  pressure  of  3  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  6  inches  of 
mercury  column.  The  column  must  show  no  drop  for  a  period 
of  10  minutes.  The  second  inspection  is  made  after  the  piping 
has  been  inclosed,  and  is  ready  for  the  fixtures  but  before  the 
fixtures  are  installed;  it  should  not  be  made  until  after  the  final, 
or  white,  coat  of  plaster  is  on.  To  obtain  this  inspection,  the 
fitter  should: 

Screw  caps  on  every  outlet,  so  that  the  inspector  can 
make  the  pressure  test.  Omission  of  caps  or  use  of  cement  to 
plug  piping  (either  at  the  bottom  of  the  riser  or  at  any  outlet) 
should  be  sufficient  cause  for  the  inspector  to  refuse  to  pass  the 
inspection. 

Test  the  piping  with  his  own  pump  and  gauge  before  request- 
ing inspection. 

Notify  the  local  company. 

CERTIFICATE 

If  the  applicant,  after  obtaining  the  certificate  of  second 
inspection,  installs  the  fixtures,  he  should  apply  for  the  third 
inspection. 

If  the  second  inspection  certificate  is  refused,  the  cause  of 
the  refusal  should  be  explained  to  the  applicant,  and  he  be 
required  to  remedy  the  defects. 

If  the  piping  is  approved,  the  following  certificate  should 
be  given : 


INSPECTIONS  615 

Second  Inspection  Certificate 
This  is  to  certify  that  an  inspection  has  been  made  of  the 

piping  at  No., Street,   for 

outlets,  and  it  was  found  to  comply    with   our  specifications. 
As  injury  may  occur  to  the   piping  subsequent   to  this   in- 
spection, its  future  soundness  is  not  guaranteed. 

Company. 

191 

THIRD  INSPECTION 
TEST 

The  third  inspection  is  principally  one  of  fixtures,  and  being 
the  final  test,  it  should  not  be  applied  for  until  the  piping  and 
fixtures  are  ready  to  receive  gas.  It  consists  of  a  test,  by  the 
company's  inspector,  of  a  system  of  piping  and  fixtures,  under  a 
pressure  of  6 "inches  of  water  column.  The  column  should  show 
no  drop  for  a  period  of  10  minutes.  This  third  inspection  is 
made  after  the  fixtures  have  been  installed  and  the  system  is 
supposed  to  be  ready  for  gas.  To  obtain  this  inspection,  the 
fixture  dealer  or  fitter  should : 

See  that  all  outlets  are  supplied  with  fixtures.  If  any 
outlet  is  not  to  be  supplied,  notice  to  this  effect  should  be  given 
when  requesting  third  inspection. 

See  that  all  fixture  keys  are  adjusted  so  they  may  be  turned 
by  hand. 

Screw  all  fixtures  up  tight  before  making  test,  and  leave 
them  tight  after  test  is  made. 

See  that  fixtures  are  fully  equipped  with  burners.  All  flat- 
flame  burners  should  be  of  the  union  jet  type. 

On  burners  equipped  for  electric  ignition,  open  all  keys 
not  controlled  by  electricity,  and  which,  therefore,  under  normal 
conditions  of  working,  remain  open,  the  flow  of  gas  being  held 
back  by  the  apparatus  controlled  by  electricity. 

Test  the  piping  and  fixtures  with  his  own  pump  and  gauge 
before  requesting  inspection. 

Notify  the  local  company. 

Fixture  dealers  should  test  the  piping,  and,  if  necessary, 
have  repairs  made,  to  insure  that  the  piping  is  tight  before  the 
fixtures  are  installed.  Fixture  dealers  hang  fixtures  on  leaky 
piping  at  their  own  risk. 

As  piping  may  be  rejected  for  reasons  other  than  tight- 
ness, it  does  not  follow  that  because  piping  is  found  tight, 


616  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

first  inspection  has  been  passed.  Therefore,  a  certificate  of 
third  inspection  should  not  be  issued  even  if  fixtures  prove  tight, 
until  first  inspection  has  been  passed,  and  fixture  dealers,  before 
installing  fixtures,  are  urged  to  ascertain  whether  first  inspection 
has  been  passed. 

CERTIFICATE 

If  the  third  inspection  certificate  is  refused,  the  cause  of 
the  refusal  should  be  explained  to  the  applicant,  and  he  be 
required  to  remedy  the  defects. 

If  the  piping  and  fixtures  are  approved,  the  following  cer- 
tificate should  be  given : 

Third  Inspection  Certificate 
This  is  to  certify  that  an  inspection  of  the  piping  and  fixtures  at 

\;0 Street  for burners,  has 

been  made  and  they  have  been  found  to  comply  with  our* specifica- 
tions. 

As  injury  may  occur  to  the  piping  and  fixtures  subsequent  to 
this  inspection,  their  future  soundness  is  not  guaranteed. 

Company. 

191 

OFFICE  ROUTINE 

In  the  following  outline,  the  routine  recommended  for  a  large 
company  in  the  handling  of  this  class  of  orders  will  be  explained 
in  much  detail  for  the  greater  or  less  benefit  to  each  reader  in  his 
own  situation. 

All  requests  for  interior  piping  inspection  should  come  to  the 
distribution  department  directly  from  the  plumbers  or  fixture 
dealers,  or  by  way  of  the  commercial  department  order  desk, 
but  the  understanding  should  be  that  plumbers  and  fixture 
dealers  should  deal  directly  with  the  distribution  department, 
as  this  saves  time  and  trouble. 

In  the  case  of  a  first  inspection,  a  plan  of  the  piping,  on  a  form 
similar  to  Figure  182,  should  be  submitted  when  the  request 
for  the  inspection  is  made. 

All  orders  for  interior  piping  inspection  should  be  issued  by  the 
distribution  department,  on  a  form  as  shown  in  Figure  185. 
When  a  request  for  any  inspection  is  made  to  the  order  desk  of 
the  commercial  department,  it  should  be  forwarded  to  the 
distribution  department  on  a  memorandum  form,  with  the 
plan  and  any  letter  or  telephone  message  from  the  plumber  or 


INSPECTIONS 


61 


fixture  dealer  attached,  and  the  distribution  department  should 
issue  whatever  order  the  circumstances  may  call  for. 


I  HOUSEPIPE 

ADDRESS                                                                                                                                                                     I  INSPECTION 

APARTMENT                                                                                          FLOOR 

NAME 
PLUMBER 

ADDRESS 

FIXTURE 
DEALER 

TENANT 

BUILDING 
USED  FOR 

•IZEOF                                          SIZE  OF 

NUMBER  OF                            I  NUMBER  OF 

DATE 
FIRST  PASSED 

DATE 
THIRD  PASSED 

•Y 

BY 

CERTIFICATE  ISSUED 

CERTIFICATE  ISSUED 

Figure  185.— Housepipe  Inspection  Card,  page  6H6. 

No  report  of  the  results  of  the  inspections  need  be  made  to 
the  commercial  department,  except  when  a  third  inspection 
is  passed,  or  when  a  plan  and  request  for  a  first  inspection  for  a 
building  operation  or  an  apartment  house  is  received  by  the 
distribution  department.  In  the  former  case,  the  work  order 
duplicate,  with  the  "Work  Completed"  date  stamp,  serves  as  a 
notice,  and  in  the  latter  case,  on  receipt  of  the  plan,  the  mem- 
orandum should  be  filled  in  with  the  number  of  buildings  or 
apartments  and  sent  to  the  commercial  department,  to  whom 
this  information  is  useful  in  spacing  accounts  in  new  consumers' 
ledgers. 

No  second  or  third  inspection  order  should  be  issued  until  the 
first  inspection,  or  the  first  and  second  inspections  respectively 
are  passed.  A  separate  order  should  be  issued  for  each  address, 
or  separate  system  of  piping,  and  for  each  inspection  except 
when  two  inspections  may  be  combined. 

The  checking  of  the  plan  as  drawn  on  Figure  182  should  be 
done  by  an  office  employe,  or  by  the  housepipe  inspector,  and 
at  the  time  this  plan  is  checked,  each  outlet  should  be  numbered, 
if  this  has  not  already  been  done,  beginning  with  the  outlet 
furthest  from  the  meter  as  #1.  If  the  plan  is  complete  but 
shows  piping  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  specifications,  it 


618  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

should  be  given  to  the  housepipe  inspector  to  determine,  by  a 
visit  to  the  premises,  if  the  piping  was  run  according  to  the  plan, 
and  is,  therefore,  wrong;  or  if  the  piping  was  run  in  accordance 
with  the  schedule,  and  the  plan  is  wrong.  If  the  former  condi- 
tion is  found,  the  plan  should  be  returned,  and  the  following 
letter  sent  to  the  plumber: 

Enclosed  we  return  plan  for  piping  for 

Changes  indicated  in  plan  at are  necessary  to 

make  it  in  accordance  with  our  "Specifications  for  Housepiping," 
and  must  be  made  before  first  inspection  can  be  had. 

Do  not  make  another  plan,  but  make  changes  on  plan  enclosed, 
and  return  it  to  us  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  order  that  the  work  of  covering  in  the  piping  be  not  unneces- 
sarily delayed,  we  ask  that  you  have  the  necessary  alterations 
made  and  the  corrected  plan  returned  to  us  within  seven  days,  so 
that  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  us  to  request  the  builder  to  delay 
his  work  pending  our  inspection. 

Ordinarily,  the  inspector  should  not  make  a  pressure  test  at 
this  time,  but  in  cases  where  there  is  a  hurry  to  get  the  piping 
covered  over,  he  could  be  empowered  to  make  the  test  and  pass 
such  of  the  piping  as  is  tight  and  of  the  proper  size. 

If  at  the  time  the  inspector  is  checking  a  plan,  he  notices  gas 
fitters'  cement  on  the  piping,  he  should  report  this  fact,  and  the 
plumber  should  be  notified  that  piping  or  fixtures  so  repaired 
must  be  replaced. 

Should  a  plumber  not  ask  for  a  re-inspection  within  seven  days 
after  the  rejection  of  any  work,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  write 
the  following  letter  to  the  builder  or  owner  of  the  premises  con- 
cerned, enclosing  a  copy  of  the  rejection  letter  sent  to  the 
plumber: 

Enclosed  find  copy  of  a  letter  sent days  ago 

to  Up  to  date 

we  have  had  no  word  to  proceed  with  another  inspection,  and, 
therefore,  request  you  to  avoid  doing  any  work  that  would  inter- 
fere with  our  inspection,  which  we  are  ready  to  make  on  notice 
from  the  gas  fitter. 

After  a  system  of  piping  passes  the  first,  second  or  third 
inspection,  the  proper  certificate,  as  previously  described,  should 
be  sent  to  the  plumber  or  fixture  dealer. 

If  the  piping  or  fixture  fails  to  pass  inspection,  the  plumber 
or  fixture  dealer  should  be  notified  by  letter,  as  follows: 


INSPECTIONS  619 

On ,  our  inspector  called  to  make 

inspection  at ,  Street.     The 

failed  to  pass 

this  inspection  because 


Inorder  that  the be  not 

delayed,  it  is  requested  that  the  necessary  corrective  work  be 
attended  to  as  promptly  as  possible. 

Please  advise  when  the  system  is  ready  for  another  inspection. 
If  a  set  or  a  turn-on  order  is  being  held  pending  the  passing 
of  the  inspection,  a  copy  of  the  above  letter  to  the  plumber, 
with   a   printed  notice  as   below,  should  be  sent  to  the  pros- 
pective consumer: 

TO  THE  CONSUMER 

The  enclosed  copy  of  letter  written  to  your  plumber  explains 
the  delay  in  supplying  you  with  gas.  As  soon  as  he  advises  us 
that  he  has  attended  to  the  necessary  work,  we  will  make  another 
inspection. 

Company. 

All  assistance  possible  should  be  given  the  applicant,  who  is 
presumably  waiting  for  gas,  in  having  the  defect  remedied  by 
the  plumber  or  fixture  dealer  at  fault. 

When  a  third  inspection  is  rejected  for  a  new  building  and  a 
set  order  is  being  held,  a  copy  of  the  letter  to  the  plumber, 
and  the  notice  "To  the  Consumer"  should  be  sent  to  the  old  as 
well  as  the  new  address  of  the  prospective  consumer. 

When  a  set  or  turn -on  order  is  held,  and  third  inspection 
cannot  be  completed  because  all  of  the  fixtures  have  not  been 
installed, an  inspection  may  be  made  of  those  installed,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  number,  if  it  is  not  known  when  the  balance  of  the 
fixtures  will  be  installed.  In  such  cases,  the  Third  Inspection 
Certificate  should  not  be  sent  until  all  the  fixtures  have 
passed  inspection. 

When  a  set,  turn-on  or  connect  riser  order  is  received  and 
there  is  a  record  of  an  inspection  being  rejected,  and  no  correc- 
tive work  done  subsequently,  a  letter  similar  to  the  following 
should  be  sent  to  the  prospective  consumer: 

As  explained  by  our  inspector,  who  called  to  make  examination 
preliminary  to  introducing  gas,  it  will  be  impossible  to  proceed 
with  the  work,  owing  to  the  fact  that 

In  order  that  there  may  be  no  delay  in  installing  gas,  it  is 
requested  that  the  necessary  work  be  attended  to  as  promptly 
as  possible. 

Upon  notification  that  the  work  has  been  done,  another  inspec- 
tion will  be  made,  and  if  conditions  are  found  to  be  satisfactory, 
gas  will  be  introduced  without  delay. 


620  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

When  under  this  condition  gas  is  supplied  to  a  consumer  for 
fuel  only,  pending  the  repair  by  the  plumber  or  fixture  dealer,  a 
letter  as  follows  should  be  sent: 

As  explained  by  our  inspector,  who  called  to  make  examination 
preliminary  to  introducing  gas  for  fuel  and  illumination,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  proceed  with  the  work  owing  to  the  fact  that 

We  will,  'however,  supply  you  with  gas  for  fuel  only. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  no  delay  in  installing  gas  for  illumi- 
nation, it  is  requested  that  the  necessary  work  be  attended  to  as 
promptly  as  possible. 

Upon  notification  that  the  work  has  been  done,  another 
inspection  will  be  made,  and  if  conditions  are  found  to  be  satis- 
factory, gas  will  be  supplied  for  illumination  without  delay. 

In  cases  where  the  plumber  submits  a  plan  to  the  distribution 
department  for  approval,  prior  to  leaving  an  order  for  first 
inspection,  it  should  be  checked  in  the  usual  manner  and  returned 
by  letter,  stating  plan  to  be  correct,  or  calling  attention  to 
changes  that  may  be  necessary. 

As  it  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  linewalkers  to  report  new 
buildings  that  are  being  erected,  and  which  ordinarily .  would 
be  piped  but  for  which  no  plans  or  requests  for  inspection  have 
been  received,  it  is  good  practice  for  a  letter  to  be  sent  by  the 
distribution  department  to  the  plumber,  as  follows: 

We  understand  that  you  are  installing  gas  piping  at 

We  desire  to  inform  you  that  we  should  receive  a  plan  of  this 
piping,  and  it  should  be  inspected  as  provided  for  in  our  specifi- 
cations covering  this  class  of  work. 

At  the  same  time,  the  following  letter  should  be  sent  to  the 
builder,  enclosing  a  copy  of  the  letter  sent  to  the  plumber: 

We  understand  that  gas  piping  is  being  installed  in  new 

buildings  constructed  by  you  at 

for  which  we  have  not  yet  received  a  plan  of  the  piping. 

This  company  has  been  authorized  to  exercise  supervision  over 
the  character  of  material  used  and  work  done  by  gas  fitters  in 
installing  piping  for  gas;  therefore,  we  desire  to  inform  you  that 
we  should  receive  a  plan  of  this  piping,  and  that  before  it  is 
covered  it  should  be  inspected,  as  provided  for  in  our  specifications 
covering  this  class  of  work. 

In  cases  where  inspection  is  delayed  because  of  non-access  to 
the  premises,  a  letter  should  be  sent  to  the  plumber,  fixture 
dealer  or  prospective  consumer,  as  follows: 


INSPECTIONS  621 


Our  inspector  called  at..-. 

for  the  purpose  of 


He  reports  that  he  was  unable  to  gain  access. 

Kindly  notify  us  when  it  will  be  convenient  for  you  to  admit 

our  inspector. 

Where  there  is  a  violation  of  the  specifications  and  the  gas  has 
been  shut  off,  it  should  be  left  off  until  a  third  inspection  is 
passed.  If  the  gas  is  found  on,  and  has  been  turned  on  by 
someone  not  in  the  company's  employ  to  supply  a  new  con- 
sumer or  an  extension  of  more  than  one  burner  to  piping  already 
supplied,  and  if  the  piping  has  not  been  tested,  a  workman 
should  be  sent  to  make  a  regular  turn-on  test.  If  the  piping  is 
of  the  proper  size  and  passes  this  test,  it  might  be  well  to  do 
nothing  further  in  the  matter,  but  if  it  fails  to  pass  this  test, 
the  case  should  be  treated  as  a  leak  in  piping,  and  if,  in  addition, 
the  piping  is  not  of  proper  size,  some  one  in  authority  should  pass 
on  this  condition.  Another  condition  to  be  borne  in  mind  is 
that  of  an  unauthorized  turn-on  by  a  person  not  connected  with 
the  company.  In  such  cases  a  letter,  stating  the  position  of 
the  company,  should  be  sent  to  the  offender. 

TURNING  ON  AND  OFF  GAS 

The  company  should  reserve  the  right  to  turn  gas  into 
any  new  piping;  or  into  any  old  piping  which  has  been  blown 
out,  or  taken  apart  and  put  back,  or  repaired,  or  extended,  or 
partially  replaced  with  new  pipe,  or  the  fixtures  removed,  or 
re-hung,  or  new  fixtures  hung.  Therefore,  in  all  cases  where  the 
gas  has  been  turned  off  at  the  meter  to  do  any  such  work,  the 
plumber  should  be  required  to  ask  the  company  for  a  turn-on. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  turn  off  the  gas  for  the  purpose  of 
working  on  the  pipes  or  fixtures,  the  cock  at  the  meter  in  the 
cellar  should  be  used,  and  not  the  cock  at  the  curb.  If  the  job 
cannot  be  completed  in  one  day,  the  piping  can  be  capped  so 
that  gas  can  be  used  for  the  night.  The  company  should 
arrange  to  thus  turn  on  the  gas  day  after  day  while  the  work  is  in 
progress.  Application  should  be  made  as  early  in  the  day  as 
possible  to  ensure  a  supply  before  darkness. 

The  company  should  reserve  the  sole  right  to  disconnect, 
remove,  or  re-set  gas  meters. 

BUILDER'S  COOPERATION 

The  first  inspection  requires  that  the  company's  inspectoi 
visit  the  building,  after  the  piping  is  completed  and  before  it  h 


622  HO U SEP IP ING  AND  FIXTURES 

closed  in.  Builders  should  be  requested  to  cooperate  with  the 
company  at  this  point.  The  company's  inspection  is  a  safe- 
guard to  the  builder.  Inspectors  should  be  instructed  to  be 
particularly  prompt  on  first  inspection  orders,  so  as  to  cause  no 
delay  in  building  operations,  or  to  reduce  any  necessary  delay 
to  the  shortest  possible  length. 

Builders  also  may  cooperate  with  the  company  by  requiring 
the  fitters  to  present  the  proper  certificate  of  inspection  before 
they  pay  the  fitters  for  their  work. 

LOCATION  OF  SERVICE 

Provision  should  be  made,  especially  where  the  walls  are  very 
thick,  for  the  entrance  of  a  gas  service  pipe  through  the  founda- 
tion walls  to  new  buildings.  The  preferable  arrangement  is  to 
build  in  the  wall  a  sleeve  of  iron,  or  terra  cotta,  pipe  at  the  point 
where  the  service  is  designed  to  enter.  In  order  that  the  sleeve 
should  be  right  as  to  size  and  location,  the  company  should  be 
communicated  with,  so  that  a  representative  may  be  sent  to 
examine  the  plans,  furnish  a  suitable  sleeve,  if  necessary,  and 
superintend  its  placing.  In  this  way,  architects  and  builders 
will  be  saved  the  annoyance  of  having  walls  cut  into,  and  will 
also  confer  a  favor  on  the  company.  Architects  should  embody 
in  future  specifications  a  clause  obligating  the  contractor  to 
arrange  with  the  company  for  the  placing  of  a  proper  sleeve,  as 
above  explained. 

SUNDRY  DETAILS 

All  pressure  tests  by  the  inspector  should  be  made  with'  the 
company's  pump  and  gauge.  (See  Figure  63,  page  193.) 

Applicants  for  inspection  need  not  be  present  during  every 
inspection  by  the  company's  inspector,  but  they  should  be 
present  as  ofven  as  possible. 

Applicants  should  be  cautioned  to  be  very  careful  before 
requesting  inspection,  to  see  that  the  work  to  be  inspected  and 
tested  is  complete,  and  is  in  every  way  in  proper  condition  to 
permit  the  inspector  to  make  his  examination  and  test  prompt- 
ly and  without  doing  extra  work.  Applicants  should  always 
test  the  work  with  their  own  pump  and  gauge  immediately 
before  applying  for  an  inspection;  they  will  thus  be  sure  to 
avoid  such  things  as  omitted  caps,  unfinished  runs  of  pipe, 
incomplete  fixtures,  etc.  The  presence  of  such  things,  indicating 
carelessness  and  making  it  evident  that  no  preliminary  test  has 
been  made  should  be  sufficient  cause  to  reject  the  work. 


INSPECTIONS  623 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  HOUSEPIPE  INSPECTOR 
Below  are  given  certain  Philadelphia  rules  for  the  guidance  of 
the  housepipe  inspector.     It  is  also  essential   that  he  should 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  specifications  it  is  his  duty 
to  enforce. 

ATTITUDE  TOWARD  APPLICANTS 

Treat  plumbers,  gas  fitters  and  fixture  dealers  wifh  courtesy 
and  consideration,  and  encourage  a  feeling  of  friendship  toward 
the  company.  Point  out  deviations  from  the  rules  in  a  pleasant 
manner,  and  volunteer  information  when  it  will  be  of  assistance. 
The  fact  that  the  rules  are  broken  repeatedly  should  not  change 
your  attitude  nor  cause  prejudice. 

Keep  engagements  made  for  you,  and  when  this  is  not  possible, 
notify  your  office  of  the  reason  for  the  failure,  for  use  in  case  of 
inquiry  from  the  other  party  to  the  appointment. 

If  the  work  is  not  quite  ready  when  you  arrive  at  the 
premises,  you  should,  on  request,  wait  a  few  minutes  if  pos- 
sible, or  return  later. 

CORRECT  ADDRESSES 

Always  check  up  the  address  on  the  order  and  give  the 
number  whenever  possible.  If  you  cannot  locate  the  house  by 
number,  you  should  locate  it  as  so  many  houses  from  the  nearest 
street,  the  corner  house  to  count  as  the  first  house  on  the  street 
it  is  facing. 

CHECK  PLAN 

In  checking  for  size  and  length,  make  a  comparison  between 
the  plan  and  the  piping.  If  the  plan  is  right  and  the  piping 
wrong,  locate  the  trouble  on  the  former.  If  the  plan  is  wrong 
and  the  piping  right,  correct  the  plan,  or  make  a  new  one  for 
filing  in  the  office. 

NOTIFY  BUILDER 

If  the  piping  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  rules,  and  is  likely 
to  be  covered  up  before  the  applicant  can  be  notified  by  the 
office  of  the  rejection,  caution  the  builder  on  the  job  not  to  cover 
the  piping.  Explain  that  it  has  been  rejected,  but  do  not  criticize 
the  work.  Also  notify  the  office  so  that  they  will  be  acquainted 
with  the  conditions  if  an  inquiry  is  made. 

ATTACHING  GAUGE:    FIRST  INSPECTION 
Attach  the  gauge  to  a  side  outlet,  preferably  on  the  first  floor. 
Pump  the  air  in  at  the  place  the  gauge  is  attached,  and  watch 
the  gauge  during  the  process.     After  the  test,  cap  the  outlet, 
making  the  joint  gas  tight. 

LENGTH  OF  TEST 

In  order  to  save  time,  shorten  the  ten-minute  tests  required 
by  the  rules,  to  three  minutes.  Never  give  less  than  a  full  three- 
minute  test;  do  not  guess,  but  time  tin- test  1>\  a  watch.  If  there 
is  any  doubt  about  the  quality  of  the  work,  continue  the  test  for 


624  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

ten  minutes  also.  Whether  the  test  is  for  three  minutes  or  ten 
minutes,  reject  the  work  if  the  mercury  shows  any  drop  during 
the  test.  Test  large  systems  of  piping,  as  in  schools  or  public 
buildings,  for  a  time  as  much  longer  than  ten  minutes  as  you 
judge  may  be  required. 

ATTACHING  GAUGE:    THIRD  INSPECTION 
Make  third  inspection  pressure  test  with  water  gauge  through 
burner  nozzle,  to  avoid  removing  fixture  or  bracket. 

ATTACH  TAG 

At  each  address,  attach  "passed"  tag,  or  "rejected"  tag,  to  an 
outlet  or  burner,  in  a  prominent  place. 

TAGS  FOR  RISERS 

On  the  first  inspection,  determine  what  *tags  will  be  needed  to 
designate  the  parts  of  the  buildings  the  different  risers  supply 
and  how  they  should  be  marked,  so  that  the  tags  may  be  ready 
for  use  when  the  third  inspection  is  made. 

BRACKET    LINES 

If  you  find  piping  with  bracket  lines,  or  side  outlets  run 
from  above,  do  not  reject  it  unless  you  have  reason  to  believe 
that  it  will  give  trouble.  However,  advise  that  in  future  the 
lines  be  run  up  to  the  outlet. 

NATURE  OF  REPAIR 

The  report  for  a  rejected  job  should  state  clearly  what  is 
wrong  so  that  the  office  can  cover  all  the  details  in  a  letter  to  the 
owner.  The  report  for  work  that  has  passed  inspection  need 
give  no  details  other  than  those  asked  for  on  the  printed  form. 

•COUNT  BURNERS  ON  THIRD  INSPECTION  REJECTION 
On  rejecting  third  inspection,  count  the  burners.     This  in- 
formation will  enable  the  setting  of  the  size  meter  adequate  for 
the  entire  consumption,  even  though  it  will  be  used  for  fuel  only 
until  third  inspection. 

METER  LOCATION 

When  asked,  give  proper  location  for  meter,  if  you  feel  com- 
petent; otherwise,  refer  the  matter  to  the  proper  person  and  say 
that  another  man  will  call  to  give  this  information. 

MAKE  No  CONCESSIONS 

You  are  not  permitted  to  grant  concessions,  but  must  pass 
or  reject  work  by  strict  adherence  to  the  rules  given  for  your 
guidance.  In  case  you  think  such  strict  adherence  would  work 

*An  aluminum  tag,  J-inch  wide,  with  a  J-inch  hole  punched  in  each  end, 
and  with  the  symbols  embossed  in  letters  i-inch  high,  makes  a  very  good  tag 
for  this  class  of  work.  A  large  amount  of  abbreviation  is  possible  in  stand- 
ardizing these  symbols,  and  the  average  length  of  the  tags  is  not  more  than 
3  inches.  It  should  be  attached  to  the  riser  with  a  copper  wire. 


INSPECTIONS  625 

a  hardship   on   the   applicant,  you  should  mention  the  fact  in 
your    report. 

CAUSES  FOR  REJECTION 

When,  in  making  any  inspection,  you  find  any  reason  for 
rejection,  you  should  not  stop  the  inspection  at  this  point,  but 
complete  it,  in  order  that  other  defects,  if  any,  may  be  discovered 
and  included  in  your  report. 

Absence  of  10  per  cent  of  the  burners  should  cause  a  rejection 
of  third  inspection,  except  where  you  know  that  incandescent 
burners  are  to  be  used. 

OPEN-FLAME  BURNERS 

Ordinarily,  open-flame  burners  should  be  placed  not  nearer 
than  2  feet  to  the  ceiling.  When  you  think  they  are  so  close  as 
to  be  dangerous,  report  accordingly,  but  an  inspection  need  not 
be  rejected  for  this  cause,  unless  you  think  the  conditions  are 
extremely  dangerous. 

THIRD  INSPECTION 

In  making  the  third  inspection,  the  following  routine  should 
govern  your  actions.  Where  no  specific  number  is  mentioned, 
examine  one  or  as  many  fixtures  as  in  your  judgment  may  be 
required. 

(a)  Examine  for  those  requirements   under    "Specification 
for  Gas  Fixtures"  that  are  possible  of  inspection  without  taking 
the   fixture  apart.     Lantern  or  harp  fixture  cocks,    i.  e.,  those 
with  the  gasway  passing  through  the  tail  screw,  should  comply 
with   all   the    requirements   of  "Specification   for  Gas   Fixture 
Cocks,"  except  that  they  do  not  have  to  have  a  main  nut  or 
jamb  nut.     If  not  right,  reject  the  inspection.     If  right,  proceed 
as  in  (6). 

(b)  ^  Caliper  barrel.     (See  Figure  64,  page  195.)     If  less  than 
f-inch  in  diameter,  reject  the  inspection.     If  £-inch  or  over, 
apply  pressure  test  as  in  (c). 

(c)  Apply  gauge  to  flat-flame  burner  or  burner  nozzle,  to 
avoid  removing  any  fixture  or  glassware.     If  test  for  tightness 
is  not  passed,  reject  the  inspection  (see  (d).     If  passed,  and  the 
house  is  an  old  one  or  very  large,  or  the  house  being  a  new  one,  it 
is  not  certain  that  every  outlet  is  accounted  for,  raise  the  pressure 
to  6  inches  of  mercury  column  and  watch  gauge  for  three  minutes 
to  discover  any  uncapped   outlets  papered  over  or  otherwise 
obstructed.     If  a  perceptible  drop  is  shown,  be  governed  by  the 
cause.     If  tight,  and  with  pressure  still  on,  try  all  fixture  keys 
for  ease  in  turning  and  for  clearness.     If  any  keys  are  so  tight  that 
they  cannot  be  turned   by  the  fingers,  reject  the  inspection, 
except  in  winter  with  no  heat  in  house,  in  which  case  you  may- 
use  small  pliers  to  turn  keys. 

(d)  Whether  the  pressure  test  is  passed  or  not,  remove  a 
plug  from  each  type  of  cock  in  the  house  and  examine  it  for  the 
requirements    under   "  Specification    for    Gas   Fixture    Cocks," 
paragraphs  5,  6,  7,  8  and  9. 


626  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

(e)  To  test  for  grinding,  wipe  off  excess  grease  from  plug, 
sprinkle  with  a  light  coating  of  dry  powdered  red  lead,  and 
replace  plug  in  cock  barrel,  firmly  seating  it  and  turning  several 
times  to  the  stops  on  both  sides.  If  the  lead  forms  into  streaks, 
these  indicate  low  points  or  grooves,  and  if  extensive,  the  inspec- 
tion should  be  rejected. 

(/)  To  test  for  the  recessing  of  the  small  end  of  the  tapered 
hole  through  cock  body,  remove  plug  from  barrel  and  try  to 
insert  in  top  of  barrel,  fitting  the  small  end  of  the  plug  into  the 
small  end  of  the  tapered  hole  in  the  cock  body.  If  shoulder  of 
plug  can  be  inserted  more  than  ^g-inch  into  the  barrel,  the  cock 
is  properly  recessed;  otherwise,  report  it  to  the  office  with  the 
name  of  the  fixture  dealer. 

(g)  In  measuring  the  distances  " B"  and  "D,"  (see  drawing 
of  standard  fixture  cock,  Figure  184)  accept  g*j-inch  on  10  per 
cent  of  the  cocks. 

(h)  In  measuring  the  bearing  surface  "C,"  on  either  side  of 
the  gasway,  a  departure  of  BV-inch  from  the  requirements  may 
be  allowed,  but  a  report  of  any  such  allowance  should  be  made. 

(i)  In  determining  whether  there  is  a  proper  seal,  follow 
these  directions:  Caliper  the  cock  plug  at  the  center  of  the 
gasway.  Its  diameter  should  be  equal  to  or  greater  than  the 
figures  listed  in  the  table  below  under  "Diameter  of  Plug,"  and 
"Size  of  Gasway."  Otherwise,  reject  the  inspection. 

Diameter 
of  Plug 


WATCH  FOR  NEW  BUILDINGS 

If  you  notice  any  work  requiring  inspection  for  which  you 
have  not  received  an  order,  stop  and  advise  the  plumber  to 
send  in  his  order. 

OPERATION  WORK 

Keep  in  touch  with  operation  work  by  frequent  visits,  and 
do  not  wait  for  a  notice  from  the  plumber  for  each  house. 


SECTION  II 

INSTALLATION  AND  MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER  LVI 

INSTALLATION 

GENERAL 

As  was  made  clear  in  the  opening  paragraphs  of  Chapter  LI  1 1, 
gas  companies  usually  do  not  install  housepiping  in  buildings 
under  construction.  They  confine  their  housepiping  jobs  to 
occupied  buildings,  principally  dwellings,  where  one  of  the 
inducements  to  the  use  of  gas  is  a  low  first  cost  of  piping,  fixtures 
and  burners.  (The  special  supply  lines  that  may  be  required  for 
domestic  cooking,  for  water  heating  or  for  industrial  purposes, 
are  not  considered  as  housepiping.)  Therefore,  there  is  no  need 
in  this  manual  to  give  all  the  information  that  might  be  required 
in  a  book  on  housepiping,  of  which  there  are  several  adequate 
treatises  available.  The  specifications  already  given  prescribe 
certain  materials  and  methods  of  working,  and  in  this  chapter 
are  added  additional  details  relating,  except  where  otherwise 
noted,  to  the  installation  of  piping  in  old  buildings  of  various 
types. 

FACTORIES 

Before  the  piping  plan  can  be  made,  the  style  and  location  of 
the  illuminating  units  must  be  determined.  In  large  factories, 
as  in  large  buildings  of  any  kind,  this  is  a  job  for  a  competent 
illuminating  engineer.  He  would  furnish  a  lighting  layout,  as 
illustrated  in  Figure  186.  From  this,  after  a  study  of  the  build- 
ing construction,  the  location  of  the  necessary  piping  would  be 
fixed  and  a  working  piping  plan  drawn,  as  shown  in  Figure  187. 
With  both  plans  as  guides,  a  good  workman  could  make  the 
installation  without  much  additional  instruction.  Certain 

(627) 


628 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 
TYF\C/*Y.    FL^^R-     PV-AH 


—"  -"  •— - 


I — i x *•— K * 4--r 

S  j   e-        »         *•        «•        «•  T* 


I i * H X- * i 

la:  T     3  y  ?;  g-  «•  :»    4 


Figure  186.— Lighting  Layout,  page  627. 

details  would  be  determined  by  local  conditions.  In  small 
factories  there  probably  would  be  no  building  service  (see 
page  592),  but  each  riser  would  be  carried  to  a  common  point  in 
the  basement,  as  called  for  by  the  housepiping  specifications. 
Under  these  circumstances,  the  consumer,  rather  than  the  floor, 
would  be  the  unit,  and  there  would  be  one  riser  for  each 
consumer.  On  the  other  hand,  where  there  is  a  building  service, 
there  usually  would  be  a  meter  for  each  floor,  because  in  this 
class  of  buildings  each  floor  is  occupied  by  one  tenant  only. 
Where  the  sole  or  the  best  supports  for  horizontal  piping  are 
the  bottom  members  of  a  roof  truss,  the  layout  should  be 
planned  with  the  pipe  at  right  angles  to  the  trusses,  so  that  the 
lights,  whether  situated  along  the  lines  of  the  trusses  or  between 
them,  may  be  suspended  from  the  piping  without  any  additional 
support.  If  a  last  outlet  occurs  between  two  trusses,  the  choice 
is  to  extend  the  piping  to  the  next  truss  or  to  suspend  the  outlet 
from  the  roof. 

CHURCHES 

In  a  church  exposed   piping  should  be  a  last  resort.     The 
riser  generally   may   be   placed   in   a   partition   near   the  front 


INSTALLATION 


629 


HOUSEPIPING  MATERIAL 


Quail 

tity 

Name  and  Size 

For 
2 
Outlets 

For 
4 
Outlets 

For 
6 
Outlets 

For 
8 
Outlets 

For 
10 
Outlets 

For 
IS 
Outlets 

BUSHINGS:                                1"  x 

i'x 
v± 

l"x  \ 
l"x| 
f'xf 

I 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

CAPS:                                                   \ 

3 

5 

1 

1 
8 

2 
2 
10 

2 
2 
12 

2 
2 
15 

COUPLINGS:                                       f 

1 
1 
1 

2 
2 
2 

2 
1 
3 

3 
2 
4 

3 
2 
4 

4 
3 

5 

ELLS:                                               1 

fx 
§"x 

2 
2 
5 

3 
3 
10 
1 
1 

4 
3 

12 
1 

1 

6 
4 
16 

2 
2 

4 
8 
4 
18 
2 
2 

8 
10 
5 
22 
3 
3 

DROP  ELLS  —  MALE: 

FEMALE  : 

2 

2 

4 
4 

6 
6 

5 
5 

6 
6 

10 
10 

45°  ELLS:                                          1' 

r 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

SERVICE  ELLS:                                    ' 

2 
1 
2 

2 
2 
4 

2 
1 

4 

3 

2 
6 

2 
3 
2 
6 

4 
3 
2 
6 

NIPPLES: 
1*     Close  to    8^ 

¥       9"      "   16' 

1  ea. 

lea. 

1    " 

2ea. 

1    " 

2ea. 
1    " 

1  ea. 
2    || 

1  ea. 

¥     Close  "   12' 

f  12" 

2    " 

3    " 

4   <> 

4   » 

1    " 
4   " 

1    " 
6   " 

PIPE:                                                 1" 

20ft. 
20  " 
20  " 

40ft. 
40  " 
60  " 

40ft. 
40  " 
60  " 

40ft. 
60  " 
120  " 

40ft. 

60  " 
60  " 

Hi  " 

60ft. 
80  " 
80  " 
200  " 

PLUGS:                                           1* 

» 

1 

" 

1 
1 

1 

2 
2 
2 

3 
3 
4 

1 
3 
3 
4 

2 
3 
3 
6 

630 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


HOUSEPIPING  MATERIAL — Continued. 


Quantity 

Name  and  Size 

For 

For 

For 

For 

For 

For 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

15 

Outlets 

Outlets 

Outlets 

Outlets 

Outlets 

Outlets 

EXTENSION    PCS.                                          f" 

2 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

HOOKS  :                                                               1  " 







6 

12 

1" 

4           6 

8 

8 

8 

12 

i" 

3 

6 

8 

8 

8 

10 

f" 

6 

10 

12 

12 

12 

16 

FINISHING  NAILS 

12 

18 

25 

30 

36 

40 

8d    WIRE  NAILS 

12 

14 

16 

20 

24 

30 

PLASTER 

2  qts. 

4  qts. 

6  qts. 

8  qts. 

10  qts. 

12  qts. 

SCREWS,    F.  H.                            1"  X    #  10 

10 

12 

30 

30 

30 

40 

LONG  SCREWS:                                  1' 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

f" 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

y 

- 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

f 



1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

STRAPS:                                               f 

2 

2 

3 

5 

5 

6 

A" 

3 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

1" 

6 

6 

10 

10 

10 

12 

TEES:                                                1" 







1 

1 

3 

1   x  l"x  f 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1    x  f    x  1  " 









1 

2 

1    x  |    x  f" 

— 

—  . 

— 

1 

2 

1    x  f    x  1" 

— 

— 

— 

1 

3 

1    x       x  f  " 







1 

2 

1    x       x  y 





1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4      X            X    2 

— 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

|    x       x  f 

—  • 

— 

3 

5 

5 

6 

f    x       x  f 

— 

— 

3 

5 

5 

6 

f    x       x  f" 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

X            X    2 

— 

— 

2 

3 

3 

3 

x  2    x  f 

— 

— 

1 

2 

2 

2 

xf    xf 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

x|    xf" 

— 

— 

1 

2 

2 

2 

x  f    x  f 

— 

— 

1 

2 

2 

2 

X  i     X   |" 

1 

1 

2 

4 

4 

4 

x  1  x  y 

— 

— 

1 

2 

2 

2 

X   |     X   f" 

1 

1 

4 

4 

4 

4 

\      X    8      X    2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

f    x  |    x  f" 

— 

— 

— 

1 

1 

1 

INSTA  LLA  TION 

TYPICAL. 


63  1 


r  A  « 


/*c    %:    */+     w    &•    '%.-     %.- 


rjf*l 

8"  A  8"  A   »' 

A  8  A 

8    A    ^ 

y(* 

'3/+         */* 

2^t 

y>» 

$4 

s-  A       ,«• 

A     •»•    A 

l*- 

y^'   ^ 

;•      %-"     ^ 

%."       3A"       • 

" 

iA'A    6 

i  »•  A  s- 

A  »  A  «'  J  < 

Figure  187.— Working  Plan,  page  627. 

entrance.  In  this  way  it  reaches  the  top  of  a  side  wall  along 
which  it  is  extended,  branches  being  taken  off  as  needed.  With 
an  exposed  truss  roof,  characteristic  of  so  many  churches,  each 
bottom  member  is  available  both  to  conceal  and  to  support  the 
pipe.  If  there  is  no  truss  available,  the  pipe  might  have  to 
come  down  the  wall,  but  even  so,  usually  it  will  be  so  high  that 
it  will  not  be  noticeable  after  it  is  painted  to  match  its  back- 
ground. 

MEETING  HALLS 

Meeting  halls  resemble  factory  floors  as  to  shape  and  churches 
as  to  use.  They  ordinarily  require  general  illumination  only, 
and  their  piping  usually  would  be  concealed.  With  paneled 
metal  ceilings,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  locate  each  outlet 
in  a  panel  center. 

STORES 

The  average  store  into  which  gas  piping  is  introduced  after  the 
erection  of  the  building,  is  of  such  a  character  that  exposed 
piping  properly  painted  is  not  a  great  objection,  while  the  saving 
in  expense  is  often  quite  desirable.  Upper  floor  conditions  that 
would  make  concealed  piping  costly  include  carpeted  rooms, 


632  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

hardwood  or  diagonal  flooring,  and  heavy  pieces  of  furniture, 
In  most  cases  general  illumination  only  is  required.  If  the  space 
is  long  and  narrow,  one  line  of  center  outlets,  with  extensions  and 
drops  to  side  outlets,  will  be  sufficient.  For  greater  widths,  two 
ceiling  lines  will  be  run,  usually  one  over  each  counter,  with  the 
outlets  staggered  and  with  necessary  extensions  for  side  outlets. 
In  Philadelphia,  there  are  many  instances  where  a  store 
occupies  the  lower  floor  of  a  two-story  building  which  is  given 
a  single  system  of  piping,  on  the  assumption  that  the  store- 
keeper will  live  on  the  upper  floor.  Sooner  or  later,  many  of 
these  buildings  contain  two  or  more  tenants,  each  of  whom 
desires  a  separate  supply.  Where  each  tenant  has  an  entire 
floor,  a  separation  of  the  existing  piping  often  may  be  made. 
If  this  is  not  feasible,  as  is  generally  the  case  when  one  tenant 
occupies  the  front  room  of  the  first  floor  only,  the  remedy  is 
to  run  a  separate  line  for  the  store  and  to  remove  the  drops  and 
plug  the  outlets  of  the  original  system  where  duplicated  by  the 
new  system,  in  order  to  prevent  any  chance  of  one  consumer 
using  gas  paid  for  by  another. 

DWELLINGS 
MATERIAL  REQUIRED 

The  orders  for  dwelling  piping  often  are  given  in  terms  of  the 
outlets  required.  Without  further  information,  material  may  be 
delivered  by  use  of  the  table  on  pages  629  and  630. 

DETAILS  ov  WORK 

In  dwellings,  concealed  piping  is  the  almost  invariable  rule. 
The  workman  first  determines  the  partition  most  suitable  for  the 
riser,  being  guided  in  this  by  the  housepiping  specification 
requirements  for  meter  location.  Then  the  outlets  are  located, 
and  with  a  search  bit  the  ceiling  outlets  may  be  marked  on  the 
upper  floors.  After  this  the  general  layout  of  the  piping  may 
be  planned,  and  the  endeavor  should  be  to  run  as  much  pipe  as 
possible  at  right  angles  to  the  floor  joists,  in  order  to  minimize 
the  removal  of  floor  boards  and  to  permit  the  use  of  long  lengths 
of  piping.  For  runs  parallel  to  joists,  and,  therefore,  at  right 
angles  to  floor  boards,  trap  holes  must  be  cut  in  the  latter,  and 
their  size  and  frequency  determine  the  maximum  length  of  the 
pipe  to  be  inserted.  The  competent,  workman  can  lift  the 
various  boards  in  such  a  manner  that  after  their  replacement,  it 
is  hard  to  tell  that  they  have  been  disturbed. 


INSTALLATION 

^  .SAW 


633 


,FLO<?IE: 


.*•- 

Jz-<ri.tA-r^»'5T 

NA1LE.D    TO  *~ 
£>1PE  ^P  JoiiT-^ 

"^-Joi^T^    ^Z- 

*- 
_/UwL_ 

Figure   188.— Cleats  for  supporting   Floor 
Boards,  page  633. 

Where  sawing  is  necessary,  a  small  starting  hole  and  a  thin 
compass  saw  are  called  for.  Ordinarily,  the  saw  cut  must  be 
vertical  and  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  joist.  In  this  case,  cleats, 
as  shown  in  Figure  188,  will  be  required  to  support  the  boards  on 
replacement.  If  space  permits,  the  sawing  should  be  at  a  45° 
angle  with  the  floor  and  the  cut  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  joist,  as 
shown  by  the  dashed  line  in  Figure  188.  This  will  avoid  any 
necessity  for  cleats  and,  with  a  very  competent  workman, 
results  in  a  neater  job  than  a  vertical  cut. 

After  sawing,  a  floor  chisel  (A,  Figure  62,  page  192)  should  be 
inserted,  with  its  edge  pointing  toward  the  groove  side  of  the 
board  to  be  removed,  until  it  catches  the  lower  side  of  the  lip. 
Then,  by  prying  down  on  the  chisel  handle  and  at  the  same  time 
hammering  lightly  on  the  adjacent  board,  the  tongue  of  the 
latter  will  press  against  and  split  off  the  lower  edge  of  the  groove 
of  the  first  board,  which  then  may  be  easily  removed. 

When  the  necessary  floor  openings  have  been  made,  the  exact 
piping  layout  and  sizes  are  determined. 

If  concealed,  and  not  exposed,  pipe  is  desired  to  supply  outlets 
located  on  walls  not  partitions,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  a  slot. 

Piping  that  is  exposed  should,  of  course,  be  installed  in  the 
least  conspicuous  place.  The  riser  may  be  brought  through  a 
closet  or  behind  a  door,  and  other  lines  located  in  the  angle 
between  ceiling  and  wall.  The  extensions  to  the  outlets  are 
bound  to  be  more  or  less  conspicuous,  but  with  suitable  painting 
should  be  not  unsightly.  It  is  important  to  fasten  securely  the 
ceiling  outlets  which  may  carry  fixtures. 


634  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

All  piping  work  in  occupied  dwellings  involves,  under  the  best 
conditions,  a  considerable  annoyance  to  the  occupants.  The 
lifting  and  replacing  of  floorboards  has  been  already  mentioned. 
In  addition,  there  may  be  the  cutting  of  plaster,  taking  up  of 
carpets,  moving  of  furniture,  and  painting  of  piping.  For  all 
this  the  most  careful  and  skillful  workmen  should  be  employed, 
so  that  every  job  will  result  in  a  satisfied  consumer.  As  a  rule, 
the  work  should  be  tested  as  installed,  so  that  any  fault  can  be 
readily  repaired. 


CHAPTER  LVII 

MAINTENANCE 
ORGANIZATION  FOR  WORK 

The  maintenance  of  housepiping  and  fixtures  consists  chiefly 
in  caring  for  complaints  of  leaks  or  insufficient  supply.  The 
workmen  are  usually  known  as  complaint  men  or  fitters,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  meter  fitters  or  the  appliance  fitters, 
though  even  in  the  larger  companies  there  are  many  employees 
who  do  all  three  classes  of  work.  In  this  chapter,  "complaint 
work"  will  be  used  to  designate  complaints  referring  to  house- 
piping  and  fixtures  and  also  to  the  meter  and  its  inlet  piping 
extending  to  the  head  of  the  service.  The  general  organization 
of  the  entire  fitting  force  is  given  in  Chapter  II,  and  details  of  the 
organization  for  meter  fitting  and  for  appliance  work  in  Chapters 
XLIX  and  LVIII,  respectively.  The  remarks  in  the  latter 
chapter  on  the  foremen  and  on  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
men  themselves,  apply  equally  well  to  complaint  men.  The 
tool  kits  often  carried  by  complaint  men  are  shown  in  Figures  65 
(page  196)  and  66  (page  198).  Their  means  of  transportation 
are  normally  bicycles  or  motorcycles,  as  described  on  page  204. 

One  of  the  essential  features  of  an  efficient  organization  for 
complaint  work  is  adequate  arrangements  for  prompt  service  as 
required  by  day  or  by  night. 

Installations  to  demonstrate  the  conditions  encountered  in 
complaint  work,  with  especial  reference  to  the  various  kinds  of 
obstructions  producing  insufficient  supply,  should  form  part  of 
every  shop  equipment. 

WORK  COMPLETION  SCHEDULE 

The  reasons  for  a  work  completion  schedule,  the  considerations 
affecting  its  details,  and  the  routine  for  enforcing  it,  are  described 
in  Chapter  LIX.  Such  a  schedule  is  perhaps  more  necessary  for 
appliance  and  meter  work  than  for  complaint  work,  because  the 
latter  is  usually  considered  emergency  work  and  is  not  apt  to  be 

(635) 


636  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

neglected  even  if  its  completion  is  not  required  within  a  set  time. 
Nevertheless,  as  will  be  seen,  there  are  several  gradations  of 
complaint  work  in  point  of  urgency,  and  a  completion  schedule 
which  recognizes  these  promotes  efficiency  and  economy. 
The  schedule  as  used  in  Philadelphia  is  given  below: 

Nature  of  Complaint  Time  to  Complete 

(In  days) 

Leaks  (a) °* 

Illumination  (6) 0 

Meter  and  Housepiping  (c) 

Miscellaneous  (c) 1 

(a)  If  the  order  states,  or  indicates,  that  the  leak  is  bad,  it 
should  be  attended  to  as  quickly  as  possible  f  and  given  precedence 
over  all  other  orders  not  of  equal  importance. 

(6)  If  the  order  states,  or  indicates,  that  the  consumer  is 
entirely  without  light,  it  should  be  attended  to  as  quickly  as 
possible^  and  given  precedence  over  all  others  not  of  equal 
importance.  Orders  issued  from  mail  matter  should  be  classed 
as  "zero"  orders,  unless  the  mail  indicates  that  the  consumer  is 
not  inconvenienced. 

(c)  If  the  order  does  not  fall  into  the  "  Immediate  Attention  " 
class,  but  indicates  from  the  mail  attached  that  the  con- 
sumer is  inconvenienced,  it  should  be  attended  to  on  the  day  of 
receipt. 

*  Zero  means  completion  of  order  on  day  of  receipt, 
t  These  order  cards   should   be  stamped   "Immediate 
Attention." 

The  schedule,  of  necessity,  is  drawn  up  in  general  terms,  and 
applies  to  all  orders  for  which  the  consumer  has  not  requested  a 
specific  time  of  call.  When  the  complaint  desk  is  in  touch  with 
the  consumer,  either  in  person  or  by  telephone,  it  often  is  possible 
to  get  very  exact  information,  and  the  specific  conditions  may 
show  that  what  would  be  normally  a  "one  day"  order,  belongs 
to  the  "zero"  class.  The  consumer  may  request  what  under  the 
circumstances  is  unnecessary  speed  of  completion.  As  a  rule, 
unreasonable  requests  of  this  kind  should  not  be  granted.  On 
the  other  hand,  leak  orders  should  be  completed  within  the 
required  time,  unless  the  consumer  requests  delay  and  it  is  very 
certain  that  the  leak  is  quite  slight.  Any  promised  date  is,  of 
course,  shown  on  the  order  card.  No  leak  order,  though  seem- 
ingly a  duplicate  of  a  previous  order,  should  be  treated  as  such 
unless  the  fact  of  such  duplication  can  be  established  beyond 
doubt,  as,  for  instance,  by  reaching  the  consumer  on  the 
telephone. 


MAINTENANCE  637 

DISPATCHING  ORDERS 

In  general,  the  efficiency  of  the  complaint  work  service  is 
dependent,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  care  and  intelligence 
exercised  by  the  man  receiving  the  order,  and  the  promptness 
with  which  it  is  transmitted  to  the  shop  and  thence  to  the  work- 
man. In  receiving  a  leak  complaint  across  the  desk  or  over  the 
telephone,  enough  questions  should  be  asked  to  determine  the 
extent  and  supposed  location  of  the  escape,  which  should  be 
designated  as  "in  street,"  "in  cellar,"  "at  meter,"  "at  fixture 
in  room,"  "in  fuel  piping,"  "at  range  burner,"  etc.  If  the  leak 
is  considered  dangerous,  or  is  very  noticeable,  this  fact  should  be 
noted  on  the  order,  which  should  be  telephoned  immediately  to 
the  shop.  Questioning  will  sometimes  develop  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  odor  of  gas  and  a  leak  is  suspected  owing  to  the  size  of 
the  bill. 

If  the  orders  contain  the  proper  information,  the  dispatching 
clerk  at  the  shop  is  able  to  give  preference  to  those  of  an  urgent 
nature.  A  bad  leak  would  be  attended  to  before  a  slight  one, 
and  an  order  implying  no  gas  supply  throughout  an  entire 
building  before  one  indicating  a  partial  supply.  As  between  a 
slight  leak  and  an  insufficient  supply  to  a  hospital,  asylum, 
factory,  etc.,  the  latter  order  should  take  precedence. 

When  a  number  of  similar  complaints  are  received  almost 
simultaneously  from  the  same  territory,  one  common  cause 
should  be  looked  for,  and  by  bearing  this  fact  in  mind,  useless 
trips  often  will  be  saved,  consumers  quickly  told  what  the  trouble 
is,  and  the  latter  sooner  remedied.  Widespread  complaints  of 
leaks  are  almost  invariably  due  to  odors  coming  from  sewers  or 
from  oil  refineries.  Reports  of  insufficient  supply,  especially  at 
dusk,  are  generally  due  to  lack  of  pressure  in  certain  mains, 
occasionally  through  the  partial  or  entire  closing  of  a  main  by  an 
accumulation  of  condensation.  The  same  reports  during  day- 
light indicate  a  sudden  rush  of  water  into  a  main,  or  its  breaking, 
often  through  undermining  or  blasting.  By  the  intelligent  use 
of  the  telephone,  the  approximate  limits  of  the  supply  failure 
may  be  sometimes  obtained  and  thus  the  exact  point  of  trouble 
more  quickly  located  where  surface  indications  are  lacking. 

LEAKS 

GENERAL  INVESTIGATION 

In  Chapter  XXXI,  treating  of  street  leaks,  the  procedure  is 
taken  up  at  the  point  where  the  workman  decides  that  the  gas  is 


638  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

coming  from  the  street.  Now  we  will  describe  what  is  done 
prior  to  that  time.  We  will  first  consider  the  case  of  a  locked 
house  and  no  sign  of  inmates.  Unless  the  order  shows  specific- 
ally that  the  leak  is  an  inside  one,  the  workman  should  remove 
any  stop-box  cover  and  note  whether  there  is  an  odor  there.  He 
should  also  make  an  examination  at  the  house  wall  where  the 
service  enters,  and  at  the  cellar  windows.  An  odor  at  the 
stop-box  or  at  the  wall  would  be  considered  a  street  leak.  With 
no  odor  at  the  windows,  the  name  on  the  order  should  be  verified 
by  inquiry  of  the  neighbors,  and  if  so  verified,  an  attempt  made 
to  ascertain  when  the  occupant  will  return.  If  it  is  possible  to 
gain  admittance  by  going  a  short  distance  for  some  one,  this 
should  be  done.  If  there  is  an  odor  coming  from  the  building, 
any  curb  stop  on  the  service  should  be  closed,  and  it  should  be 
considered  whether  or  not  a  policeman  should  be  asked  to  force 
an  entrance  and  thus  permit  an  examination  of  the  building  in 
order  to  prevent  the  asphyxiation  of  any  possible  inmate  (see 
page  337).  This  is  one  of  the  many  cases  where  good  judgment 
is  required  in  connection  with  leak  orders,  but  in  this  particular 
instance,  the  workman  may  usually  communicate  with  the 
"shop  man"  (see  page  331)  and  be  told  what  to  do. 

If  the  house  is  open,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  workman  may 
detect  a  strong  odor  coming  from  the  cellar.  If  so,  any  curb 
stop  should  be  closed,  on  the  chance  that  the  leak  may  be  in  the 
service  pipe  between  the  stop  and  the  wall.  The  cellar  should  be 
ventilated  by  opening  any  windows  from  the  outside,  and  with  a 
bad  leak,  breaking  the  glass  is  preferable  to  entering  the  cellar  in 
order  to  open  windows.  Unless  to  save  others,  the  workman 
should  not  go  alone  into  any  cellar  where  there  is  a  strong  smell. 
Instead,  another  workman  should  be  summoned,  and  while  one 
man  stands  at  the  head  of  the  stairs,  the  other  should  go  down 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  stay  within  sight.  An  occupant  should 
be  at  handle  be  called  on  by  the  man  at  the  stairs  if  he  finds 
he  must  go  into  the  cellar  to  assist  the  first  man.  The  respirator 
(Figure  56,  page  181)  should  be  used  in  extreme  cases. 

If  the  leak  seems  to  be  coming  through  the  street  wall,  this 
information  should  be  telephoned  to  the  shop  man.  Pending 
the  arrival  of  a  street  gang,  the  house  should  be  ventilated  as 
much  as  conditions  seem  to  demand,  and  openings  affording 
entrance  for  gas,  stopped  up  with  any  available  material.  If  for 
any  reason  it  seems  possible  that  the  gas  is  coming  in  from  one 
or  more  adjoining  houses,  their  cellars  should  be  examined. 


MAINTENANCE  639 

Occasionally  gas  seems  to  be  coming  into  a  building  through 
doors  or  windows,  and  then  good  judgment  must  be  relied  on  to 
decide  what  closing,  if  any,  is  advisable. 

The  leak  may  be  somewhere  in  the  house  above  the  cellar  and 
yet  not  traceable  to  any  exposed  source.  This  is  what  is  often 
called  a  "concealed  "  leak.  Before  deciding  that  such  is  the  case, 
the  workman  should  examine  carefully  all  fixtures,  appliances 
and  exposed  piping,  as  the  annoyance  and  expense  often  incurred 
in  cutting  into  walls  or  floors  to  look  for  a  concealed  leak  make  it 
imperative  that  there  be  no  mistake  in  the  diagnosis.  When  a 
concealed  leak  is  very  large,  this  fact  is  usually  apparent  from 
the  existing  odor.  The  meter  furnishes  the  best  of  all  means  to 
determine  the  rate  of  leakage,  and  should  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, especially  as  an  aid  to  deciding  whether  the  gas  supply 
need  be  shut  off  pending  repair.  This  applies  to  exposed  leaks  as 
well.  The  movement  of  the  meter  can  be  readily  converted  into 
cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  from  this  a  decision  reached.  The  cases 
calling  for  the  most  careful  consideration  are  those  where  there 
is  an  odor  in  sleeping  rooms  and  no  repair  can  be  effected  until 
the  next  day.  A  slight  leak  in  the  piping  or  fixtures  of  a  large 
building  containing  no  sleeping  rooms,  if  expensive  to  locate  or 
repair,  might  be  very  properly  left  unremedied  with  the  knowl- 
edge and  consent  of  the  occupants. 

When  the  meter  shows  no  movement,  it  should  be  given 
"Test  A"  (see  page  503),  and  if  no  movement  is  shown  after  this 
test  has  been  passed,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  leakage  is  from 
the  house  adjoining  on  the  side  where  the  odor  is  strongest. 

When  the  leakage  is  so  large  that  the  gas  must  be  shut  off  and 
may  not  be  turned  on  again  until  a  repair  has  been  made,  the 
location  of  the  escape  must  be  determined  by  the  use  of  ether, 
peppermint,  or  some  similar  substance. 

The  workman  answering  a  leak  complaint  should  never 
report  "no  leak"  unless  he  is  absolutely  certain.  In  all  cases  of 
doubt,  an  opportunity  should  be  given  for  a  second  man  to  make 
an  examination. 

SPECIFIC  LOCATIONS 
CELLAR  PIPING 

So  far  we  have  considered  only  those  cases  where  it  has  not 
been  possible  to  locate  the  leak  in  some  definite  spot  exposed  to 
view.  Now  we  shall  take  up  exposed  leaks,  and  begin  in  the 
cellar  with  the  piping  between  the  street  wall  and  the  meter. 


640  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

Especially  in  a  damp  cellar,  the  service  may  rust  through  at  the 
point  of  entrance.  A  permanent  repair  will  require  the  removal 
of  part  or  all  of  the  service.  A  temporary  repair  here,  or  at  any 
point  on  exposed  piping,  often  may  be  made  by  applying  soap, 
either  with  or  without  a  tightly  wrapped  and  tied  covering  of 
tallowed  muslin.  A  permanent  repair  will  require  a  new  piece 
of  pipe  and  a  long  screw.  A  leak  at  a  fitting,  if  due  to  a  split, 
requires  a  new  fitting,  but  if  a  sandhole,  sometimes  may  be 
patched  successfully. 

A  leaking  meter  cock  sometimes  needs  only  tightening  or 
greasing,  but  if  it  is  badly  worn  or  strained,  a  new  cock  is 
required. 

METER 

Leaks  in  meter  cases,  as  affected  by  meter  design  and  by  meter 
connections,  are  spoken  of  on  pages  422  and  461,  respectively. 
Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  done  in  this  regard,  the  meter 
and  its  surroundings  are  still  a  prolific  source  of  leaks,  not  only 
gas,  but  also  condensation  and,  from  dripping  meters,  oil.  Gas 
or  oil  leaks  at  any  soldered  seam,  provided  the  opening  is  not 
over  ^-inch  long,  and  gas  leaks  at  any  putty  joints  of  dial  or 
index  glasses  may  be  repaired  without  removing  the  meter.  The 
surface  should  be  wiped  off  carefully  and  common  brown  soap 
applied  by  the  fingers.  After  the  leak  has  been  stopped,  a 
coating  of  japan  or  shellac  should  be  placed  over  the  soap  and 
adjacent  meter  surface.  This,  by  excluding  air,  prevents  the 
soap  from  hardening.  Only  one  seam  patch  should  be  allowed 
on  a  meter.  By  the  above  repairs  many  meter  changes  may  be 
avoided.  A  leak  at  either  coupling,  if  not  remedied  by  a  slight 
tightening,  will  usually  stop  with  a  new  washer.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  use  much  force  on  the  coupling,  as  the  new  washer  will,  in  the 
long  run,  prove  cheaper. 

HOUSEPIPING 

Piping  above  the  cellar  usually  is  concealed,  and  access 
to  it  will  be  governed  by  the  principle  laid  down  in  describing 
piping  installation  in  occupied  houses.  The  actual  repair  of 
leaks  in  piping  or  fittings  js  the  same  as  for  cellar  piping.  No 
patching  of  concealed  piping  is  ever  permissible. 

FIXTURES 

Leaks  in  the  brass  or  iron  piping,  or  at  a  sweated-in  joint, 
require  removal  to  a  shop  and  generally  new  material.  Leaks  at 
threaded  joints  usually  may  be  repaired  on  the  spot  by  tightening, 


MAINTENANCE  641 

rethreading,  or  the  use  of  new  material.  Leaks  at  keys  generally 
stop  after  regreasing  or  tightening.  Sometimes  regrinding  is 
required.  A  strained  or  badly  worn  cock  requires  replacing. 
If  a  key  leak  that  is  not  very  slight  is  not  to  be  repaired  promptly, 
the  fixture  should  be  removed  and  the  outlet  capped  pending 
such  repair,  or  the  key  should  be  so  tightened  that  it  cannot  be 
turned  by  hand,  and  the  consumer  told  to  leave  it  alone.  With 
a  dangerous  leak  in  any  other  part  of  a  fixture  not  capable  of 
immediate  temporary  or  permanent  repair,  the  occupant  should 
be  given  the  choice  between  the  removal  of  the  fixture  and  the 
shutting  off  of  the  entire  gas  supply. 

BURNERS  AND  TUBING 

Leaks  at  flat-flame  burners  are  stopped  by  releading,  screwing 
the  burner  tighter,  or  supplying  a  new  one.  Leaky  tubing  should 
be  replaced  by  new,  but  consumers  of  the  poorer  class  often 
object  very  strongly  to  the  destruction  of  tubing  which,  in  their 
opinion,  is  not  leaking  sufficiently  to  be  dangerous.  This  is,  once 
more,  a  case  where  good  judgment  is  needed  to  decide  when 
to  insist  upon  either  the  destruction  of  the  defective  tubing  or 
the  cessation  of  gas  supply. 

POLICY  CONTROLLING  REPAIRS 

It  is  greatly  to  the  interest  of  every  gas  company  that  the  use 
of  its  product  be  accompanied  by  the  minimum  of  annoyance. 
Potential  sources  of  such  annoyance  are  leaky  housepiping  and 
fixtures.  Piping  and  fixtures  installed  under  proper  specifica- 
tions will  give  little  trouble  under  normal  conditions  of  use,  but 
poorly  made  fixtures  and  piping  exceptionally  exposed  to  corro- 
sion or  other  injury  result  in  numerous  leaks.  Every  company 
should  decide  how  much  expense  it  is  willing  to  undergo  in 
remedying  these  leaks,  all  of  which  are  beyond  the  meter  outlet, 
and,  therefore,  no  part  of  the  cost  of  their  repair  is  obligatory  on 
the  company.  It  is  necessary  also,  especially  where  there  may 
be  not  efficient  control  over  installation  work,  to  differentiate 
sharply  between  leaks  in  old  material  and  leaks  due  to  faulty 
work  recently  done.  The  only  effect  of  a  generous  policy  toward 
such  new  work  would  be  to  encourage  inferior  installations. 

Three  hours  of  labor  of  two  men  and  the  supply  of  a  small 
amount  of  inexpensive  material,  such  as  pipe,  should  perhaps  be 
considered  as  a  reasonable  limit  of  free  work.  If  there  seems  to 
be  a  chance  that  the  limit  may  be  exceeded,  the  occupant  should 
be  told  of  this  fact  before  the  work  is  started,  and  that  if  the 


642  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

allotted  time  does  not  suffice  to  effect  a  repair,  he  will  be  expected 
to  employ  a  gas  fitter,  and,  pending  repair,  the  supply  will  be 
shut  off  if  this  course  seems  required  by  safety  consideration. 
Such  possible  necessity  for  gas  shut  off,  often  against  the  wish  of 
the  occupant,  arises  fairly  often,  and  has  been  spoken  of  in 
describing  leaks  at  certain  specific  locations.  It  is  sometimes 
brought  about  by  the  refusal  of  the  occupant  to  release  the 
company  from  responsibility  for  any  damage  generally  due  to 
necessary  interference  with  woodwork  and  plaster.  As  was 
said  before,  every  case  must  be  decided  by  the  best  judgment 
available  at  the  time.  A  written  notice  of  the  reason  for  such 
shut  off  and  of  the  danger  of  resuming  gas  supply  until  a  repair 
has  been  made,  should  be  given.  A  written  notice  also  should 
be  sent,  advising  permanent  repair  where  temporary  repair  only 
has  been  made  by  the  company  and  permanent  repair  involves 
the  employment  of  an  outside  gas  fitter. 

LEAKS  AFFECTING  BILLS 

One  of  the  consequences  of  the  average  consumer's  inability  to 
conceive  of  gas  as  a  definite  substance,  and  of  his  general  igno- 
rance of  how  a  gas  meter  functions,  is  his  usual  misunderstanding 
of  the  effects  of  leaks  on  the  gas  bill.  Not  only  does  he  believe 
that  every  leak  he  smells  is  of  measured  gas,  and  forms  a  mental 
image  of  its  volume  a  hundredfold  and  more  too  great,  but  often, 
with  equal  disregard  of  physical  conditions,  infers  a  leak  from 
the  mere  size  of  the  bill.  It  is  one  of  the  obligations  of  the 
supplying  company  to  enlighten  him  on  all  these  points  as  far 
as  may  be  possible. 

To  determine  whether  leaks  actually  found  are  of  measured 
gas,  the  workman  should  be  furnished  with  a  list  of  standard 
phrases  descriptive  of  the  distributing  system  from  the  head  of 
the  service  to  the  burner.  The  effect  of  leaks  from  the  meter 
case  is  given  on  page  434.  Even  if  the  consumer  is  given  the 
benefit  of  any  doubt  about  such  case  leaks,  these  and  leaks  from 
outlet  piping  installed  by  the  company  are  the  only  ones  of 
measured  gas  for  which  the  company  could  be  in  any  way 
responsible  and  for  which,  therefore,  allowance  might  be  made. 

This  brings  us  to  the  second  point:  the  exaggerated  idea 
usually  existing  in  the  consumer's  mind  of  the  size  of  a  leak  as 
affecting  his  bill  in  dollars  and  cents.  If  the  person  who  believes 
that  a  leak,  which  has  not  been  especially  noticeable  in  the  days 
or  even  weeks  before  it  is  reported,  has  increased  his  bill  by 


MAINTENANCE  643 

several  dollars  a  month,  can  be  made  to  picture  the  volume  in 
gas  represented  by  this  value,  and  shown,  by  a  practical  demon- 
stration, the  amount  of  odor  created  by  an  escape  of  only 
one-tenth  of  a  cubic  foot  per  hour,  there  is  apt  to  be  one  less 
believer  in  corporate  dishonesty. 

Still  more  forcibly  does  the  above  argument  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  an  appreciable  escape  of  gas  without  a  decided  odor 
apply  to  the  man  who  is  sure  he  did  not  use  the  gas  charged, 
which,  therefore,  in  his  opinion,  must  have  leaked  somewhere,  if 
his  meter  on  test  proves  correct. 

INSUFFICIENT  SUPPLY 
GENERAL  INVESTIGATION 

In  discussing  the  importance  of  a  gas  company's  being  able 
to  control  the  installation  of  housepiping,  it  was  stated  that  con- 
sumers frequently  suffered  from  insufficient  supply  without 
knowing  it.  These  are  usually  cases  where  the  diminution  in 
supply  has  been  quite  gradual,  often  from  a  slowly  increasing 
stoppage,  and  more  rarely,  as  applied  to  a  section  of  the  dis- 
tribution system,  from  increasing  demand  with  no  corresponding 
enlargement  of  the  mains.  This  latter  condition  would  hardly 
occur  with  any  company  which  obtained  the  pressure  records 
recommended  in  Chapter  XXXIV. 

Any  sudden  evidence  of  insufficient  supply  usually  means  a 
notice  to  the  gas  company,  and  on  page  637  two  reasons,  both 
relating  to  mains,  were  given  for  the  receipt  of  many  complaints 
within  a  short  time.  The  location  and  remedy  of  insufficient 
supply  due  to  mains  is  described  on  page  351,  and  we  are  now 
concerned  only  with  the  piping  between  the  main  and  the 
burner.  Before  giving  the  methods  of  locating  the  trouble,  it 
will  be  well  to  describe  the  two  classes  of  obstructions  and  their 
characteristic  phenomena.  The  first  class  is  condensation, 
liquid  or  solid,  and  the  second  class  is  foreign  matter,  usually 
rust  or  jointing  material  and,  more  rarely,  other  substances 
left  in  the  piping  during  installation. 

A  liquid  stoppage,  unless  complete,  will  be  evidenced  by 
regular  pulsations  of  flow  as  shown  on  a  flame  or  pressure  gauge. 
As  a  rule,  the  pulsations  are  rapid  enough  to  create  a  jumping 
flame,  and  almost  invariably  the  stoppage  can  be  looked  for  on 
the  street  side  of  the  jump.  If  the  stoppage  is  complete,  it  may 
be  distinguished  from  a  solid  stoppage  only  when  the  location 
admits  the  use  of  an  investigating  wire.  However,  as  condensa- 


644  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

tion  is  caused  by  a  chilling  of  the  gas,  it  always  should  be  looked 
for  in  any  visible  trap  in  the  piping — as  the  meter — and  in  any 
other  locations,  such  as  services,  that  may  be  exposed  to  low 
temperatures  and  in  which  unsuspected  traps  may  exist. 

Solid  condensation  generally  exists  in  the  shape  of  frost,  and  is 
the  form  assumed  by  oil  or  water  vapors  condensing  out  of  the 
gas  at  temperatures  below  freezing,  \\ith  normal  service  and 
meter  installations  these  frost  troubles  will  not  be  experienced 
seriously  except  during  a  cold  spell  of  several  days  in  which  the 
temperature  approaches  zero.  The  frost  is  deposited  in  layers 
extending  from  the  pipe  walls,  and  a  frost  stoppage,  unlike  a 
liquid  one,  is  not  restricted  to  a  trap.  Indeed,  a  frequent  place 
is  in  vertical  piping  located  on  an  exposed  wall,  and  for  that 
reason  such  a  position  is  prohibited  by  modern  housepiping 
specifications.  The  larger  sizes  now  specified  also  tend  to 
make  piping  more  immune  to  complete  frost  stoppage,  because 
the  severe  weather  is  often  at  an  end  and  the  frost  melts  before 
the  formation  has  become  so  thick  as  to  cause  insufficient  supply. 
(See  description  of  anti-freezer,  page  399).  A  frost  stoppage  is  at 
once  complained  of  by  the  consumer,  and,  under  good  manage- 
ment, is  promptly  remedied  by  the  company.  This  remedy 
should  involve,  especially  for  recurrent  complaints,  any  change 
in  company  structures  necessary  to  end  the  trouble,  and  in  the 
case  of  exposed  housepiping,  it  often  may  be  cheaper  to  alter 
its  location  than  to  answer  repeated  complaints. 

Ice  is  another  form  of  solid  condensation  which  occurs  more 
rarely  than  frost,  because  it  is  due  to  the  freezing  of  a  liquid 
stoppage,  and  usually  this  liquid  stoppage,  forming  in  mild  or 
not  very  cold  temperatures,  would  be  complained  of  and  removed 
before  the  advent  of  weather  cold  enough  to  make  ice. 

Foreign  matter,  in  its  usual  role  of  causing  a  partial  stoppage,  is 
more  to  be  dreaded  than  condensation  as  a  foe  to  good  service. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  older  cities  and  where  housepiping 
supervision  has  been  lacking.  In  the  shape  of  rust,  it  slowly 
accumulates  at  the  bottom  of  the  house  riser,  and  in  far  too 
many  cases,  not  only  the  consumer,  but  also  the  company's 
workmen  fail  to  suspect  this  condition,  and  insufficient  supply 
exists  until,  for  some  reason  or  other,  —  often  a  total  closing  off 
of  the  riser,— a  proper  investigation  is  made.  The  buildings  in 
the  past  most  apt  to  be  affected  this  way  were  those  houses  of 
the  wealthy  built  forty  years  ago,  piped  perhaps  somewhat  inade- 
quately and  exposed  since  to  the  imperfectly  purified  gas  of  the 


MAINTENANCE  645 

olden  days.  Every  workman  having  occasion  to  investigate  the 
gas  supply  of  such  houses,  should  keep  in  mind  the  great  prob- 
ability of  these  rust  stoppages. 

Another  favorite  location  for  rust  is  at  the  junction  of  a 
small  service  with  the  main.  Often  no  fitting  was  used  here,  the 
pipe  being  bent  to  a  right  angle  and  somewhat  flattened  in  the 
process.  This  bend,  or  the  alternative  elbow,  seems  to  collect 
all  the  rust  there  is.  It  is  deposited  in  a  more  or  less  spongey 
form,  so  while  the  supply  is  obstructed,  enough  gas  gets  through 
to  satisfy  the  consumer,  probably  because  the  deprivation  has 
been  very  gradual.  Some  early  winter  day,  however,  enough 
frost  is  formed  in  among  the  rust  to  stop  flow  completely,  or  so 
nearly  that  a  complaint  is  made,  and  an  epidemic  of  such  com- 
plaints is  rather  usual  with  large  companies  in  the  first  cold  snap. 

Rust  is  found  not  infrequently  in  the  service  ell  screwed  into 
the  tee  on  the  head  of  the  service,  and  its  effect  is  shown  in  a 
manner  and  at  times  similar  to  those  just  mentioned  for  rust 
stoppages  at  the  junction  of  the  main  and  service. 

Jointing  material  gives  trouble  only  when  applied  on  the 
female  threads,  especially  in  the  small  sizes.  It  is  seldom  the 
cause  of  a  general  insufficient. 

From  these  general  remarks  on  the  obstructions  themselves, 
we  pass  to  the  steps  taken  to  locate  an  obstruction.  When  the 
order  locates  the  trouble  at  some  particular  burner  or  fixture, 
there  is  usually  a  proper  supply  elsewhere,  but  it  is  good  practice 
to  test  before  leaving,  the  flow  at  some  burner  near  the  meter. 
When  the  failure  of  supply  is  more  or  less  general,  the  first  step 
should  be  to  light  the  burner  nearest  to  the  meter.  This  will 
show  whether  the  stoppage  is  on  the  street  side  or  not.  If  it  is, 
the  next  step  would  be  to  disconnect  the  inlet  connection  and 
open  the  meter  cock  momentarily.  This  will  generally  indicate 
whether  the  trouble  is  in  the  service  or  in  the  meter.  Also,  if 
there  is  liquid  in  the  service,  a  gurgling  noise,  produced  by  the 
passage  of  the  gas  over  the  liquid,  may  be  sometimes  heard. 

In  the  foregoing,  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  stoppage  was 
great  enough  to  be  traced  by  the  comparative  size  of  a  flame  or  by 
the  feel  of  a  gas  stream  as  it  issued  from  a  cock.  There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  instances  where  the  amount  of  gas  passing 
by  the  obstruction  is  sufficient  to  supply  adequately  one  or  a  few 
burners  in  any  part  of  the  building.  In  that  case,  in  order  to 
determine  the  location  of  the  trouble,  it  may  be  necessary  to  take 
simultaneous  pressure  readings  at  different  points  between  the 


646  HOUSEPIP1NG  AND  FIXTURES 

head  of  the  service  and  the  farthest  burner,  while  all  or  most  of 
the  burners  and  appliances  are  in  use.  Such  observations  are 
especially  necessary  when  there  is  more  than  one  obstruction,  or 
when  there  is  none  and  the  lack  of  supply  is  due  to  the  demand 
for  gas  being  greater  than  the  unobstructed  pipe  can  supply. 
Should  there  be  much  variation  in  main  pressure  at  this  location 
during  the  24  hours,  the  above  pressure  readings  should  be  taken 
at  a  time  when  the  main  pressures  are  lowest. 
REMEDY  AT  SPECIFIC  LOCATIONS 

SERVICE 

We  will  now  assume  that  the  stoppage  has  been  located  in  the 
service.  The  removal  usually  involves  opening  the  service  at 
the  wall,  though  in  those  situations  where  there  is  no  curb  cock 
and  a  service  cleaning  device  (Figure  69,  page  202)  is  not  used,  it 
often  may  be  advisable  to  attach  the  force  pump  (A,  Figure  70, 
page  203)  to  the  house  side  of  the  meter  cock.  Thus,  there  is 
always  a  cock  available  to  stop  the  gas  flow.  However,  the 
effectiveness  of  the  compressed  air  is  much  decreased  by  the 
fittings  and  piping  of  the  meter  connection.  If  there  is  no  curb 
cock  to  stop  the  flow,  two  men  always  should  be  on  hand  before 
the  service  is  opened  and  also  while  the  removal  of  the  stoppage  is 
progressing  with  the  curb  cock  open,  unless  a  device  like  that  in 
Figure  69  is  used.  The  above  requirements  are  amply  justified 
by  the  accidents  that  have  happened  under  other  conditions 
during  service  clearing. 

The  following  description  refers  to  one  workman  only.  The 
curb  cock  is  shut.  Then  a  wire  might  be  inserted  to  explore  as 
far  as  the  cock  for  the  approximate  location  of  the  stoppage,  in 
case  the  latter  should  begin  on  the  house  side  of  the  curb.  Next 
the  service  cleaning  device  should  be  screwed  on,  with  both  of  its 
cocks  shut.  Then,  opening  the  curb  cock  and  the  flat  head  cock, 
the  wire  can  be  inserted  through  the  ^-inch  hole  in  the  f -inch  plug 
with  little  escape  of  gas  and  absolute  safety  to  the  workman. 
The  wire  being  withdrawn,  the  plug  replaced,  and  both  cocks  and 
the  meter  cock  shut,  the  force  pump  is  connected  and  a  charge  of 
compressed  air  allowed  to  enter  the  service,  by  the  successive 
openings,  first,  of  the  two  cocks  on  the  cleaning  device,  and  then 
of  the  one  on  the  pump.  The  removal  of  the  f-inch  plug  affords 
a  convenient  means  of  finding  out  what  effect  any  charge  may 
have  had. 

A  liquid  stoppage  of  ordinary  extent  in  a  service  of  usual  size 
is  readily  removed  by  a  force  pump.  If  the  trap  is  of  great 


MAINTENANCE  647 

extent,  it  is  usually  impossible,  even  though  the  service  may  be 
of  normal  diameter,  to  do  more  than  give  temporary  relief  by 
scattering  the  liquid  for  the  time  being,  and  it  will  once  more 
collect  and  give  trouble.  When  the  service  is  a  large  one,  no 
relief  is  possible,  and  in  both  cases,  the  proper  remedy  is  to  take 
out  the  trap,  the  location  of  which  may  be  told  by  progressive 
insertions  and  corresponding  withdrawals  of  the  exploring  wire 
until  its  end  shows  wet. 

If  it  is  cold  weather,  the  stoppage  may  be  frost,  or  frost  and 
rust,  or,  more  rarely,  ice.  To  remove  any  solid  stoppage  not  due 
to  frost,  the  service  cleaning  device  should  be  attached  and  a 
considerable  quantity  of  liquid  (alcohol  or  water)  poured  into 
the  service.  This  has  the  effect  of  softening  the  stoppage,  which 
consists  usually  of  rust,  and  preparing  it  for  proper  response  to 
the  wire  and  the  charge  of  air,  which  should  follow.  When  frost 
is  a  contributing  cause,  alcohol  should  be  poured  in  through  the 
cleaning  device  and,  after  two  or  three  minutes,  the  pump  used 
to  clean  the  loosened  frost.  This  routine  should  be  repeated 
until  complete  clearance  is  effected.  No  standard  quantity  of 
alcohol  can  be  mentioned  as  sufficient  to  remedy  any  stoppage, 
and  sometimes  as  much  as  a  gallon  is  necessary.  If  the  stoppage 
is  ice,  as  distinguished  from  frost,  hot  brine  or  water  is  more 
effective  than  alcohol. 

If  two  men  are  present,  the  service  cleaning  device  is  not  so 
necessary  from  the  standpoint  of  safety,  and  the  liquid  may 
be  poured  directly  through  a  service  ell  screwed  into  the  plug 
opening  at  the  head  of  the  service,  and  left  pointing  upward. 
After  the  liquid  has  entered,  this  service  ell  can  be  removed  and 
the  wiring  and  pumping  done  through  this  same  hole,  more 
effectively  than  when  the  cleaning  device  is  used. 

A  workman  unprovided  with  cleaning  device,  wire,  or  pump, 
may  sometimes,  if  the  frozen  stoppage  is  not  too  solid,  remove  it 
by  pouring  the  thawing  liquid  into  the  upturned  meter  inlet 
swivel,  the  meter  cock  being  closed,  and  then  placing  his  thumb 
over  the  end  of  the  swivel  and,  opening  the  meter  cock,  allowing 
the  liquid  to  run  into  the  service  pipe.  Then  the  meter  cock 
should  be  closed  and  the  operation  repeated  until  the  desired 
result  has  been  obtained.  This  same  procedure  will  soften  or 
perhaps  entirely  remove  a  very  hard  stoppage  by  the  time 
another  man  has  arrived  with  a  pump. 

A  frozen  stoppage  which  is  due  to  the  freezing  of  liquid  in  a  trap, 
will,  when  thawed  out,  still  present  the  problem  of  liquid  stoppage. 


648  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

Another  method  often  used  successfully  for  solid  stoppages 
employs  the  drip  pump  (G,  Figure  44,  page  166)  and  water- 
salty  for  a  frozen  stoppage.  The  service  is  filled  with  liquid,  the 
pump  screwed  on  and  primed,  and  the  suction  accomplishes  what 
pressure  may  have  failed  to. 

The  advantage  of  suction  as  used  above  is  that  the  full  force  of 
the  vacuum  thrown  by  the  pump  is  available  in  the  service. 
When  using  a  force  pump  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  expansion  of 
its  contained  air  as  it  enters  the  service  very  materially  weakens 
the  force  exerted  against  the  obstruction,  especially  if  the  service 
is  a  large  one  and  the  trouble  some  distance  from  the  house  end.* 
To  overcome  this  handicap,  pressure  may  be  pumped  up  in  the 
service  and  the  pump  simultaneously,  by  closing  the  curb  cock 
and  opening  the  various  cocks  between  the  pump  and  the  service. 
(If,  by  chance,  the  stoppage  should  be  complete  and  on  the  house 
side  of  the  curb  cock,  the  latter  would  be  left  open.)  Then  when 
the  curb  cock  is  opened,  a  very  strong  force  is  exerted  against 
the  obstruction,  solid  or  liquid.  This  method,  however,  results 
in  throwing  upon  the  service  a  pressure  much  heavier  than  that 
to  which  it  is  normally  accustomed.  It  should  not  be  used  if 
there  is  any  evidence  that  the  service  is  appreciably  corroded. 
It  always  should  be  followed  by  a  6-inch  pressure  test  against  the 
curb  cock  to  make  certain  that  no  leak  has  been  started,  and  by 
smelling  at  the  stop  box.  In  using  this  method,  the  relation  of 
the  volume  of  air  compressed  in  the  service  to  the  capacity  of 
the  main  into  which  it  will  escape,  should  be  considered,  and 
where  it  is  thought  there  may  be  danger  of  neighboring  consumers 
being  affected,  proper  precautions  should  be  taken,  such  as 
lighting  burners  in  adjacent  buildings  and  watching  them  until 
there  are  no  more  signs  of  an  air  mixture.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, much  of  the  mixture  may  be  disposed  of  through  a  hose 
attached  to  the  service  and  extended  through  a  cellar  window. 

The  solid  stoppages  due  to  rust  being  usually  found  at  the 
main,  are  at  a  great  distance  from  the  house  end  of  the  service 

*  The  initial  pressure  in  the  pump  itself  varies  from  10  to  40 
pounds,  the  average  being  perhaps  20.  The  volume  of  air  dis- 
charged at  this  pressure  is,  however,  very  small.  It  is  probably 
true  that  the  momentary  pressure  in  the  pipe  being  cleared  out, 
does  not  rise  above  5  pounds.  The  obstruction  usually  is 
removed  so  quickly  that  this  momentary  pressure  is  dissipated 
before  any  damage  is  done.  In  hundreds  of  cases,  a  careful  gas 
test,  applied  after  pumping  out  a  system  of  piping,  shows  that  not 
even  the  fixture  key  grease  has  been  disturbed. 


MAINTENANCE  649 

and  for  that  reason  are  hard  to  reach.  Also,  especially  in  the  small 
services,  the  rust  is  generally  more  or  less  packed  in  the  bend  of 
the  service  and  often  impossible  of  removal.  Either  the  suction 
or  the  service  reservoir  method  offer  the  best  mode  of  attack,  but 
often  because  of  the  age  of  the  service,  may  not  be  used.  There  is 
always  a  danger,  with  any  pressure  method,  of  packing  the  stoppage 
more  compactly  and  converting  a  partial  into  a  total  stoppage. 

The  precaution  of  having  two  men  on  hand  when  doing  certain 
work  without  the  cleaning  device,  has  been  mentioned.  Another 
very  important  point  is  to  be  sure  that  neither  suction  nor  undue 
pressure  be  thrown  on  the  meter.  Therefore,  unless  the  inlet 
connection  is  broken,  the  meter  cock  should  be  kept  closed  when 
working  on  the  service.  Again,  when  any  service  that  appears 
or  is  known  to  be  old,  has  been  wired  or  pumped,  a  6-inch  pressure 
test  and  an  examination  of  the  stop  box  should  follow.  Neglect 
of  this  precaution  is  bound  to  result  in  some  service  leaks,  dis- 
covered after  the  workman  has  left,  any  one  of  which  might  have 
serious  results. 

There  may  be  no  stoppage  in  the  service  and  yet  it  may  be  the 
cause  of  the  insufficient  supply.  In  some  cases,  this  can  be 
known  at  once  by  comparing  the  consumption  of  the  building 
with  the  capacity  of  the  service  pipe  as  given  by  a  computer. 
Often,  however,  the  taking  of  pressures  is  the  only  satisfactory 
way  to  prove  the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  pipe.  For  instance, 
if  the  pressure  in  the  main  as  known,  or  taken  at  the  time,  is  2.5 
inches,  and  the  pressure  at  the  house  end  of  the  service  during  the 
maximum  consumption  is  2.2  inches,  practically  0.3  inch  may  be 
gained  by  enlarging  the  pipe,  for  in  a  service  of  normal  length 
the  drop  is  usually  less  than  0.1  inch.  Whether,  in  the  particular 
example  cited,  an  enlargement  would  be  advisable  or  necessary, 
would  depend  upon  the  use  to  which  the  gas  was  put.  For 
lighting  with  inverted  mantles,  with  a  requisite  burner  minimum 
of  2  inches,  more  than  2.2  inches  is  required  at  the  service  outlet, 
because  the  meter  generally  absorbs  0.3  inch  and  the  housepiping 
often  as  much  more.  However,  the  ordinary  case  of  insufficient 
service  size  will  disclose  a  greater  pressure  difference  than  that 
quoted,  and  if  there  is  an  instantaneous  water  heater  in  use,  the 
first  place  to  look  for  trouble  is  in  the  service  or  in  the  meter. 

Where  there  is  a  curb  cock  in  use,  a  careless  turn-on  man,  by 
leaving  the  cock  only  partly  open,  may  cause  insufficient  supply, 
and,  therefore,  on  all  such  complaints  the  curb  cock  should  be 
examined. 


650  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 


Most  of  the  cases  of  insufficient  supply  caused  by  the  meter 
betray  their  origin  by  peculiar  symptoms  recognizable  by  a 
trained  workman.  Two  causes,  the  effects  of  which  are  some- 
what similar,  but  which  are  rather  difficult  of  distinction,  are  a 
demand  beyond  the  normal  capacity  of  the  meter  (see  table  on 
page  456)  known  usually  as  an  "overload,"  and  a  sticking  or  bind- 
ing of  the  mechanism  at  some  particular  point  in  its  revolution, 
known  as  a  "works  catch"  (see  page  556).  The  effect  of  each 
usually  is  a  certain  though  variable  amount  of  fluctuation,  and 
always  a  reduced  pressure.  However,  an  "overloaded"  meter 
ordinarily,  although  not  by  any  means  invariably,  maintains  the 
reduced  pressure  with  little,  if  any,  noticeable  fluctuation,  while 
a  "works  catch"  always  produces  a  distinct  and  generally  a 
regular  slow  fall  and  quick  rise  in  pressure.  The  "overload" 
conditions  can  be  verified  by  noting  the  rate  of  consumption 
shown  by  the  meter  test  hand,  or  in  aggravated  cases,  simply  by 
a  glance  at  the  number  or  kind  of  appliances  supplied.  A 
workman  investigating  a  complaint  of  insufficient  supply  at  a 
time  when  some  or  all  of  the  appliances  are  out  of  use,  should  be 
especially  careful  to  consider  the  possibility  of  a  meter  overload. 
The  "works  catch"  condition  usually  may  be  recognized  by 
eliminating  the  possibilities  of  overload  and  of  water  in  service, 
meter,  and  piping,  and  then  by  lighting  one  or  more  burners, 
preferably  of  the  open-flame  type,  and  watching  the  flame  for  a 
regularly  timed  slow  fall  and  quick  recovery.  An  aggravated 
"works  catch"  frequently  becomes  a  "won't  pass  gas"  (see  page 
543),  which  implies  a  total  stoppage,  and  which,  in  mild  weather, 
is  the  most  probable  cause  of  such  a  complaint.  This  cause  may 
be  analyzed  as  a  "won't  pass  gas"  if,  under  such  conditions, 
there  is  sufficient  supply  at  the  meter  inlet  connection  and  none 
at  the  outlet  column,  while  there  is  no  water  in  the  meter  or  its 
columns.  To  remedy  any  of  these  three  conditions, — "overload," 
"works  catch,"  and  "won't  pass  gas," — a  new  meter  should  be  set. 

Condensation  in  the  channels  (Figure  121,  page  440),  or  in  the 
body  of  the  meter,  may  be  the  cause  of  an  insufficient  supply. 
It  can  be  present  in  a  channel  only  after  the  lower  part  of  the 
corresponding  column  has  filled  up,  but  after  that  point  has  been 
reached,  a  very  slight  additional  quantity  entering  the  channel 
is  sufficient  to  cause  a  complaint.  For  this  reason,  it  is  seldom 
that  a  "won't  pass  gas"  condition  is  reached.  Condensation  is 
found  more  often  in  the  outlet  column  and  channel  than  in  the 


MAINTENANCE  651 

inlet,  because  the  length  of  piping  which  may  drain  toward  the 
meter  is  so  much  greater  than  that  on  the  inlet  side.  Condensa- 
tion in  the  channels  may  be  recognized  by  the  "rushing"  sound 
that  is  noticeable  within  the  meter  while  gas  is  passing  through. 
Its  effect  is  to  restrict  the  flow  and  to  cause  that  rapid  jump  of 
the  flame  that  usually  is  characteristic  of  all  water  stoppages, 
and  which  is  easily  distinguishable  from  the  fall  and  rise  produced 
by  a  "works  catch,"  or  sometimes  by  an  overload.  The  remedy 
is  first  to  pump  the  columns  dry,  using  the  meter  column  pump 
(B,  Figure  70,  page  203);  then  to  tilt  the  meter  so  that  the 
condensation  in  the  channels  will  run  into  the  columns,  and  then 
to  use  the  pump  again.  The  long  channel  of  the  prepayment 
meter  is  trapped  by  its  construction,  and  cannot  be  thus  cleared, 
but  experience  shows,  however,  that  condensation  does  not 
accumulate  in  this  long  channel.  Liquid  is  very  rarely  found  in 
the  body  of  a  meter  in  such  quantities  as  to  seriously  affect  the 
action.  Although  it  is  physically  possible  to  remove  condensa- 
tion both  from  the  columns  and  channels,  or  from  the  body  of  the 
meter,  by  turning  it  over,  it  is  not  advisable  to  do  so,  because 
in  this  way  liquid  and  solid  particles  from  the  measuring  com- 
partments get  between  the  valve  seats  and  faces  and  interfere 
with  the  meter  action.  If  it  becomes  necessary  in  an  emergency 
to  use  this  method  of  removing  condensation,  the  meter  should 
be  replaced  within  a  short  time.  When  water  is  present  in  a 
meter  exposed  to  very  low  temperatures,  it  may  be  frozen  stiff, 
and  so  stop  the  meter.  The  remedy  is  to  apply  hot  water  or 
hot  cloths  to  effect  a  thaw. 

Prepayment  mechanisms  get  out  of  order  in  such  a  way  that 
no  more  gas  may  be  bought,  and  these  troubles,  therefore,  come 
under  the  head  of  insufficient  supply.  The  instructions  that  follow 
apply  to  repairs  advisable  without  meter  removal,  to  the  mechan- 
isms illustrated  in  Figures  127  (page  448),  128  (page  450)  and 
129  (page  452). 

Any  of  the  parts  numbered  in  Figures  127  and  128  should  be 
replaced  if  defective.  If  coin  cannot  be  inserted,  this  may  be 
because  the  handle  has  not  been  turned  far  enough  toward  the 
back  of  the  meter  to  allow  last  coin  inserted  to  drop  into  the 
cash  box.  First  turn  the  handle  all  the  way  back  and  shake  it 
gently,  listening  for  a  dropping  coin.  If  the  coin  is  heard  to 
drop,  it  is  probable  that  no  mechanical  trouble  exists,  but,  if 
desirable,  this  can  be  verified  by  obtaining  another  coin  from  the 
consumer,  inserting  it  in  the  meter,  repeating  the  operation  of 


652  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

prepaying  for  gas  and  making  sure  that  the  credit  hand  has 
moved  properly,  and  that  the  prepayment  valve  has  been  opened. 
If  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  the  article  that  was  preventing 
the  insertion  is  not  a  perfect  quarter,  or  if  the  valve  is  not 
opened  by  the  insertion  of  a  coin,  the  cash  box  and  the  slot  part 
(2,  Figure  127)  should  be  removed,  so  that  the  contents 
of  the  box  can  be  seen  and  the  prepayment  mechanism  examined, 
as  explained  later  on.  If  no  sound  of  the  dropping  is  heard 
after  turning  the  handle  all  the  way  back,  or  if  no  additional 
coin  can  be  inserted,  or  if  the  handle  cannot  be  turned  at  all,  the 
trouble  may  be  due  to  a  tin  tag  or  imperfect  coin  being  stuck. 
In  such  cases,  remove  the  slot  part,  take  off  the  buffer  plate 
(4,  Figure  127)  and  remove  the  article,  if  this  can  be  done  without 
injuring  the  mechanism.  When  it  is  not  possible  to  remedy  the 
trouble  permanently,  if  the  consumer  needs  gas,  and  if  the  pre- 
payment valve  can  be  opened  by  turning  the  gearing  by  hand, 
this  should  be  done,  the  requisite  movement  of  the  credit  hand, 
to  insure  the  proper  amount  of  credit  for  the  money  obtained 
from  the  consumer,  being  determined  by  a  gauge  provided  for  the 
purpose  and  held  against  the  credit  dial  glass.  If  the  valve 
cannot  be  opened  by  hand,  service  cannot  be  restored  until  a  new 
meter  has  been  set. 

If  the  trouble  is  due  to  a  defect  in  the  prepayment  mechanism, 
the  slot  part  should  be  removed  and  the  mechanism  examined 
and  repaired  in  accordance  with  the  following  rules:  Test 
adjustment  of  coin  carrier  by  dropping  the  coin  in  the  slot  as  far 
as  it  will  go  and,  if  necessary,  turning  the  50-tooth  wheel  (3, 
Figure  127,)  until  the  coin  drops  all  the  way  in.  Then  turn  the 
handle  to  let  the  coin  drop  through.  This  buying  operation 
should  be  performed  three  times  in  succession.  Examine 
50-tooth  wheel  to  see  that  teeth  are  perfect;  if  not,  put  on  a 
new  wheel,  hub  side  first.  If  the  50-tooth  wheel  is  loose  on 
shaft,  tighten  the  set  screw,  exercising  care  to  see  that  it  engages 
the  flat  of  the  shaft.  Examine  the  intermediary  wheel  (4, 
Figure  128),  and  if  teeth  are  not  perfect,  put  on  a 
new  one.  Examine  the  price  wheel  (2,  Figure  128),  and  if  it 
is  not  perfect,  put  on  a  new  one.  Any  operation  that  might 
inadvertently  shift  the  position  of  the  price  wheel  should  be  very 
carefully  done,  to  avoid  such  shift.  As  a  precaution,  before 
doing  any  adjusting,  a  mark  should  be  made  on  one  of  the  teeth 
of  the  price  wheel,  and  a  similar  mark,  just  under  it,  on  the 
gear  box.  These  two  marks  should  register  after  all  the  adjust- 


MAINTENANCE  653 

ing  has  been  completed.  As  an  additional  safeguard,  the 
original  position  of  the  credit  pointer  should  be  marked  on  credit 
dial  box.  Now  see  that  the  click  (3,  Figure  128)  engages 
properly  with  the  teeth  of  the  intermediary  wheel.  Then  re- 
place the  slot  part  and  coin  box,  obtain  a  coin  from  the  con- 
sumer, and  test  the  correctness  of  the  adjustment  work  by 
buying  gas.  It  is  important  to  avoid  turning  any  gear  wheel  by 
hand  while  the  slot  part  is  on  the  meter. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  renew  a  complete  slot  part,  a  certain 
amount  of  fitting  is  required  in  many  cases,  before  the  slot  part 
will  fit  accurately  to  the  gear  box.  Both  screws  always  should 
be  used  in  fastening  these  two  parts  together,  a  little  oil  or  grease 
applied  to  the  threads  before  inserting  the  screws  being  valuable 
in  preventing  rusting  in. 

When  removing  or  replacing  the  coin  box,  do  not  jar  or  jerk 
meter.  If  it  is  hard  to  remove,  tap  bottom  lightly,  and  then 
pry  it  off  by  gently  inserting  a  tool,  such  as  a  small  curved  jimmy 
or  a  screw  driver,  between  the  back  of  the  box  and  the  meter. 
The  pressure  should  be  applied  as  near  the  bottom  of  the  box  as 
possible,  the  front  corner  of  the  meter  serving  as  a  fulcrum. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  quickly  to  close  the  prepayment  valve, 
this  may  be  done  by  removing  the  slot  part,  lifting  the  click,  and 
slowly  turning  the  price  wheel  with  the  fingers,  until  its  seating 
is  felt.  To  relieve  any  undue  strain,  the  wheel  should  then  be 
turned  two  teeth  in  the  reverse  direction. 

GOVERNOR 

If  the  supply  is  controlled  by  a  governor,  and  there  is  a 
general  insufficient,  a  pressure  reading  should  be  taken  near  the 
governor  outlet  to  determine  whether  the  latter  is  set  at  a  pressure 
adequate  for  good  service.  This  often  is  not  the  case  where  gas 
consumers  are  persuaded  to  rent  governors  from  a  private 
company  by  the  statement  that  a  great  reduction  in  bill  will 
follow.  To  effect  such  reduction,  the  governor  will  be  set  to 
give  a  pressure  often  as  low  as  1.6  inches.  In  such  cases,  there 
should  be  no  hesitation  in  raising  the  pressure  to  2.5  inches,  and 
notifying  the  governor  company  to  cease  such  improper  reg- 
ulation. 

There  are  also  devices  known  as  gas  checks,  which,  from  time 
to  time,  are  sold  by  unprincipled  persons  with  an  extravagant 
guarantee  of  gas  saving.  Such  a  check  is  placed  in  a  meter 
outlet  column  or  connection,  or  in  the  adjacent  piping,  and, 
acting  simply  to  retard  gas  flow,  generally  results  in  a  poor 


654  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

supply,  which  sooner  or  later  brings  a  complaint.  Therefore, 
the  workman  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  such  a  device  when  the 
trouble  seems  to  be  in  or  near  the  meter  and  no  other  cause  is 
apparent. 

PIPING 

If  there  is  a  general  insufficient,  and  the  supply  has  been  found 
adequate  beyond  the  meter  or  any  governor  outlet,  the  trouble 
should  be  looked  for  in  the  piping  between  that  point  and  the 
first  branch  line.  The  likelihood  of  rust  at  the  riser  bottom 
has  been  already  mentioned,  but  if  none  is  found,  and  the  rest  of 
the  section  shows  clear,  the  size  should  be  checked  against  the 
gas  demand.  If  this  does  not  clearly  show  the  reason  for  lack  of 
supply,  pressures  should  be  taken  as  previously  mentioned. 
Such  pressure  observations  are  especially  necessary  when  there 
is  a  local  insufficient,  and  the  controlling  piping  being  concealed, 
its  size  may  not  be  seen.  Under  some  conditions,  it  may  be 
difficult  to  be  absolutely  certain  whether  a  stoppage  or  too  small 
size  is  the  cause.  However,  if  a  force  pump  gives  no  relief,  the 
only  indicated  cure,  viz.,  obtaining  access  to  the  pipe,  is  equally 
efficacious  for  either  trouble. 

In  using  a  force  pump,  it  should  be  applied  to  an  outlet  on  the 
burner  side  of,  and  as  near  to,  the  probable  stoppage  as  may  be, 
and  the  end  of  the  riser  left  open.  The  meter  outlet  should  be 
disconnected  so  that  no  back  pressure  will  be  exerted  on  the 
meter. 

In  the  above,  the  stoppage,  if  any,  has  been  assumed  to  be  due 
to  rust  or  other  foreign  material.  A  liquid  stoppage  would  be 
detected  by  its  peculiar  symptoms,  and  would  be  blown  out 
by  a  force  pump,  attached  as  already  described.  Also,  a  frozen 
stoppage  would  be  looked  for  in  cold  weather  in  piping  near 
meter  or  walls.  It  often  will  be  difficult  to  reach  such  piping 
either  from  within  or  without.  The  objection  to  introducing 
any  liquid  thawing  agent  is  that  there  may  be  slight  traps  in 
the  piping,  requiring  the  subsequent  use  of  a  force  pump  to 
clear.  Where  the  piping  is  accessible,  a  steam  jet  may  be  used. 

The  larger  the  building,  the  greater  the  care  needed  in  investi- 
gating piping  stoppages,  to  insure  that  the  trouble  has  been 
properly  diagnosed  and  located,  and  only  the  best  complaint 
man  should  be  assigned  a  job  of  this  nature,  and  he  should  be 
instructed  to  report  for  especial  attention  every  case  about  which 
hr  has  the  slightest  doubt. 


MAINTENANCE  655 

FIXTURE 

A  stoppage  in  a  fixture  usually  is  very  easily  located  and 
remedied.  Many  fixture  stoppages  are  due  to  jointing  material 
or  key  grease,  and  the  first  places  to  examine  are  the  keys. 

POLICY  CONTROLLING  WORK 

If  there  is  adequate  control  over  the  installation  of  new  piping, 
a  fairly  liberal  policy  of  free  work  in  remedying  insufficient 
complaints,  will  not  involve  a  large  expense  and  will  produce  a 
good  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  consumer.  In  any  case,  the 
company  should  be  willing  and  prompt  to  trace  the  trouble  to 
its  cause,  and  remove  the  latter,  unless  this  involves  access  to 
concealed  piping  with  attendant  removal  of  floors  and  plaster, 
and  then  some  limit  of  labor  and  material  is  needed.  This  might 
properly  be  the  same  as  that  applying  to  leak  work,  or  even  more 
liberal,  as  consumers  are  more  apt  to  spend  money  for  the 
repair  of  a  leak  than  to  remedy  cases  of  insufficient  supply,  and 
the  cure  of  the  latter  tends  to  increase  consumption. 

AIR  IN  PIPING 

Trouble  that  affects  the  consumer  in  about  the  same  way  as 
does  insufficient  supply,  sometimes  is  caused  by  air,  used  in  gas 
blast  appliances,  entering  the  gas  pipe,  travelling  back  through 
the  meter,  and  being  carried  into  the  systems  of  other  consumers, 
either  in  the  same  building  or  sometimes  at  locations  far  removed 
from  the  trouble  source.  Sometimes  this  is  due  to  the  careless- 
ness of  the  appliance  operator,  when  he  fails  properly  to  close 
the  cocks  or  valves  on  the  air  line  and  the  gas  line;  sometimes  to 
an  improper  placing  of  these  valves  in  relation  one  to  the  other, 
or  to  the  existence  of  a  cock  which  will  shut  off  both  air  and  gas: 
and  sometimes  to  a  stoppage  in  the  burner  beyond  the  point  of 
mixture.  The  trouble  can  be  recognized  by  a  normally  yellow 
flame  burning  blue,  by  the  flashing  back  of  properly  adjusted 
burners,  and  by  the  failure  to  burn  of  the  mixture  issuing  from  the 
gas  pipe  at  good  pressure.  After  locating  the  point  at  which  the 
air  is  entering  the  gas  piping,  the  remedy  usually  consists  in 
closing  the  valves  that  have  been  carelessly  left  open,  or  in 
removing  the  stoppage  that  has  been  the  cause,  and  then 
"gassing  out "  the  systems  that  have  been  affected.  The  meter, 
back  through  which  the  air  has  travelled,  should  be  changed  a> 
it  is  probable  it  has  suffered  internal  damage. 

All  trouble  from  this  cause  may  be  confined  to  the  system  of 
the  consumer  owning  the  air  blast  appliance  by  a  requirement 


656  HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURES 

that  at  the  outlet  of  each  meter  supplying  such  an  appliance 
there  be  installed  a  valve  designed  to  close  promptly  under  back 
pressure. 


PART  IX 

APPLIANCE  WORK 

Under  this  heading  will  be  described  the  organization  suitable 
for  appliance  work;  the  orders  and  records  used;  the  influences 
affecting  appliance  design,  and  the  details  of  delivery,  connection 
and  maintenance.  Where  routine  given  for  cooking  appliances 
also  applies  to  other  types  of  appliances,  it  will  not  be  repeated  in 
treating  of  these  types. 


SECTION  I 

ORGANIZATION 


CHAPTER  LVIII 

ORGANIZATION  OF  FORCE 
SMALL  TOWNS 

In  small  situations  the  organization  of  the  force  for  appliance 
work  must  be  of  an  extremely  flexible  nature,  because  the  total 
number  of  employees  is  small,  and  they  are  required  to  perform 
street  jobs  and  office  work  in  addition  to  appliance  installations. 

Usually  when  a  man  is  working  in  this  way,  he  obtains  and,  if 
he  is  of  the  right  type,  takes  advantage  of  such  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  the  rules  and  policies  of  the  company,  that  in 
addition  to  performing  the  actual  physical  work,  he  is  enabled 
to  act  as  his  own  foreman  and  his  own  inspector.  He  would 
report  directly  to  the  general  foreman  or  to  the  superintendent. 

As  the  size  of  the  force  increases,  it  is  usual  to  give  each  man  a 
course  of  training,  and  then,  if  the  volume  of  work  and  the 
character  of  the  territory  covered  permits,  to  confine  his  work  to 
certain  more  or  less  well  defined  duties  at  which  he  becomes 
expert.  With  an  enlarged  number  of  workmen  comes  the 
necessity  for  foremen  and  assistants  or  inspectors,  to  relieve  the 
general  foreman  or  the  superintendent,  or  both,  from  too  much 
attention  to  details.  In  general,  to  properly  oversee  thirty 
workmen  engaged  in  appliance  work,  one  general  foreman  and 
four  assistants  or  inspectors  are  advisable.  However,  as 
previously  intimated,  with  a  smaller  force,  the  ratio  of  assistants 
to  workmen  would  decrease,  because  each  workman  of  the 
smaller  force  must  necessarily  engage  in  more  general  work  and 
come  into  closer  and  more  frequent  contact  with  foreman  or 
superintendent,  thus  making  possible  the  quicker  development 
of  a  reliable  and  efficient  employee. 

(659) 


660  APPLIANCE   WORK 

LARGE  CITY 

FOREMAN 

The  organization  in  a  large  city  is  not  necessarily  as  flexible  as 
that  in  a  small  town,  but  should  be  sufficiently  so  to  insure 
proper  service  to  consumers,  in  spite  of  variation  of  the  quantity 
and  character  of  the  work.  The  appliance  work  would  be 
placed  under  the  general  foreman  of  fitting  work,  as  described  in 
Chapter  II.  He  should  be  a  man  who  has  risen  from  the  ranks, 
and  who  can  combine  proper  knowledge  of  practical  work  and 
ability  to  teach  efficiency  to  his  subordinates,  with  reliability, 
good  judgment  and  enough  education  to  do  the  clerical  work 
that  will  fall  to  his  lot.  This  foreman  should  have  at  least  one 
assistant,  who  has  obtained  his  knowledge  of  the  work  in  the 
same  manner  as  has  the  foreman,  or  who  is  a  younger  man 
with  a  technical  education  and  who  is  undergoing  a  course  of 
practical  training  for  qualification  as  superintendent  or  manager. 

INSPECTORS 

The  next  men  in  line  are  the  inspectors,  who  are  classed  as 
follows: 

1.  Preinspectors,  who  make  the  first  visit  or  pre- 
inspection,  as  explained  further  on.     These  men  may 
or  may  not  have  authority  to  direct  the  workmen  who 
specialize  on  the  various  kinds  of  work. 

2.  Inspectors,  sometimes  known  as  subforemen, 
who  have  direct  supervision  of  the  fitters'  work,  and 
who  are  the  connecting  link  between  the  fitter  and 
the  office. 

3.  Subinspectors,  who  make  an  inspection  of  the 
work  a  day  or  so  after  completion. 

The  duties  of  one  or  more  of  the  above  may  be  combined  as 
working  conditions  permit.  The  number  of  these  men  neces- 
sary in  any  situation  cannot  be  accurately  stated,  as  it  will  vary 
widely  with  the  kind  of  work  and  the  extent  of  the  inspection 
desired.  Of  the  three  classes  of  men  making  the  various  inspec- 
tions, the  second  should  be  the  most  experienced  and  capable. 

WORKMEN 

Appliance  connections  are  made  by  men  known  as  fitters  and 
helpers.  The  question  as  to  the  use  of  a  one-man  "gang," 
meaning  a  fitter  only,  or  that  of  both  a  fitter  and  a  helper,  is 
regulated  by  the  weight  of  the  appliance  to  be  handled,  the  size 
of  the  pipe  to  be  fitted,  and  the  length  of  time  that  the  job  will 


ORGANIZATION  OF  FORCE  661 

occupy.  In  other  words,  there  should  be  that  combination  of 
man  power  and  economy  which  is  most  desirable.  It  often  is 
found  necessary  to  give  a  few  fitters  special  training  on  certain 
classes  of  work  which  require  more  detailed  knowledge  than  do 
ordinary  installations.  Work  requiring  this  specialized  knowl- 
edge is  the  installation  of  special  factory  appliances  and  of  gas 
engines,  particularly  where  this  latter  work  includes  the  erection 
of  a  base,  and  of  complicated  water  or  exhaust  connections. 

The  fitters  should  possess  good  mechanical  ability,  combined 
with  steadiness  and  politeness,  and,  if  possible,  should  be  able 
to  write  legibly.  As  from  their  ranks  should  come  the  promo- 
tions to  the  various  inspection  positions,  and  they  in  turn  are 
recruited  from  the  helpers,  in  hiring  the  latter,  particular 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  calibre  and  qualifications  of 
each  man;  he  should  be  carefully  observed  by  those  directly 
over  him,  and  if  he  proves  undesirable,  should  be  dropped  at 
the  first  opportunity. 

There  should  be  some  definite  method  of  systematic  instruc- 
tion for  all  employees.  This  might  take  the  form  of  periodic 
meetings,  when  the  employees — as  a  class  or  individually — 
would  receive  instruction  in  all  subjects  of  mutual  interest  to 
themselves  and  to  the  company. 


CHAPTER  LIX 

ORDER  AND  RECORD  ROUTINE 
WORK  COMPLETION  SCHEDULE 

REASON  FOR  SCHEDULE 

A  schedule,  showing  the  maximum  time  allowed,  in  full  days, 
for  the  completion  of  an  order  after  its  receipt  by  the  shop, 
should  be  arranged  and  strictly  followed,  so  that  in  addition  to 
insuring  impartial  treatment  of  consumers,  the  salesmen  and 
clerks  will  be  enabled  to  furnish  prospective  purchasers  and 
other  consumers  desiring  attention,  with  the  probable  date  of 
completion  of  installations  and  miscellaneous  work. 

CONSIDERATION  IN  MAKING  SCHEDULE 
Considerations  influencing  a  work  completion  schedule  are: 

1.  The  value  to  the  consumer  and  to  the  company  alike  of 
prompt  attention  to  all  work  as  ordered. 

2.  Economy  in  performance  as  affected  by  speed  of  com- 
pletion. 

3.  Geographical  distribution  of  the  work. 

SAMPLE  OF  SCHEDULE 

The  following  is  a  sample  of  an  appliance  work  completion 
schedule.  The  term  "Line  in"  indicates  that  the  appliance  line 
is  already  installed  and,  therefore,  the  physical  work  of  connec- 
tion is  comparatively  simple. 

Appliance  Conditions  Time  to  Complete 

(In  days) 

Range  No  line  in  4 

Line  in ;  range  to  be  delivered  3 

'      "        "      on  premises  2 

Circulating  water  heater  4 

Automatic  instantaneous  water  heater  6 

Small  miscellaneous  appliances  2 

All  other  fuel  appliances  4 

Lamps  or  burners  On  existing  outlet  or  fixture  2 

Piping  required  3 

Complaints  Urgent  0* 

Not  urgent  1 
*  Zero  means  completion  of  order  on  day  of  receipt. 

(662) 


ORDER  AND  RECORD  ROUTINE  663 

ORDER  CARDS 
How  ORIGINATED 

An  order  card  may  be  originated  as  the  result  of  a  verbal, 
mailed  or  telephoned  communication.  Orders  thus  originated 
are  known  as  "Complaint  Orders,"  or  simply  "Orders,"  Figure 
89.  They  usually  call  for  work  of  a  comparatively  simple 
nature,  and  do  not  require  ledger  or  book  entries  on  their 
completion.  A  convenient  size  for  all  order  cards  is  3  by  5 
inches,  or  multiples  of  that  size. 


ORDER 


FINAL    REPORT 


Figure  189.— Complaint  Order,  page  663. 

Orders  of  more  importance,  especially  those  requiring  material 
or  appliances  to  be  furnished  and  installed,  are  usually  originated 
by  a  salesman.  The  order  as  written  by  the  salesman  on  the 
sales  form  may,  with  profit,  be  typewritten  on  a  standard  charge 
order,  as  the  form  best  suited  for  sales  purposes  is  not  well  adap- 
ted for  subsequent  handling  by  the  distribution  force.  (See 
Figure  190). 

USE  OF  ORDER  CARDS 

The  use  of  an  order  card  is,  first,  to  serve  as  a  notice  that 
attention  to  certain  matters  is  necessary;  second,  to  afford  a 
current  record  of  the  work  done  and  the  result  obtained;  third, 
to  notify  the  office  of  work  completion  or  additional  requirements, 
including  any  auditing  or  recording  affected  by  this  work;  and 


664 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


ORIGINAL-COMBINATION     SUNDRY    ORDER 

V-'yVs" 

O-NO. 

Rec'dat  Date  

191  

T 

me  ;•;; 

D   STRICT 

Terms  

(Charge) 

(Paid) 

Ordered  by  

Per  Relation  

Gas  In  Name  of  -.  

JF  AC-  S-  DOES  JT  MAKE  

Clerk  HEW  GAS  K 

TCHEN?  

DISPLACE- 
....«•  EN.T7  

ATTACHED? 

1 

17 

Address  

2 

IS 

3 

19 

Name  :  

4 

20 

B1LLNO-           1     4058    1 

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5 

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7 

23 

8 

24 

9 

25 

10 

26 

11 

27 

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13 

29 

14 

30 

•Y                                                                         DATE 

15 

31 

BVSPECTEI>                                               DATE                                       ACC'T                 I      AM*T   PAID 

Figure  190.— Sales  Order,  page  663. 

fourth,  to  constitute  a  permanent  history  of  date  and  details  of 
work^and  of  names  of  employees  who  have  visited  consumer's 
premises. 

INFORMATION  NEEDED 

When  originating  an  order  card,  the  nature  of  the  work 
desired  should  be  clearly  and  explicitly  stated,  in  as  few  words  as 
possible.  On  complaint  orders,  sufficient  information  should  be 
given  to  make  unnecessary  the  consumer's  repeating  to  the 
workman  the  important  facts  already  related  at  the  time  the 
order  was  originated.  On  orders  for  charge  work,  the  important 


ORDER  AND  RECORD  ROUTINE  665 

features  are  a  standard  form  of  arrangement  and  expression  and 
a  brief  statement  of  any  peculiar  instructions  that  should  be 
known  in  order  intelligently  to  complete  the  work. 

The  workman  should  use  care  when  writing  his  report,  to  make 
it  complete,  exact  and  brief,  placing  the  data  necessary  at  the 
precise  place  designated  on  the  card  and  noting  especially  any 
work  done  which  is  not  indicated  in  the  "Nature  of  Order"  as 
originally  written,  or  any  work  indicated  originally  which  was 
not  done,  the  reasons  for  every  variation  being  carefully  explained. 

COURSE  THROUGH  SHOP 

The  course  through  the  shop  varies  to  some  extent  with  the 
nature  of  the  order.  Broadly  speaking,  all  orders  are  treated 
alike,  except  charge  orders,  which  require  a  slightly  different 
treatment. 

NONCHARGE   ORDERS 

These  orders  reach  the  shop  in  duplicate.  From  the  nature  of 
the  order,  and  as  indicated  by  the  work  completion  schedule,  the 
date  of  completion  is  determined.  The  duplicate  is  filed  geo- 
graphically in  the  space  alloted  to  all  other  orders  due  on  the 
same  date,  and  remains  in  file  for  purposes  of  record  only,  while 
the  original  is  uncompleted.  The  original  card  is  placed  with 
others  due  on  the  same  day,  and  is  then  forwarded  to  the  work- 
man via  the  dispatching  clerk.  If  completed  on  the  first  visit, 
it  is  compared  with  the  filed  duplicate,  which  is  then  destroyed. 
The  original  is  audited  for  correctness,  and  is  permanently  filed 
as  history.  If  the  order  is  not  completed  on  the  first  visit  by  the 
workman,  but  it  is  found  that  repair  parts  for  the  appliance  are 
needed,  or  some  other  delay  is  necessary,  this  information  is 
posted  on  the  duplicate,  which  continues  to  serve  as  a  record  of 
uncompleted  work,  while  the  original  acts  as  a  memorandum  in 
ordering  the  repair  parts.  When  the  proper  time  arrives,  the 
original  is  again  assigned  to  the  workman  for  completion. 

CHARGE  ORDERS 

Charge  orders  also,  whether  in  the  form  of  sales  slips  or 
typewritten  cards,  arrive  at  the  shop  in  duplicate.  The  date  on 
which  the  order  is  to  be  completed  is  determined,  and  this  date 
is  indicated  by  checking  the  proper  numeral  printed  along  the 
right-hand  edge  of  the  order  card  (see  Figure  190).  A  stamp  is 
then  placed  on  the  card  indicating  the  account  to  which  the  ti  me  of 
the  workman  is  to  be  charged  and  giving  the  class  of  appliance, 
the  latter  information  being  used  in  the  audit.  The  original 


666  APPLIANCE  WORK 

and  duplicate  are  filed  and  treated  in  a  manner  differing  only  in 
minor  details  from  the  system  already  described,  until  the  work 
is  completed.  At  this  time  the  duplicate  is  removed  from  file 
and  accompanies  the  original  to  the  storekeeper.  Charge  cards 
are  very  carefully  audited  to  make  sure  that  there  is  no  discrep- 
ancy between  the  work  ordered  and  that  actually  done.  This  is 
of  particular  importance,  as  any  mistake  would  effect  the 
accuracy  of  the  bill  rendered.  In  case  the  order  has  involved 
the  issuance  of  appliances  or  certain  kinds  of  material  (see 
Chapter  LXXXIII)  the  appliance  and  material  shown  (as 
chargeable;  on  the  original  card  are  indicated  in  a  similar  manner 
on  the  duplicate,  and  the  latter  is  forwarded,  to  the  store  room, 
there  serving  as  a  record  of  the  issues  from  stock.  The  dupli- 
cates of  charge  orders  not  demanding  material  or  appliances  may 
be  destroyed  on  completion.  The  original  order  is  sent  to  the 
commercial  department  for  billing,  after  which  it  is  filed  as  a 
historical  record. 

WORK  RECORDS 

When  the  issuing,  auditing  and  filing  of  orders  is  properly  done, 
the  order  card  itself  is  usually  sufficient  to  serve  all  purposes  of 
record.  There  may  be  records  of  various  kinds  found  necessary 
under  certain  newly  inaugurated  practices  which  require  the 
keeping  of  certain  data  on  special  forms.  Such  records  are 
usually  made  at  the  time  of  audit.  Into  this  class  of  record 
would  fall  those  of  hotel  cooking  appliances  which  are  under 
maintenance,  of  automatic  instantaneous  water  heaters  which 
are  inspected  periodically,  and  of  any  appliance  newly  placed  on 
sale,  of  whose  performance  a  record,  under  various  conditions,  is 
desired.  In  addition  to  such  records,  a  careful  daily  account  is 
kept  of  the  number  of  appliances  of  each  class  installed  and  of 
the  other  classes  of  work  completed.  In  this  way  are  obtained 
divisors  for  the  cost  reports,  as  explained  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  filed  order  cards,  forming  a  history  of  all  physical  work 
done  by  the  company's  workmen,  are  used  to  furnish  any 
details  made  necessary  by  request  of  consumers,  often  some 
time  after  the  work  has  been  completed. 


CHAPTER  LX 

INSTALLATION  ROUTINE 

PREINSPECTION  SYSTEM 

DEFINITION 

In  the  preinspection  system  of  installation,  the  first  step  taken 
by  the  distribution  department,  after  the  receipt  of  the  order,  is 
a  visit  of  the  preinspector,  as  before  defined,  to  the  premises. 
He  discusses  the  installation  with  the  consumer,  makes  a  list  of 
material  necessary,  and,  by  virtue  of  the  knowledge  thus 
obtained,  is  able  to  note  any  special  instructions  which  will  be 
needed  by  the  workman  at  the  time  of  connection.  This  system 
is  thus  distinguished  from  any  other  by  which  a  standard  amount 
of  material  is  delivered  immediately  after  receipt  of  the  order, 
the  workman  arriving  before  an  inspector,  and  the  collection  of 
the  unused  material  being  necessary  on  the  completion  of  the  work. 

VALUE 

The  value  of  this  system  lies  mainly  in  the  advantage  gained, 
both  by  the  consumer  and  the  company,  by  reason  of  having  a 
high  grade  man  make  the  first  visit,  thus  assuring  a  mutual 
understanding  on  all  questions  in  doubt,  such  as  the  location  of 
the  appliance  and  its  connections,  and  the  date  when  the  work 
can  be  started.  Another  advantage  is  the  saving  made  where 
the  preinspector  finds  that  the  order  has  been  cancelled  by  the 
consumer,  for  then  the  trip  of  the  preinspector  is  the  sole  loss,  as 
compared  with  the  trip  of  a  delivery  wagon  entailed  by  any 
other  system.  There  is  also  a  considerable  saving  in  trans- 
portation through  not  having  to  carry  out  and  in  unused  mate- 
rial, the  amount  delivered  under  this  system  being  as  nearly 
exact  as'  possible. 

The  preinspection  system  becomes  less  necessary,  and  even 
inadvisable,  when  the  work  to  be  done  is  of  comparatively  small 
extent,  or  when  its  completion  is  called  for  on  a  one-day  schedule. 
This  condition  exists  principally  in  the  installation  of  small 

(667) 


668  APPLIANCE  WORK 

appliances  when  connection  work  is  simple,  and  of  any  appliance 
when  the  material  required  to  connect  is  definitely  known  and 
there  is  no  likelihood  of  any  special  points  about  the  work  being 
necessary  of  settlement  beforehand. 

CALIBRE  OF  PREINSPECTOR 

The  preinspector  should  be  experienced  in  all  branches  of 
fitting  work,  familiar  with  the  rules  and  policies  of  the  company, 
the  operation  and  application  of  all  appliances,  and  should  be  on 
the  alert  to  discover  and  to  correct  any  false  impressions  in  the 
mind  of  the  consumer. 

DELIVERY 
APPLIANCES 

When  conditions  are  such  that  the  company  has  on  sale 
appliances  which  are  manufactured  or  handled  by  a  local  manu- 
facturer or  dealer,  it  may  be  advantageous  to  both  company  and 
dealer  to  arrange  for  the  appliance  to  be  delivered  from  the 
latter's  stock  direct  to  the  consumer's  premises.  The  advan- 
tages to  the  company,  not  considering  any  .difference  in  the  cost 
of  the  appliance  under  another  method  of  delivery,  are  the 
saving  of  hauling  between  shop  and  consumer,  and  the  practical 
elimination  of  appliance  stock  with  the  entailed  economy  in 
storage  space  and  invested  capital.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
the  disadvantage  of  the  uncertainty  of  prompt  delivery,  especially 
in  rush  seasons,  the  fact  that  the  visit  of  the  dealer  for  delivery 
is,  to  the  consumer's  mind,  an  extra  visit,  and  also  the  possibility 
that  an  appliance  thus  delivered  has  not  always  received  in  the 
factory  the  careful  inspection  made  in  the  company's  storeroom. 
This  last  possibility  necessitates  more  careful  inspection  by  the 
fitter  and  the  subinspector. 

In  general,  any  appliance  should  be  delivered  in  a  location  on 
the  consumer's  premises  where  it  will  not  cause  inconvenience  or 
be  liable  to  damage  from  any  cause.  Some  types  of  appliances 
may  need  crating  before  delivery,  and  others  may  require 
delivery  in  a  partly  unassembled  condition. 

MATERIAL 

When  possible,  delivery  of  material  and  of  appliance  should 
be  made  at  the  same  time.  Material  should  be  delivered  in 
properly  protected  bundles,  either  strung  or  in  containers,  and 
should  be  stored  by  the  delivery  man  in  a  suitable  place  and 
where  it  will  not  be  a  hazard  to  the  public.  As  a  partial  pre- 


INSTALLATION  ROUTINE  669 

ventative  against  loss  by  theft,  a  notice  might  be  printed  on  the 
delivery  tag  stating  clearly  that  all  of  this  material  is  necessary 
to  properly  perform  the  work,  and  that  its  theft  will  cause  delay 
and  inconvenience. 

SUPERVISION  AND  FINAL  INSPECTION 

NECESSITY  FOR 

The  necessity  for  supervision  of  appliance  work  varies  with  the 
class  of  work  and  the  calibre  of  the  workman.  Supervision  of 
ordinary  type  installations  is  necessary  only  to  insure  sufficient 
work  output.  Where  there  are  special  cases  continually  occur- 
ring, each  calling  for  a  decision  which  the  workman  is  not 
capable  of  making,  at  least  one  visit  of  the  inspector  to  the 
premises  during  the  progress  of  the  work  is  good  practice.  On 
installations  of  special  appliances,  and  of  any  large  appliance  of 
a  make  with  which  the  workman  is  unfamiliar,  the  supervision 
should  be  close,  requiring  sometimes  the  continued  presence  of 
the  inspector  to  prevent  mistakes.  These  cases  benefit  the 
inspector  as  well  as  the  workman. 

Final  inspection,  meaning  a  visit  of  a  subinspector  within  a 
day  or  two  after  the  appliance  has  been  placed  in  operation,  is 
necessary  on  all  installations  of  ordinary  appliances  where  the 
workman  is  considered  unable,  or,  for  reasons  of  speed,  has  been 
instructed  not  to  make  the  adjustment;  in  all  cases  where  it  has 
been  found  that  a  certain  type  of  appliance  develops  objection- 
able features  after  a  short  time  in  use;  and  on  all  installations  of 
special  appliances,  such  as  factory  blast  appliances  or  gas  engines, 
where  the  method  of  operation  by  the  consumer  affects,  to  a 
large  degree,  the  results  obtained. 

EXTENT  OF 

As  partly  explained  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  supervision 
should  extend  systematically  to  every  kind  of  work,  the  per- 
centage of  the  total  installations  which  are  supervised  being  a 
matter  to  be  decided  in  each  particular  situation.  Final  inspec- 
tion, whether  or  not  this  work  is  delegated  to  the  workman  who 
makes  the  installation,  and  is  made  immediately  after  its 
completion,  should  be  made  of  every  appliance  installation. 
The  details  of  what  this  inspection  is  intended  to  oover  is 
explained  hereafter  under  each  class  of  appliance. 

WHO  BEST  FITTED  TO  MAKE 

The  qualities  desirable  in  a  man  used  in  supervision  are 
ability  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  workman,  and  a 


670  APPLIANCE  WORK 

thorough  knowledge  of  the  company's  rules  and  policies.  The 
final  inspection,  if  it  be  merely  one  of  ordinary  installations  and 
one  made  mainly  to  be  assured  of  proper  adjustment,  does  not 
need  a  man  of  particularly  wide  experience,  as  this  work  will  be 
practically  of  uniform  character  and  may  be  taught  to  any 
employee  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

RELATION  OF  SHOPMAN  TO  SALESMAN 
WHAT  SALESMAN  SHOULD  KNOW  OF  SHOP  PRACTICE 
A  salesman  should  be  familiar  with  all  the  operations  in  the 
shop  which  are  necessary  to  complete  an  order  after  its  receipt. 
This  knowledge  should  include  familiarity  with  the  multitude  of 
reasons  beyond  the  control  of  the  company  which  sometimes 
tend  to  delay  the  execution  of  any  work.  He  should  be  able, 
from  experience  and  knowledge  of  physical  conditions,  to  so  lay 
out  simple  installations  without  the  aid  of  the  shopman  that 
no  subsequent  change  will  have  to  be  made  because  of  the  dis- 
covery of  existing  conditions  not  previously  taken  into  account. 
He  should  be  familiar  with  the  standard  terms  and  vernacular  of 
the  gas  business,  and  should  not  only  know  the  company's  rules, 
but  should  appreciate  that  there  is  a  reason  for  each  one  and 
should  understand  what  this  reason  is.  If  feasible,  the  best  way 
for  a  salesman  to  obtain  this  knowledge  is  actual  physical 
contact  with  the  shop  work  for  a  definite  period  of  time. 

WHAT  SHOPMAN  SHOULD  KNOW  OF  SALES  PRACTICE 
All  workmen,  to  as  great  extent  as  possible,  and  all  inspectors 
and  foremen  should  be  instructed  in  the  best  application  of 
appliances  to  varied  conditions,  and  especially  in  the  case  of 
installations  of  appliances  with  which  they  are  unfamiliar,  should 
be  instructed  to  be  extremely  reticent  in  making  any  criticism  of 
the  salesman's  plans.  However,  any  disregard  of  important 
rules  should  be  considered  and  decided  by  the  proper  authority 
before  installation  is  made.  The  shopman  should  try  to  appre- 
ciate the  difficulties  under  which  the  salesman  must  sometimes 
labor  and  should  be  able  to  make  in  a  reasonable  and  diplomatic 
manner,  whatever  explanations  to  the  consumer  are  made  neces- 
sary by  a  change  in  the  salesman's  plans. 


CHAPTER  LXI 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 
CLASSES  OF  MAINTENANCE 

REQUEST 

The  proper  maintenance  of  an  appliance  is  perhaps  more 
important  than  its  correct  installation,  because  with  proper 
maintenance  any  installation  faults  are  bound  to  be  corrected, 
but  inadequate  maintenance  will  largely  defeat  the  aim  of 
correct  installation,  viz.,  the  combination  of  large  consumption 
and  a  satisfied  consumer.  From  the  standpoint  of  both  the  con- 
sumer and  the  company,  satisfactory  maintenance  means  few 
visits  at  small  cost,  because  many  visits  usually  indicate  un- 
satisfactory appliance  conditions,  and  a  high  cost  is  detrimental, 
no  matter  how  borne.  In  the  past,  the  usual  company  policy 
has  been  to  invite  complaints  and  promptly  to  remedy  them, 
doing  a  reasonable  amount  of  free  work  and  charging  not  more 
than  cost  for  the  more  extensive  repairs.  This  has  involved,  for 
prompt  and  efficient  service,  having  available  at  all  hours  a  train- 
ed force,  and  has  been  called  "request"  maintenance.  It  has 
been  very  much  abused  by  certain  consumers  who  are  continually 
complaining  for  trivial  reasons  and  trying  in  many  ways  to 
impose  upon  the  company;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
many  consumers  who  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  company's 
advertised  willingness  to  help,  either  because  they  are  ignorant  of 
the  help  available,  or  do  not  realize  that  there  is  anything  to 
correct,  or  fear  the  cost  will  be  too  great.  Often  this  failure  to 
complain  produces  unsatisfactory  and  expensive  appliance  opera- 
tion, and  this,  in  turn,  reacts  unfavorably  to  the  use  of  gas.  To 
overcome  this  condition  as  far  as  may  be,  many  companies 
have  supplemented  "request"  with  "periodic"  maintenance. 
As  the  name  indicates,  it  involves  periodic  visits  for  appliance 
examination  and  any  needed  repair,  the  frequency  of  visits  being 
governed  by  the  class  of  appliances  and  also  by  local  conditions. 

(671) 


672  APPLIANCE  WORK 

As  a  few  instances,  large  installations  of  hotel  appliances  may, 
with  advantage,  be  visited  often,  some  every  week;  certain 
industrial  appliances  may  need  attention  every  month,  and 
automatic  instantaneous  water  heaters  at  periods  varying  from 
two  to  twelve  months.  As  regards  illuminating  appliances, 
periodic  maintenance  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage,  although 
several  situations  report  a  successful  experience  extending  over 
a  number  of  years. 

FREE 

The  amount  of  free  maintenance  work  done  by  any  company 
will  be  governed  by  its  general  policy  and  attitude  toward  the 
public,  perhaps  by  its  franchise,  and  also  should  be  influenced 
largely  by  competitive  fuel  and  light  conditions.  Some  of  this 
work  will  be  on  connections,  appliances  and  accessories,  whether 
or  not  installed  or  recommended  by  the  company.  Some  rules 
characteristic  of  a  liberal  policy  are  given  below.  The  repair  of 
leaks  and  the  remedy  of  insufficient  complaints  would  be  gov- 
erned by  the  principles  described  in  Chapter  LVII. 

When  the  complaint  is  due  to  trouble  within  the 
appliance,  it  is  remedied  free,  provided  no  parts  or 
much  other  material  is  needed.  A  very  large  propor- 
tion of  complaints  of  appliance  operation  can  be 
remedied  permanently  by  an  adjustment  of  the  gas 
mixture,  or  a  cleaning  of  the  burners  or  burner  cocks, 
or  a  greasing  in  of  leaking  or  stiff  burner  cocks. 

If  the  complaint  is  of  missing  or  defective  appliance 
parts,  these  are  replaced  free  if  the  complaint  is  made 
within  one  month  of  installation,  and  if  it  is  thought 
either  that  the  fault  actually  lies  with  the  company  or 
that  the  work  is  advisable  to  retain  the  good  will  of,  or 
to  obtain  further  payments  from,  the  consumer. 

When  on  any  complaint  it  is  thought  that  the  com- 
pany is  responsible,  a  free  repair  or  replacement  is 
made,  regardless  of  the  length  of  time  elapsed.    WThen 
enameled  range  parts  are  in  question,  and  the  defect  is 
trivial,  a  liberal  rebate  is  offered,  and  if  accepted  by 
the  consumer,  is  a  most  satisfactory  settlement  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  company,  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  perfect  enameled  ware. 
Even  with  a  liberal  policy  of  free  maintenance,  there  remains 
a  very  large  amount  of  work  necessary  to  keep  the  appliances  in 
proper    operation,    and    which     economic    considerations    pre- 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  673 

vent  any  company  doing  without  charge.  This  is  composed 
principally  of  the  replacement  of  broken  or  worn-out  parts,  and 
of  complete  overhauling  of  any  appliance  which  is  dirty  or  gen- 
erally out  of  repair.  Such  work  involves  large  tanks  for  com- 
pletely immersing  and  boiling  dirty  appliances,  keeping  a  large 
stock  of  repair  parts,  many  of  which  may  be  very  inactive,  and 
maintaining  shop  equipment  for  making  and  repairing  parts  no 
longer  obtainable  from  the  manufacturer. 


SECTION  II 

COOKING  APPLIANCES 


CHAPTER  LXII 

DESIGN 
INTRODUCTORY 

There  is  a  continual  development  and  improvement  in  the 
design  and  construction  of  gas  cooking  appliances,  and,  therefore, 
it  would  be  useless  to  describe  in  detail  what  might  be  considered 
now  the  best  example  of  each  type.  The  manufacture  of  these 
appliances  is,  and  will  continue  to  be,  governed  by  the  Standard 
Gas  Range  Specification  of  the  American  Gas  Association,  and 
a  familiarity  with  this  specification  is  essential  to  a  thorough 
appliance  knowledge.  It  is  not  given  here  as  it  is  subject  to 
change  and  is  always  easily  obtainable  in  its  latest  form.  Our 
text  will  be  confined  to  the  salient  features  and  the  reasons  for 
certain  constructions  of  the  various  parts  which  make  up  a 
cooking  appliance,  and  to  a  few  appliances  used  for  special 
purposes.  (Hereafter,  in  this  chapter,  "appliance"  will  mean  a 
gas  cooking  appliance.) 

Those  who  have  been  responsible  for  the  development  of  the 
gas  range  (the  typical  appliance)  have  had  before  them  constantly 
the  fact  that  these  appliances,  in  actual  practice,  are  used  by 
people  many  of  whom  have  little  or  no  interest  in,  or  knowledge 
of,  mechanical  apparatus.  The  gas  range,  therefore,  had  to  be  a 
device  simple  to  operate  and  one  which  would  require  little  or  no 
adjustment  at  the  hands  of  the  user  or  by  the  gas  company. 
Sturdiness,  simplicity  and  ease  of  operation,  therefore,  are 
primary  requisites.  Thermal  efficiency,— that  is,  the  ability  to 
perform  the  greatest  amount  of  useful  work  by  the  use  of  the 
smallest  quantity  of  gas, — naturally  was  to  be  desired,  but  was 

(674) 


DESIGN 


675 


not  to  be  arrived  at  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  aforesaid  primary 
requisites. 

These  facts  are  mentioned  because  the  thermal  efficiency  of  the 
gas  range  is  low,  when  compared  with  some  other  heating 
appliances ;  but  when  we  consider  the  matter  of  over-all  efficiency, 
which  includes  not  only  thermal  efficiency,  but  sturdiness,  sim- 
plicity, ease  of  operation,  wide  scope  of  work,  and  lack  of  need 
of  adjustment,  then  we  may  safely  say  that  the  gas  range  of 
today  is,  all  things  considered,  as  efficient  as  any  other  com- 
mercial household  device  now  in  general  use. 

In  the  operation  of  a  gas  range,  there  are  simple  methods  which 
result  in  great  economy  in  the  use  of  gas,  and  there  are  other 
methods  which  result  in  waste  and  extravagance  in  such  use. 
Cooking  demonstrators,  familiar  with  actual  conditions,  make 
the  statement  that  in  the  average  household,  the  same  amount 
of  cooking  could  be  done  in  the  same  time  by  the  use  of 
one-third  of  the  amount  of  gas.  Top  burners  are  lighted 
under  articles  to  be  cooked  and  are  kept  full  on  during  the 
entire  cooking  period,  when  the  proper  use  of  the  range  would 
demand  that  the  burners  be  turned  on  full  for  a  minor  portion  of 
the  time,  and  that  thereafter  during  the  major  portion  of  the 
cooking  operation,  the  burner  be  reduced  by  three-quarters,  or, 
even  better,  the  cooking  be  completed  by  the  use  of  the 
simmering  burner.  Investigations  have  proven  that  fully  75  per 
cent  of  the  total  gas  used  by  the  range  is  consumed  by  the 
top  burners,  and  it  is  with  these  burners  that  the  greatest 
tendency  is  to  be  wasteful.  It  is  logical  to  assume,  therefore, 
that  as  great,  if  not  greater,  economy  may  be  effected  in  the  use 
of  gas  for  cooking  purposes  by  the  education  of  the  people  in  the 
proper  use  of  the  gas  range  as  by  any  increase  in  the  thermal 
efficiency  of  the  burners. 


Figure  191.— Vertical  Section  of  Typical  Burner,  page  676: 
A,  Cock;  B,  Air  Shutttr;  C,  Mixer;  D,  Burner 
Tube;  E,  Burner  Head;  F,  Ports. 


676  APPLIANCE  WORK 

BURNERS 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

The  burners  of  all  appliances  are  (with  the  exception  of 
a  special  type  known  as  a  surface  combustion  burner,  to 
be  described  later)  simply  atmospheric  (bunsen)  burners,  the 
primary  air  being  drawn  in  by  the  injector  effect  of  the  moving 
gas.  These  burners  are  of  various  shapes,  as  called  for  by  the 
conditions  of  their  use.  Before  describing  each  form,  the 
general  principles  involved  and  the  different  parts  of  a  typical 
burner  will  be  considered.  Figure  191  shows  diagrammatically, 
in  vertical  section,  the  cock  A,  air  shutter  B,  mixer  C,  burner 
tube  D,  burner  head  E,  and  ports  F.  The  gas  stream,  entering 
the  mixer,  is  regulated  in  quantity  by  the  size  of  the  cock  orifice, 
and  through  its  high  velocity  exercises  an  injector  effect  drawing 
air  into  the  mixer  from  the  room,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows. 
This  quantity  of  air  is  regulated  by  the  position  of  the  air  shutter, 
as  later  explained.  The  burner  as  a  whole  is  a  simple  and 
compact  instrument  for  the  utilization  of  the  heat  units  in  the  gas. 

However,  there  are  certain  mishaps  to  be  guarded  against 
in  its  application  not  only  to  cooking  appliances,  but  to  many 
other  appliances  using  gas  as  a  heating  agent.  These  will  be 
considered  at  this  point. 

First. — The  burner  design  must  be  such  that  a  sufficient 
supply  of  secondary  air  reaches  each  port. 

Second. — The  combustion  chamber  must  be  of  adequate 
dimensions  to  allow  complete  combustion.  This 
requires  that  there  should  be  no  surface  impinge- 
ment, and,  therefore,  cooling  of  flames  with  con- 
sequent formation  of  the  harmful  products  of 
incomplete  combustion. 

Third. — The  passage  from  the  combustion  chamber  to  the 
exit  of  the  heater  must  allow  a  free  issue  of  the 
products. 

Fourth. — The  burner  may  ignite  in  the  mixer.  The  result 
may  be  incomplete  combustion,  and  its  character- 
istic odor  will  be  accompanied  by  a  slight  roaring 
noise,  so  that,  in  general,  this  faulty  ignition  will 
be  quickly  discovered  and  remedied. 

Of  the  above,  the  second  and  third  conditions  need  especial  at- 
tention in  water  and  room  heaters. 


DESIGN 


677 


Figure  192.— Air  Shutters,  page  678:  A,  Shutter;  B,  Mixer 
Face;  C,  Set  Screw;  D,  Shutter;  E,  Mixer  Face; 
F,  Set  Screw. 

AIR  SHUTTERS 

The  air  shutter  is  one  of  the  important  parts  of  a  burner, 
because  a  faulty  shutter  results  in  a  poor  burner  performance  and 
also  in  increased  maintenance  expense.  Repeated  investigations 
have  shown  that  a  majority  of  complaint  orders  referring  to 
cooking  appliances,  are  caused  by  improper  adjustment,  and  in 
most  of  these  cases  the  shutters  have  been  jarred,  or  accidentally 
moved  in  other  ways,  from  their  correct  positions.  Therefore,  a 
satisfactory  shutter  is  one  which  is  easy  to  adjust  and  which, 


678  APPLIANCE  WORK 

when  once  set  to  admit  the  proper  quantity  of  air,  is  protected 
against  an  accidental  change  of  adjustment.  The  more  recent 
designs,  Figure  192,  provide  for  locking  the  shutter  in  any  one  of 
about  eight  positions,  and  it  cannot  be  jarred  out  of  place  with 
any  slight  loosening  of  the  set  screw.  The  indentations  in  the 
shutter  A  engage  a  series  of  indentations  in  the  mixer  face  B, 
and  the  set  screw  C  must  be  loosened  a  full  turn  before  the  two 
surfaces  are  separated  sufficiently  to  allow  any  rotary  movement. 
In  D,  the  slot  is  serrated  and  fits  the  set  screw  F  snugly,  so  that 
no  change  in  the  shutter  position  is  possible,  except  when  the 
screw  has  been  turned  to  a  position  where  the  notched  section  is 
in  the  plane  of  the  shutter.  Either  of  these  types  should  give 
satisfactory  service;  they  are  more  convenient  than  an  earlier 
form  which  provided  fewer  adjustments  and  where  each  adjust- 
ment necessitated  a  complete  withdrawal  of  the  set  screw. 
They  are  a  great  advance  over  the  still  earlier  designs,  which  were 
liable  to  shift  out  of  position. 

The  shutters  illustrated  are  of  stamped  sheet  steel,  of  thick- 
ness sufficient  to  obtain  the  stiffness  necessary  to  prevent  any 
change  in  shape.  Nickel-plating  is  added  for  the  sake  of  appear- 
ance. In  a  few  cases  cast  or  malleable  iron  is  used.  It  is  clear 
from  the  illustrations  how  a  revolution  of  the  shutter  will  change 
the  area  of  opening  into  the  mixer. 

COCKS 

Second  only  to  air  shutters  as  a  source  of  annoyance  and 
expense  have  been  the  gas  cocks,  and,  therefore,  much  thought 
has  been  devoted  to  the  development  of  a  design  which,  when 
properly  made,  would  need  a  minimum  of  attention  after  instal- 
lation. Such  a  design  is  secured  in  the  Standard  Gas  Range  Cock, 
adopted  by  the  American  Gas  Institute  in  1914  and  described, 
with  accompanying  detailed  drawings,  on  page  1513  of  its 
Proceedings  of  that  year.  Figure  193  is  a  drawing  of  the  assem- 
bled cock  as  provided  with  a  flat  metal  handle.  Its  most 
important  features  are: 

(1)  Ample  bearing  surface  above  and  below  the  gas  way  and 
around  the  plug. 

(2)  A  spring  at  the  plug  bottom,  to  maintain  a  light  constant 
pull  on  the  plug,  causing  it  to  bear  uniformly  on  the  barrel  and 
to  advance  as  wear  occurs. 

(3)  A  sufficient  gasway. 


DESIGN 


679 


I.OCK    NUT. 


Figure  193.  —  Range  Cock  Drawing,  page  678. 

(4)  A  quarter-turn   stop,   allowing  but  one   "off"   and   one 
"on"  position. 

(5)  A  metal  of  proper  composition. 

(6)  Good  appearance. 

The  lack  of  (1)  and  (2)  has  resulted  in  many  annoying  leaks; 
(3)  diminishes  the  chance  of  insufficient  supply;  (4)  represents 
the  last  work  in  a  development  that  began  with  a  wheel-handle 
valve,  which  even  now  has  its  advocates,  though  the  weight  of 
expert  opinion  is  against  it  as  having  a  stuffing  box  and  other 
complexities  of  design,  and  failing  to  show  at  a  glance,  with  its 
wheel  handle,  the  conditions  of  supply,  that  is,  whether  it  is 
turned  on  or  off;  (5)  the  metal  composition  should  give  the  cock 
sufficient  strength  to  withstand  hard  usage,  and  should  be  such  a> 
to  allow  the  component  parts  to  be  machined  efficiently  during 
the  process  of  manufacture. 

Figures  194  and  195  illustrate  gas  cocks  of  the  above  design. 
The  former  has  a  wooden  handle  and  is  used  for  top  and  oven 
range  burners,  and  also  for  burners  of  hot  plates,  laundry  stoves 


680 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  194. — Range  Cock,  wooden  handle,  page   679. 

and  other  miscellaneous  appliances.  Porcelain  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  wood.  Figure  195  shows  a  metal  handle;  this 
has  a  definite  use  on  an  oven  pilot  burner,  to  differentiate  sharply 
this  burner  from  the  oven  burner  itself  and  thus  decrease  the 
chance  of  inadvertently  turning  on  the  latter  instead  of  the 
pilot  burner.  In  both  of  these  illustrations,  the  ring  nut  shown 
at  the  base  of  the  plug  in  Figure  193  is  replaced  by  a  tail  screw. 
The  latter  is  an  earlier  development,  but  is  not  as  satisfactory  as 
the  nut,  because  of  greater  difficulty,  when  the  cock  is  in  service, 
of  separating  the  parts  for  inspection  or  adjustment. 

In  describing  the  general  principles  of  the  burner,  it  was 
stated  that  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  gas  was  regulated  by  the 
orifice  in  the  cock,  and  that  of  the  air  by  the  opening  through  the 
air  shutter.  The  regulation  of  the  latter  has  been  explained,  but 
nothing  has  been  said  about  the  orifice  or  "spud."  It  shows  in 
Figure  193  as  the  hexagon  projection  on  the  extreme  left  of  the 
cock.  A  detail  drawing  is  given  in  Figure  196.  The  size  of  the 
gasway  through  the  spud  varies  inversely  with  the  square  root 


DESIGN 


681 


Figure   195. — Range  Cock,   metal  handle,  page  679. 

of  the  gas  pressure,  and  in  Figure  197  is  given  a  table  of  pressures 
and  diameters  usually  followed. 

When  for  any  reason  an  increase  in  size  of  gasway  is  desired,  this 
may  be  done  either  by  substituting  another  spud  of  the  correct 
gas  way,  or,  more  usually,  by  reaming  out  the  opening  in  the 


Figure   196. — Orifice  or  Spud,  page  680. 


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existing  spud.  If  the  opening  is  to  be  reduced,  it  sometimes  may 
be  hammered  to  a  smaller  opening,  but  it  is  better  practice  to 
use  another  spud. 

The  cocks  for  the  large  appliances  used  in  restaurants  or  hotels 
should  be  designed  along  the  same  general  lines  as  those  already 
described,  but  should  be  of  greater  strength  to  withstand  hard 
usage.  They  are  sometimes  fitted  with  spuds  having  adjustable 
orifices  to  enable  a  rapid  change  in  gas  adjustment. 


Figure  f98.— Top  Burner,  page  683:  A,  Air  Shutter;  B,  Mixer; 
G,  Burner  Tube;  D,  Burner  Head;  E,  Drilled 
Ports. 

TOP  BURNERS 

A  top  burner  is  one  supplying  heat  for  the  cooking  top  of  the 
appliance,  and  is  used  for  boiling,  frying  and  miscellaneous 
cooking.  One  form  is  illustrated  in  Figure  198.  A  one-piece 
burner  casting  is  standard,  because  the  absence  of  joints  results 
in  the  following  advantages:  Ability  to  clean  the  burner  thor- 
oughly by  boiling  without  subsequent  joint  remaking;  a  smooth 
passage  from  the  mixer  to  the  ports,  thus  facilitating  the  desirable 
good  admixture  of  air  and  gas;  no  disturbance  of  a  proper  air 
adjustment  by  leaky  joints  developing  in  service. 


684 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


During  the  development  stage,  top  burners  were  made  in  a 
variety  of  shapes,  the  two  most  common  being  the  star  and  the 
ring,  A  and  B,  Figure  199.  The  former  is  now  the  accepted 
type,  as  it  is  quite  flexible  in  its  range  of  consumption,  and  its 
construction  insures  the  prime  requisite  of  any  burner,  i.  e.,  good 
combustion,  since  a  proper  supply  of  secondary  air  is  provided 
through  the  central  air  well  and  the  spaces  between  the  radial  arms. 


Figure  199. — A,  Star   Burner,  page  684:     B,  Ring    Burner; 
C,  Drilled   Opening;     D,  Sawed  Opening. 

The  openings  or  ports  in  the  burner  head  have  also  afforded  an 
opportunity  for  different  treatment,  but  they  have  always  been, 
either  drilled,  C,  or  sawed,  D.  There  is  no  choice  between  the 
two  as  to  efficiency  of  combustion,  but  the  drilled  burner  is  more 
serviceable,  as  its  ports  are  more  easily  cleaned  and  they  are 
not  affected  should  the  burner  be  warped  by  the  heat. 

A  top  burner  should  be  so  located  below  the  cooking  top  as  to 
allow  a  space  of  at  least  1|  inches  between  the  top  of  the  burner 
and  the  bottom  of  a  utensil  placed  on  the  top  grate.  With  less 
space  the  products  of  combustion  will  not  be  carried  off  freely, 
but  will  back  down  over  the  flame,  thus  obstructing  the  influx  of 
secondary  air  and  producing  a  tendency  in  the  flame  to  smother. 


DESIGN  685 

Spaces  of  If  and  1£  inches  are  preferable,  as  they  insure  gotxl 
combustion  even  with  a  high  gas  pressure. 


Figure  200. — Simmering  Burner,  page  685. 

The  ordinary  top  burner  consumes  12  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
The  "giant"  burner,  usually  included  as  one  of  the  four  top 
burners  of  the  standard  range  equipment,  consumes  18  cubic  feet. 
It  is  useful  where  a  large  mass  needs  rapid  heating.  At  the  other 
end  of  the  scale  in  so  far  as  consumption  is  concerned,  is  a 
simmering  burner,  Figure  200.  This  has  six  ports  and  consumes 
4  cubic  feet  per  hour.  It  is  used  for  any  purpose  that  requires 
only  a  slow  rate  of  heating,  such  as  slow  cooking,  warming,  and 
maintaining  at  the  boiling  point  the  contents  of  a  vessel  previ- 
ously heated  over  another  burner. 

From  the  preceding  description  and  illustrations,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  modern  top  burner  may  be  removed  and  replaced  with 
ease,  rendering  its  cleaning  a  very  simple  matter. 


Figure  201. — Oven  Burner,  page  685. 

OVEN  BURNERS 

The  oven  burner,  Figure  201,  is  used  for  baking,  broiling  and 
roasting,  and  in  basic  design  is  a  steel  or  cast-iron  pipe,  drilled 
for  its  full  length  with  either  a  single  or  a  double  line  of  ports. 
An  essential  feature  of  its  construction  is  a  provision  to 
insure  the  correct  position  of  its  burner  ports.  For  instance,  if 


686  APPLIANCE  WORK 

the  range  design  calls  for  downward  projecting  flames,  as  illus- 
trated, any  chance  of  the  burner  being  placed  with  ports  upward 
is  prevented  by  casting,  as  part  of  the  mixer,  a  slot  or  lug,  which 
must  engage  with  a  reciprocal  construction  on  the  oven-burner 
plate  before  the  burner  can  be  put  in  place. 


Figure  202. — Oven  Pilot  Burner,  page  686. 

To  the  ignition  of  the  oven  burner,  much  thought  has  been 
given.  The  top  burner  is  in  full  sight,  and  if  it  fails  to  light,  the 
fact  is  known  at  once.  Also,  any  unburnt  gas  is  not  confined ,  but 
escapes  freely  into  the  room.  The  oven  burner,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  out  of  sight  when  the  oven  door  is  closed,  and  a  very 
small  amount  of  gas  will  form  an  explosive  mixture  with  the  air 
in  the  oven.  Therefore,  it  is  quite  important  that  the  lighting  of 
an  oven  burner  be  easy  and  certain,  and  the  fact  of  lighting  or 
nonlighting  be  very  evident  at  once.  The  commonest  method 
employs  a  pilot  burner  of  some  kind,  with  its  own  cock.  This 
burner  is  often  located  alongside  the  oven  burners,  being  lighted 
outside  the  range.  Figure  202  shows  such  a  burner  of  T-shaped 
form.  Figure  203  illustrates  its  relation  to  the  range  and  the 
oven  burner.  The  mixer  is  in  the  base  of  the  T,  and  the  ports 


DESIGN  687 


Figure   203— View   of   Range    Showing    Pilot    (A) 
and  Oven  (B)  Burners,  page  686. 

are  drilled  in  the  arms  and  in  the  leg  also.  With  this  type,  the 
precautions  taken  to  insure  the  proper  lighting  of  the  oven 
burners  are  as  follows:  First,  the  pilot  cock  has  a  distinctive 
handle,  so  that  the  sense  of  touch  is  an  aid  in  always  lighting  the 
pilot  burner  first;  second,  there  are  a  few  ports  in  that  part  of 
the  burner  outside  the  range,  so  that  sight  tells  whether  or  not 
the  pilot  burner  is  lighted  before  the  oven  burner  cock  is  open. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  is  the  universal  precaution  that 
applies  to  all  oven  lighting,  viz.,  to  open  the  oven  door  before 
starting  to  light,  and  to  keep  it  open  until  it  is  certain  that  the 
burners  are  ligh'ted.  Not  until  this  is  known  should  the 
pilot  burner  be  shut  off.  Another  type  of  pilot  burner  is  located 
in  the  oven  itself,  and  to  light  it,  the  oven  door  must  be  opened. 
This  is  an  advantage  in  compelling  such  door  opening  before  any 
lighting  can  be  accomplished,  but  the  lighting  is  sometimes  not 
as  conveniently  done  as  by  the  outside  pilot. 

Some  oven  burners  are  lighted  by  means  of  a  trough-shaped 
casting  which  conveys  the  gas  from  the  burner  to  the  lighter 
opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  oven.  Others  have  no  separate 
lighter  but  are  ignited  direct. 


688  APPLIANCE  WORK 

SPECIAL  BURNERS 

A  single-port  burner,  A,  Figure  207,  with  a  long  vertical  mixer, 
is  used  on  many  "heavy  duty"  hotel  ranges  and  on  some  hotel 
broilers.  It  delivers,  horizontally,  a  long  bunsen  flame,  of 
volume  sufficient  to  heat  a  large  area.  It  is  misnamed  a  "siphon- 
blast"  burner. 

A  burner  of  comparatively  recent  design,  developing  heat  in  a 
radiant  form,  is  used  effectively  for  broiling  on  hotel  appliances, 
and  is  known  as  the  "surface  combustion"  burner.  It  was 
designed  to  obtain  a  higher  temperature,  and  consequently  a 
higher  efficiency,  than  is  possible  with  the  ordinary  bunsen  burner, 
and  also  to  avoid  any  provision  of  secondary  air,  the  requirements 
for  which  provision,  in  many  cases,  restricts  greatly  the  applica- 
tion of  a  burner.  All  the  air  required  for  complete  combustion 
is  mixed  with  the  gas  before  it  reaches  the  burner,  to  which  the 
mixture  is  forced  through  very  small  tubes,  at  a  velocity  greater 
than  the  speed  at  which  an  explosive  flame  could  travel  backward. 
Just  beyond  the  outlet  of  the  tubes  is  placed  a  strip,  or  series  of 
strips,  of  metal  having  a  very  high  fusing  point.  These  strips 
act  as  a  sort  of  baffle,  and  confine  the  combustion  of  the  gas  to 
the  space  between  the  face  of  the  burner  and  the  metal  strips. 
After  the  burner  has  been  lighted  for  a  few  minutes,  the  metal 
strips  become  incandescent,  and  no  flame  is  visible.  A  large 
portion  of  the  heat  generated  is  thus  available  in  radiant  form. 

This  system  requires  a  forced  supply  of  air  at  about  the  same 
pressure  as  the  gas,  and  a  regulation  to  maintain  a  constant 
mixture  with  the  same  position  of  a  mixing  valve,  the  adjustment 
of  which  enables  any  necessary  change  in  air  supply  to  suit  a 
change  in  gas  composition. 

COOKING  TOPS 

Having  considered  the  burners  found  in  an  appliance,  we  pass 
to  their  arrangement  and  their  relation  to  the  structure  of  the 
appliance  itself.  For  top  burners,  the  cooking  tops  vary  from 
the  single  burner  hot  plate,  Figure  204,  to  the  many  burners  of 
the  most  elaborate  cabinet  range,  but  the  commonest  equipment 
is  shown  in  Figure  205,  the  top  view  of  a  domestic  range  of  either 
the  double-or  single-oven  type.  On  single-oven  ranges,  the 
simmering  burner  is  often  omitted. 

The  supply  line,  in  which  each  cock  is  screwed,  is  called  the 
manifold,  or  burner  rail,  E,  and  is  made  of  steel  of  extra 
heavy  thickness  to  afford  additional  thread  surface.  It  is 


DESIGN 


689 


Fig.  204.— Single-Burner  Hot  Plate,  page  688. 

attached  to  the  range  top  by  split  brackets,  F,  allowing  a  quick 
replacement.  On  new  ranges,  the  burner  rail  is  now  being  tapped 
with  an  extra  hole  for  the  subsequent  connection  of  any 
"burner  lighter."  This,  Figure  206,  is  installed  with  its  burner 
head  in  the  centre  of  the  cooking  top.  By  pressing  the  button, 
a  jet  of  flame  is  sent  from  the  continuously  burning  pilot  light 
to  each  of  the  four  burners. 

In  each  side  of  the  main  top  or  frame,  G,  Figure  205,  there  are 
two  slots,  which,  engaging  with  the  projecting  lugs  of  a  side  shelf, 
provide  for  the  latter  a  firm  support  and  yet  allow  of  its  quick 
removal.  These  shelves,  H,  are  either  solid  castings  or  gratings. 

The  grates,  J,  are  usually  made  in  two  castings,  and  are  inter- 
changeable. The  standard  design  has  radial  arms  as  shown, 
extending  into  the  spaces  between  the  burner  arms  but  not 
directly  over  the  latter.  Occasionally  the  arms  of  the  grate  are 
parallel,  to  allow  for  small  utensils.  The  top  of  the  grate  surface 
is  ^-inch  above  that  of  the  top  frame,  to  facilitate  the  supply  of 
air  to  the  burners. 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  205.— Top  View  of  Domestic  Range,  page  688:  A,  Ordi- 
nary Burner;  B,  Giant  Burner;  C,  Simmering 
Burner;  D,  Cocks.  E,  Burner  Rail;  F,  Burner 
Rail  Supports;  G,  Main  Top;  H,  Side  Shelves; 
J,  Burner  Grates;  K,  Burner  Box;  L,  Drip  Pan. 


DESIGN  691 

The  burner  box,  K,  is  of  sheet  steel,  galvanized  to  resist 
corrosion,  and  of  one  piece  for  easy  replacement.  A  loose  drip 
pan,  L,  of  galvanized  or  enameled  i^on,  serves  as  a  catchall  and 
as  a  protection  to  the  bottom  of  the  burner  box. 


Figure  206. — Burner  Lighter,  page  689:  A,  Button;  B,  Burner  Head. 

Leaving  the  domestic  range  and  turning  to  the  appliances  used 
in  hotels  and  restaurants,  we  find  a  different  type  of  top:  The 
"all-hot"  top  implies,  as  its  name  indicates,  a  solid  surface 
uniformly  heated.  It  is  made  of  heavy  cast  steel,  supported  on 
channels  in  the  side  frames.  Independently  controlled,  single- 
port  burners  are  used,  A,  Figure  207.  There  is  a  combustion 
chamber,  B,  of  shallow  height,  but  extending  the  full  width  and 
depth  of  each  hotel  range  section.  It  is  insulated  from  the  oven 
beneath  by  asbestos  board,  on  which  is  placed  firebrick.  The 
latter  absorbs  heat  from  the  flame  passing  above  it,  and  by  its 
reflection  materially  assists  the  direct  heat  from  the  flame  in 
maintaining  the  top  at  a  working  temperature.  The  combustion 
chamber  is  divided  by  a  solid  partition  into  front  and  rear  halves. 
Each  half  is  heated  by  its  own  burners — usually  three — and  may 
be  worked  alone  without  much  loss  of  heat  to  the  idle  portion. 

Across  the  combustion  chamber  from  the  burner  port  is  a  cross 
outlet  flue,  C.  When  the  burners  are  first  lighted,  a  sliding  top 
3  inches  shorter  than  the  flue,  is  pulled  forward  by  a  handle  at  the 
range  front.  This  provides  an  opening  in  the  cross  flue,  at  the 
main  flue,  for  the  direct  escape  of  the  combustion  products,  and 
soon  produces  a  warm  chimney  and  a  good  draft.  Then  the  top 
is  pushed  back.  This  transfers  the  opening  in  the  cross  flue  to 
the  range  front.  Therefore,  the  products  are  forced  to  come 
forward  and  then  travel  backward  in  the  cross  flue.  During 
this  increased  travel,  heat  is  transferred  to  the  surrounding 
surfaces  and  the  efficiency  of  the  range  thereby  increased. 


692 


APPLIANCE   WORK 


This  form  of  top  is  economical  in  "heavy  duty"  cooking,  that 
is,  the  preparation  of  food  in  large  quantities  and  at  regular 
intervals,  as  in  institutions  or  hotels  and  restaurants  either  on 
the  American  plan  or  serving  table  d'hote  meals.  For  "short 
(or  quick)  order"  work,  it  should  be  equipped  at  one  end  or 
between  two  sections,  with  star  top  burners  under  the  usual  grid 
top,  or  else  the  work  should  be  done  on  the  range  shown  in 
Figure  208. 

The  hot  top  construction  has  gradually  displaced  for  "heavy 
duty"  work,  a  semiclosed  top  range,  which  had  one  star  burner 
with  open  grating  in  each  section,  the  remainder  of  the  top  being 
solid  and  heated  by  drilled  pipe  burners. 


Figure  207 — All- Hot  Range  Top,  page  691:     A,  Burner;     B, 
Combustion  Chamber;     C,  Outlet  Flue. 

Figure  208  illustrates  a  range  top  extensively  used  for  quick 
order  work.     It  resembles  the  ordinary  domestic  top,   but  is 


DESIGN 


693 


larger,  with  more  burners  and  those  of  greater  capacity.     Either 
open  or  semiclosed  grates  are  used. 


Figure  208. — Open  Top  Hotel  Range,  page  692. 

Figure  209  is  a  special  top  for  small  restaurants  or  quick  order 
work.  As  each  section  is  interphangeable,  any  arrangement  of 
burners  and  top  grates  can  be  provided. 

OVENS 

GENERAL 

To  the  gas  oven,  not  only  in  the  method  of  igniting  its  burners, 
but  also  in  its  design  and  construction  as  a  whole,  much  thought 


694  APPLIANCE   WORK 

has  been  given.  The  faults  of  early  forms  tended  to  confirm  a 
popular  prejudice  that  uniform  cooking  or  baking  by  gas  was 
not  attainable,  and  only  time  itself  could  put  an  end  to  the 
unfounded  but  long-held  belief  that  anything  cooked  in  a  gas 


Figure  209. — Special  Top  Restaurant  Appliance,   page  693. 

oven  tasted  of  the  fuel.  Due  to  the  intelligence  and  perseverance 
of  the  range  makers  and  gas  companies,  the  course  of  range 
development  and  public  education  did  not  flag,  until  now  in 
millions  of  homes  the  gas  range  is  established,  and  though  its 
improvement  continues,  its  value  needs  no  more  proving. 

Ovens  may  be  classified  according  to  construction  into 
general  types,  as  follows: 

1.  Direct-action:     Burner    within    oven    and    no 
intervening  baffle  plate. 

2.  Semidirect-action :      Burner  under  oven  bottom 
or  baffle  plate  with  circulating  flues. 

In  a  direct-action  oven,  in  order  to  prevent  too  much  concen- 
tration of  heat  on  the  articles  to  be  cooked,  the  burner  is  a 
U-shaped  pipe,  placed  at  the  bottom,  extending  around  the  two 
sides  and  the  front.  The  flame  ascends  from  ports  drilled  verti- 
cally in  the  pipe  top.  Such  a  burner  cannot  be  used  for  broiling, 
and,  therefore,  is  found  only  in  a  single-oven  range. 


DESIGN 


695 


A  baffle  plate  over  the  burner  just  described  converts  the  oven 
to  the  semidirect  type.  Usually,  though,  in  this  type  the 
burners  are  straight  cast-iron  pipe,  running  from  side  to  side. 

Because  of  its  greater  efficiency,  the  oven  with  a  semidirect- 
action  burner  and  circulating  flues,  is  the  standard  type  today. 
Though  construction  details  may  vary  in  different  makes,  the 


\     \     v       D\ 

\     \     X  x    \ 


i 


—4) 


I  I 


Figure  210. — Section  of  Oven  Showing  Circulating  Flues, 
page  695:  A,  Oven  Bottom;  B,  Side  Flue  Space; 
C,  Openings  into  Oven;  D,  Vents;  E,  Flue 
Outlet;  F,  Linings. 

essential  points  are  alike  in  all  ranges.  These  are  shown  in 
Figure  210,  as  follows:  A,  an  oven  bottom  properly  insulated, 
either  by  air  space,  as  here  shown,  or  by  sheet  asbestos,  from  the 
direct  heat  of  the  burners;  B,  side  flue  spaces,  through  which 
rise  the  combustion  products;  C,  openings  from  these  spaces  into 
the  oven;  D,  other  openings,  called  vents,  in  the  top  lining,  or 


696  APPLIANCE  WORK 

occasionally  in  both  top  and  back  lining,  to  let  out  the  combus- 
tion products  on  their  way  to  E,  the  flue  outlet. 

The  illustration  shows  a  completely  lined  oven.  In  such  the 
back  would  be  lined  also.  The  doors  would  be  insulated  by  the 
use  of  two  metal  sheets,  with  either  asbestos  or  air  space  between 
them.  A  cheaper  form  of  construction  would  omit  the  linings, 
and  the  door  would  be  of  solid  cast  iron,  preferably  coated  on  the 
inside  with  aluminum  bronze  to  increase  the  amount  of 
reflected  heat. 

The  door  is  of  either  the  "swing"  or  "drop"  type.  In  the 
former  case,  it  moves  in  a  horizontal  plane  on  vertical  hinges. 
In  the  latter,  the  hinges  are  at  the  bottom  and  the  door  drops 
from  a  shut  to  an  open  position,  being  counterbalanced  by 
springs  (preferably)  or  by  weights,  to  remain  in  any  position. 
A  positive  catch,  which  locks  when  door  is  shut,  is  not  permissible, 
as  the  door  must  be  free  to  open  in  case  of  an  explosion  within 
the  oven. 

Flue  collars  are  constructed  with  uneven  edges,  to  prevent  the 
complete  closing  of  a  flue,  either  by  the  placing  of  some  article 
on  a  horizontal  end  or  by  the  too  close  proximity  of  a  vertical 
end  to  a  wall.  This  is  also  true  of  water  heaters  and  all  other 
appliances  designed  for  a  flue  connection. 

As  compared  with  the  ordinary  domestic  range,  the  oven  of  a 
hotel  range  is  larger  in  size  and  constructed  of  heavier  metal  to 
withstand  the  more  severe  usage  to  which  it  is  put.  In  the 
"universal  control"  type  of  the  all-hot  top  range,  the  top  and 
ovens  are  heated  by  the  same  burners,  and,  therefore,  this  range 
will  prove  economical  where  the  cooking  to  be  done  is  of  such 
kind  and  quantity  that  there  is  use  at  all  times  for  every  part  of 
the  range. 

BAKING 

The  ordinary  baking  oven  differs  only  in  a  few  details  from  the 
construction  already  described.  It  usually  has  two  racks,  for 
which  four  heights  in  all  are  provided  by  supports,  on  which  the 
racks  slide  freely  in  and  out,  and  which,  by  their  channeled 
construction,  keep  the  racks  from  tilting  even  when  projecting 
outside  the  oven. 

A  glass  panel  is  sometimes  inserted  in  the  oven  door  to  afford 
sight  of  the  food  without  the  chilling  which  accompanies  any 
door  opening.  An  oven  thermometer  is  also  added  to  enable 
closer  heat  regulation. 


DESIGN 


697 


For  baking  on  a  large  scale,  one  of  the  most  successful  appli- 
ances employs  revolving  shelves  surrounded  by  an  insulated 
metal  oven.  The  heat  is  supplied  by  pipe  burners  located  in  the 
oven  bottom.  The  heated  products  are  well  distributed  by  a 


Figure  211. — Double-Oven  Range,   page  699. 

perforated  baffle  plate  above  the  burners,  and  the  currents  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  the  revolving  shelves  maintains  an  even 
heat  circulation  throughout  the  oven.  Where  the  amount  of 
work  is  too  small  to  justify  this  appliance,  a  type  with  stationary 
shelves  is  used.  The  heat  circulation  is  such  that  a  current  is 
maintained  between  each  set  of  shelves.  A  near  approach  to 


698  APPLIANCE   WORK 

uniform  heating  is  attained,  the  variation  being  that  the  ends  of 
each  shelf,  at  which  points  the  products  are  admitted  from  the 
side  linings,  are  slightly  hotter  than  the  middle,  involving  one 
shift  in  position  during  baking. 


Figure  212. — Cabinet  Range,  page  699. 

BROILING 

Generally,  the  broiling  oven  of  a  domestic  range  is  placed 
directly  beneath  the  baking  oven  to  make  the  burners  that  serve 
tor  baking  purposes  answer  also  for  broiling.  Examples  of  this 


DESIGN  699 

are  the  ordinary  double-oven  ranges,  Figure  211,  and  the  simple 
cabinet,  Figure  212,  and  elevated  double-oven  ranges.  In  some 
of  the  earlier  forms  of  the  ordinary  double-oven  ranges,  the 
broiling  oven  was  placed  for  convenience  over  the  baking  oven, 
but  as  this  arrangement  required  two  sets  of  burners,  it  never 
became  popular.  There  are  some  present  indications,  however, 
that  the  design  may  be  revived. 

In  the  broiling  oven,  the  burners  are  at  the  top,  with  the  flames 
projected  downward  at  an  angle.  The  cooking  is  done  by  the 
radiant  heat  from  these  flames  and  from  the  oven  top  just  above 
them.  To  increase  the  amount  of  radiation,  a  cast-iron  grid  is 
sometimes  placed  over  the  burners  to  absorb  and  radiate  heat 
which  otherwise  would  go  by  convection  to  the  baking  oven  above. 
In  the  double-oven  range,  the  oven  bottom  is  generally  construct- 
ed of  two  sheets  of  metal,  separated  by  an  air  space  to  protect  the 
floor  from  too  high  a  temperature.  For  this  same  reason  the  top 
sheet  of  the  oven  bottom  is  blackened  and  the  bottom  one  is  gal- 
vanized, to  reflect  the  radiant  heat  passing  through  the  top  sheet. 

The  secondary  air  for  combustion  is  usually  admitted  through 
slots  or  perforations  in  the  broiling  oven  bottom,  and  is  con- 
ducted to  the  burners  through  the  space  formed  between  the 
rack  supports  and  the  adjacent  side  linings  of  the  oven.  The 
rack  supports  are  placed  as  close  together  as  possible  to  give  any 
desired  distance  of  the  broiling  pan  below  the  burners.  Some- 
times the  broiling  oven  is  placed  on  a  level  with  the  cooking  top, 
in  order  that  the  convected  heat  of  the  broiling  burner  may  be 
utilized  for  top  cooking. 

In  hotels  and  restaurants,  the  broiling  is  usually  done  on 
separate  appliances  especially  designed  for  the  work  required. 
One  of  these  has  three  single-port  burners,  the  flames  passing 
directly  above  the  meat  pan.  A  refractory  surface  above  the 
flames  increases  the  heat  available  for  cooking. 

A  combination  broiler  and  griddle  of  heavy  construction, 
shown  in  Figure  213,  is  extensively  used  in  restaurants.  The 
heated  air  from  the  drilled  pipe  burners  passes  through  slots  in  a 
baffle  plate,  and  then  is  evenly  distributed  through  a  series  of 
holes  in  a  plate  just  below  the  top  plate.  This  latter  is  of 
polished  cast  iron,  and  is  serviceable  for  broiling,  toasting,  or 
making  griddle  cakes. 

INSULATED 

In  the  baking  and  broiling  ovens  of  the  ordinary  range,  no 
attempt  is  made  to  conserve  the  heat  in  the  oven  by  decreasing 


700 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


the  radiation  from  the  outside  body;  that  is,  by  the  installation 
of  insulating  material  such  as  asbestos.  The  insulated  oven 
range  is  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  conserve  the  heat  which  is 
ordinarily  lost  by  radiation.  However,  inasmuch  as  the  ordinary 
oven  is  of  the  circulating  type,  and  the  heat,  after  circulating 
through  the  oven,  passes  almost  immediately  into  the  outside  air, 
little  is  to  be  gained  by  the  installation  of  insulating  material 
about  the  oven  sides  and  doors.  In  certain  instances,  to  over- 
come this  difficulty,  the  type  of  oven  has  been  changed;  that  is, 
the  oven  is  made  of  the  direct-action  type.  In  certain  other 


Figure  213. — Combination  Broiler  and  Griddle,    page  699. 

instances,  soapstone  heat  retainers  have  been  placed  in  the 
oven  bottom,  and  the  range  is  then  supposed  to  be  used  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  well-known  fireless  cooker  devices.  In 
one  particular  range,  a  device  is  attached  to  the  oven  burner 
which  may  be  set  to  turn  the  gas  off  automatically  at  any 
edetermmed  time.  Articles  to  be  cooked  are  placed  in  the 
oven,  the  timing  device  set,  the  burner  lighted,  and  the  articles 
are  supposed  to  be  cooked,  partially  by  the  direct  heat  of  the 
burner,  and  the  cooking  finished  by  the  heat  given  off  by  the 
soapstone  slabs  after  the  oven  burner  has  been  turned  off  by  the 
automatic  timing  device. 


DESIGN 


701 


There  is  no  doubt  that  some  economy  in  the  use  of  gas  may 
be  effected  by  the  use  of  insulated  oven  ranges  and  similar  ovens 
equipped  with  automatic  timing  devices,  but  since  this  addition 
results  in  an  increased  cost  which  is  hardly  commensurate  with 
the  possible  saving  to  be  made,  they  have  not  had  a  widespread 


ENTIRE  APPLIANCES 

The  preceding  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  the  essential 
parts  of  a  cooking  appliance,  and  especially  Figures  205,  211  and 
212,  have  probably  made  clear  the  basic  features  of  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  such  appliances.  It  is  clear  that  the 
gas  range — except  for  the  burners  and  cocks — is  really  a  frame- 
work upon  which  are  built  up  sheet  iron  parts.  This  framework 
may  be  either  cast  iron  or  steel.  Some  manufacturers  prefer  the 
former  and  some  the  latter,  but  as  long  as  the  framework  pos- 
sesses sufficient  strength  to  resist  breakage,  there  is  little  to  choose 
between  them.  From  the  manufacturing  standpoint,  however, 
the  steel  framework  construction  is  the  more  expensive. 

The  body  of  the  gas  range  and  the  oven  sides,  tops  and  bottoms 
are  made  of  sheet  iron,  and  are  put  together  so  as  to  be  readily 
removable.  The  outside  body  of  the  range  is  usually  coated 
with  japan  or  enamel  to  resist  corrosion.  When  it  is  known 
that  ranges  are  apt  to  be  subjected  to  hard  usage,  cast-iron 
bodies  have  been  used  successfully. 

The  over-all  dimensions  of  some  standard  forms  of  appliances 
are  given  below: 


Type 

Length 

Breadth 

Height 

One-Burner  Hot  Plate  

12} 
22} 
36} 
36} 
52} 

12} 

$ 

25 
25 

7 

S» 

50 

Single-Oven  Range  
Double-  "          "                                           

Cabinet               "      

CONDITIONS  OF  USE 
CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  CONSUMER 

The  first  element  which  is  considered  by  the  purchaser  of 
any  appliance  is,  naturally,  its  cost.  This,  however,  is  not 
necessarily  the  deciding  factor,  as  the  character  of  the  work 
demanded  and  the  space  available — topics  which  will  be  touched 
upon  later — often  receive  close  attention. 


702  APPLIANCE  WORK 

Cheap  as  well  as  expensive  appliances  are  to  be  found,  just  as 
cheap  and  expensive  commodities  are  to  be  had  in  other  com- 
mercial lines.  The  expensive  appliance  is  generally  more 
satisfactory  in  all  respects  than  the  cheaper  article,  but  it  would 
be  injudicious  to  ignore  the  latter.  As  an  illustration,  the 
situation  in  some  of  the  New  England  towns  may  be  cited  where 
cookers,  hot  plates  and  portable  ovens  very  often  form  the  largest 
proportion  of  the  appliances.  The  average  millworker  in  these 
towns  is  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  purchase  the  more  expensive 
standard  single-oven,  double-oven  or  cabinet  range,  and  conse- 
quently must  find  a  substitute  in  a  cooker  or  in  a  combination 
of  a  hot  plate  and  a  portable  oven.  A  similar  condition  is  found 
in  the  tenement  districts  of  large  cities. 

Stepping  up  from  the  single-oven  cooker  and  the  combination 
of  a  hot  plate  and  portable  oven,  the  single-oven  range  is  the 
next  in  line,  but  it  could  really  be  included  in  a  general  classifica- 
tion with  the  double-oven  and  cabinet  ranges.  These  ranges 
meet  the  demands  of  the  average  consumer.  In  wealthier 
homes,  triple-oven  cabinets  of  a  variety  of  designs,  generally 
equipped  with  additional  top  burners,  and  also  special  ranges 
suitable  for  every  conceivable  purpose  and  adapted  to  every 
requirement  for  cooking,  are  to  be  found. 

Of  course,  all  styles  of  cabinet  ranges  can  be  equipped  with  the 
various  additions  of  top  shelves,  warming  closets,  canopies, 
hoods,  glass  door  panels,  temperature  indicators,  enamel  equip- 
ment, porcelain  cock  handles,  and  all  the  refinements  which  make 
for  cleanliness  and  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  appliance.  To 
meet  the  demand  for  ranges  of  higher  quality,  both  as  regards 
durability  and  attractiveness,  manufacturers  are  supplying 
ranges  with  the  sheet  metal  parts  made  of  special  rust-resisting 
material,  or  protecting  these  parts  with  an  aluminum  coating  or 
some  other  preservative.  The  cast-iron  parts  are  also  frequently 
given  a  baked  enamel  or  some  other  high-grade  finish. 

SPACE  AVAILABLE 

The  question  of  space,  particularly  in  small  apartments  and 
residences,  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  selection  of  a 
domestic  appliance.  For  the  small  apartment,  the  elevated-oven 
type  of  range  usually  solves  this  problem,  and  also  gives  the 
necessary  capacity,  while  in  the  small  residences,  short  oinet 
and  double-oven  ranges  are  often  the  largest  types  that  can 
be  used. 


DESIGN  703 

CHARACTER  OF  WORK 
DOMESTIC  COOKING 

The  domestic  appliance  is  used. principally  for  general  cooking, 
with  a  certain  amount  of  bread  and  other  baking.  In  addition, 
the  top  burners  are  often  used  for  laundry  purposes.  While,  in 
a  majority  of  cases,  gas  is  still  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  coal  for 
cooking  purposes  during  the  winter,  yet  in  a  large  and  rapidly 
increasing  number  of  homes,  the  coal  range  has  been  banished. 

HOTELS  AND  RESTAURANTS 

For  small  restaurants,  the  so-called  "short  order"  work  is  the 
main  feature  to  be  considered  in  the  installation  of  an  appliance. 
Here  usually  is  found  a  two-  or  three-burner  oyster  cooker, 
which  will  take  care  of  the  cooking  of  single  stews,  frying  of 
chops,  etc.;  a  broiler  for  steaks;  a  combination  toaster  and 
griddle;  and  perhaps  one  large  burner,  consuming  from  50  to  60 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  for  the  deep  grease  frying,  such  as 
oysters,  croquettes  and  doughnuts.  For  cooking  that  requires 
a  longer  time,  such  as  the  roasting  of  meats  and  the  boiling  of 
soups,  a  gas  range  is  often  installed  and  usually  with  a  four- 
burner  top  and  an  18-inch  oven. 

In  hotels  and  large  restaurants,  the  work  is  much  heavier,  and 
consists  of  the  roasting  of  large  joints  of  meat,  cooking  of  vege- 
tables, the  boiling  of  large  kettles  of  soup,  and  the  baking  of  a 
various  assortment  of  special  foodstuffs.  This  requires  hotel 
ranges  of  heavy  construction  and  other  specially  adapted  appli- 
ances. Quite  a  little  broiling  is  done,  and  for  this  a  special  com- 
bination broiler  and  toaster,  Figure  213,  is  installed,  or  perhaps 
the  broiler  is  placed  over  the  top  burners  of  the  hotel  range  as  an 
elevated  oven.  The  latter  is  more  apt  to  be  the  case  on  account 
of  the  space  limitations  in  kitchens  of  this  type.  Steam  tables 
for  keeping  all  the  foodstuffs  warm,  stock  pots,  coffee  urns  and 
plate  warmers  would  make  up  the  rest  of  the  kitchen  equipment. 


CHAPTER  LXIII 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 
PREINSPECTION  FOR 
LOCATION  OF  APPLIANCE 

CONSUMER'S  WISHES 

When  the  first  representative  of  the  distribution  department 
arrives  on  the  premises,  whether  a  preinspector  or  a  fitter,  he 
should  interview  the  consumer  and  decide  on  the  exact  desired 
location  of  the  appliance.  The  location  of  a  cooking  (as  well  as 
any  other)  appliance  should  be  determined  by  the  wishes  of  the 
consumer,  except  where  safety  and  proper  operating  conditions 
interfere.  In  that  case,  the  reasons  for  another  location  should 
be  clearly  explained  to  the  consumer,  but  if  he  does  not  agree 
with  the  decision  reached,  the  matter  should  be  referred  to  the 
office  for  final  disposition. 

Where  conditions  are  such  that  it  is  possible  to  make  the 
connection  in  several  ways,  such  as  by  iron  pipe  or  by  flexible 
tubing,  or  by  a  combination  of  both,  the  method  proposed  should 
be  explained  to  the  consumer,  as  should  also  be  any  necessity  of 
breaking  floor  or  walls,  or  the  possible  unsightliness  resulting 
from  running  exposed  pipe. 

MINIMUM  FIRE  HAZARD 

To  avoid  a  fire  hazard  from  the  overheating  of  any  adjacent 
structure,  the  following  points  should  be  observed  : 

The  combustion  products  should  be  prevented  from 
impinging  directly  on  any  wood  or  other  inflammable 
material.  If  the  products  are  discharged  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction,  the  discharge  opening  should  be  at 
least  six  inches  from  the  surface  in  question.  If  a 
baffle  is  provided,  or  if  the  products  are  discharged 
vertically,  a  space  of  one  inch  between  the  top  casting 
and  the  surface  is  considered  sufficient. 

(704) 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  705 

When  there  is  an  oven  at  a  higher  level  than  the  top 
burners,  a  minimum  distance  of  four  inches  from  the 
outside  of  the  oven  to  a  wall  of  inflammable  material 
should  be  maintained,  or  some  intermediate  protec- 
tion provided.  One  method  of  protection  is  by  sheet 
asbestos  one-eighth  inch  thick  and  covered  with 
sheet  iron  or  zinc  of  convenient  gauge. 

With  a  wood  floor,  the  distance  from  the  floor  to 
the  bottom  oven  lining  of  an  ordinary  domestic  range 
should  be  not  less  than  four  inches,  and  any  appliance 
having  an  unventilated  base,  or  legs  too  short  to  afford 
the  required  distance,  should  not  be  connected.  As 
protection  to  a  wood  floor,  a  base  of  cement,  slate  or 
hollow  brick  should  be  always  provided  when  installing 
a  hotel  range  or  a  combination  coal  and  gas  range. 

APPEARANCE  AND  EASE  OF  CONNECTION 

Preceding  considerations  not  interfering,  the  safe  location 
necessitating  the  smallest  amount  of  connection  labor  and 
material  should  be  chosen.  The  relation  after  installation  of  the 
appliance  and  its  connections  should  be  considered.  In  general, 
the  appliance  should  be  placed  as  close  to  the  wall  as  possible, 
and  should  not  project  into  or  tend  to  block  any  passageway. 
However,  the  accessibility  and  easy  manipulation  of  any  parts 
of  the  appliance,  especially  burner  cocks,  should  be  assured. 
It  should  be  possible  also,  with  little  trouble,  to  shut  off  any 
cock  at  the  appliance,  or  to  unscrew  the  long  screw  or  union 
necessarv  for  disconnection. 

EXPOSURE 

Exposure  to  damage  from  weather  conditions,  or  to  excessive 
draught,  which  may  blow  out  the  flame  or  deflect  it  from  its 
natural  position,  sometimes  may  be  determining  location  factors. 

CONDITION  OF 

APPLIANCE 

After  the  location  has  been  determined,  the  appliance  should 
be  inspected  for  completeness  and  for  the  condition  and  proper 
assembly  of  all  its  parts.  If  any  are  imperfect,  and  if  the 
appliance  has  been  purchased  recently  from  the  company,  proper 
orders  should  be  originated  to  have  these  parts  made  good. 
Should  the  appliance  be  old,  or  one  not  purchased  from  the 
company,  any  defect  should  be  called  to  the  attention  of  the 


706  APPLIANCE  WORK 

consumer  and  the  latter  advised  as  to  its  remedy.  If  the  work 
can  be  done  by  the  company,  the  consumer  should  be  requested 
to  sign  the  necessary  order. 

The  inspection  should  also  include  an  examination  into  any 
peculiar  or  unusual  design.  If  the  appliance  is  not  of  approved 
type,  a  detailed  report  of  the  peculiarities  should  be  made  to  the 
office  and  the  connection  delayed  until  its  desirability  is  passed 
on.  However,  if  it  is  possible,  by  some  slight  change,  to  make 
the  appliance  conform  to  an  approved  design,  this  should  be  done 
and  the  installation  completed. 

SERVICE 

When  the  appliance  to  be  installed  is  of  a  comparatively  high 
consumption  rate,  or  when  there  are  indications  that  the  existing 
service  is  already  taxed  nearly  or  quite  to  its  capacity,  the 
maximum  probable  consumption  rate  should  be  estimated  by  the 
use  of  proper  data,  and  the  required  service  size  determined. 
Unless  these  computations  show  that  the  existing  service  is  far 
under  size,  no  enlargement  should  be  made  until  the  necessity 
for  this  has  been  proved  by  actual  test  after  the  installation. 

METER  AND  CONNECTION 

The  meter  and  its  connections  should  be  inspected  to  be 
assured  that  their  capacity  is  in  accordance  with  the  schedules 
given  in  Chapter  XLVIII.  If  inadequate,  orders  should  be 
given  to  make  any  enlargements  required. 

As  most  domestic  cooking  appliances  have  a  comparatively 
small  rate  of  consumption,  it  will  be  seldom  that  the  service,  the 
meter  or  its  connections  will  need  renewing  solely  on  account  of 
insufficient  size. 

APPLIANCE  LINE 

If  there  is  an  independent  line  already  available,  it  should  be 
used,  unless  inspection  shows  it  to  be  in  bad  condition,  or  so  much 
smaller  than  the  standard  size  that  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
its  carrying  capacity  will  suffice.  Where  there  is  a  large  saving 
by  the  use  of  the  existing  line,  the  question  of  supply  should  be 
carefully  computed  and  even  experimentally  determined  before 
running  any  new  piping. 

If  there  is  no  independent  line,  the  appliance  may  be  con- 
nected to  an  outlet  in  the  existing  housepiping  system,  provided 
that  this  outlet  is  supplied  by  piping  installed  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  in  Chapter  LIII,  that  it  is  at  least  as  large  as  the  inlet 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


707 


piping  of  the  appliance  to  be  connected  and  is  not  already  sup- 
plying much  gas  to  other  appliances,  and  that  the  appliance  is 
to  be  placed  within  15  feet  of  the  outlet.  The  connecting  pipe 
should  be  the  size  of  the  outlet.  These  outlet  connections  are 
more  generally  available  for  small  appliances  such  as  hot  plates. 

With  neither  outlet  nor  independent  lines  available,  a  new  line 
will  be  needed.  Because  of  the  great  variation  in  consumption 
of  cooking  appliances  of  different  types,  it  is  impossible  to  make 
a  schedule  of  standard  pipe  sizes  for  all  kinds  of  appliances  and 
lengths  of  run.  However,  a  certain  standardization  has  been 
reached  in  dwellings,  containing,  as  they  do,  appliances  of 
approximately  equal  consumption  rate  requiring  lines  of  nearly 
similar  length.  Here  good  practice  is  to  use  1-inch  pipe  for  any 
horizontal  and  f -inch  for  any  vertical  line  to  a  domestic  range  or 
to  a  range  and  water  heater.  For  other  appliances  in  dwellings 
or  appliances  elsewhere,  the  pipe  size  can  be  determined  by  a 
computer.  The  consumption  rate  is  known  and  the  length  of 
the  run.  The  available  pressure  drop  will  vary  according  to 
local  conditions,  but  under  normal  circumstances  0.2  inch  will 
be  a  good  figure  to  use. 

In  order  to  save  the  trouble  of  computing  the  size  in  each 
individual  case,  the  following  table  has  been  prepared.  It  is 
based  on  an  approximate  pressure  loss  of  0.2  inch  through  the 
maximum  length  and  with  the  maximum  delivery. 

PIPE  CAPACITIES  IN  CUBIC  FEET  PER  HOUR  FOR  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  OF  RUN 


Length  in  feet 

1  to  20 

21  to  40 

41  to  60 

61  to  80 

81  to  100 

Cubic  feet  per  hour 

Size  of  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

Size  of  Pipe 

0-100 

. 

1 

1 

101  -    150 

1 

1 

IJ 

151  -    200 

li 

201  -    250 

1 

1 

251  -    300 

1 

1 

301  -    350 

li 

1 

351  -    400 

ij 

li 

1: 

2 

401  -    450 

i 

1 

2 

2 

451  -    500 

li 

2 

2 

2 

501  -    600 

2 

2 

2 

2 

601  -    700 

2 

2 

2 

2 

701  -    800 

2 

2 

2 

2 

801  -    900 

2 

2 

2 

2* 

2 

901  -  1000 

2 

2 

21 

2» 

2 

708  APPLIANCE  WORK 

MATERIAL  AND  TOOLS 

If  the  installation  is  being  made  under  the  "preinspection" 
system,  the  preinspector  is  the  employee  who  obtains  the 
information  and  makes  the  decisions  and  calculations  previously 
mentioned.  Under  this  system,  his  next  duty  is  to  make  a  list 
of  the  pipe,  fittings  and  other  material  that  will  be  needed  in  the 
installation,  and  then  to  notify  the  consumer  that  delivery  of 
this  material  and  of  the  appliance  (if  necessary)  will  follow. 
This  notice  is  important  to  impress  upon  the  consumer  the 
desirability  of  not  leaving  home  without  providing  access  for 
the  delivery  wagon. 

The  list  of  material  is  turned  over  to  the  storeroom,  the 
material  is  gotten  together  and  the  delivery  made ;  this  including, 
of  course,  the  appliance  when  the  latter  is  of  the  class  kept  in 
stock  by  the  company. 

Under  other  systems  it  is  usual  to  deliver  the  material,  the 
quantity  of  which  has  been  standardized,  and  the  appliance, 
shortly  after  the  receipt  of  the  order  and  without  any  previous 
visit  of  the  preinspector.  A  variation  of  this  scheme  is  practiced 
when  the  appliance  is  small  and  the  connection  work  will  not 
require  much  time.  This  consists  of  delivering  the  appliance 
on  a  wagon  which  is  equipped  with  a  stock  of  pipe  and  fittings 
sufficient  to  make  connections  of  this  type.  The  man  in  charge 
of  the  wagon  is,  of  course,  a  practical  fitter.  This  method  is  also 
used  in  connecting  larger  appliances  when  the  appliance  delivery 
has  been  made  by  the  manufacturer  or  agent,  or  even  the 
company,  and  the  connection  work  will  require  only  a  small 
amount  of  material  and  labor.  With  these  systems,  the  work- 
man who  made  the  connection  would  care  for  the  work  already 
described,  and  when  working  from  a  wagon,  would  list  the  pipe 
and  fittings  for  the  reimbursement  of  his  wagon  stock. 

The  tools  used  for  the  installation  of  cooking  and  other 
appliances  are  described  in  Chapter  XX.  See  Figures  60  and 
61. 

CONNECTION 
SHUTTING  OFF  GAS 

Before  starting  connection  work,  the  fitter  should  explain  to 
the  consumer  that  the  gas  must  be  shut  off.  If  an  immediate 
shut-off  will  cause  great  inconvenience,  and  the  work  involves 
running  a  line  of  fair  length  from  the  meter  to  the  appliance,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  do  this  before  the  gas  is  shut  off,  leaving  the 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  709 

pipe  disconnected  at  both  ends  until  the  gas  supply  may  be 
conveniently  discontinued  and  the  connection  made.  This, 
however,  is  not  economical  working  and  should  not  be  followed 
unless  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  not  feasible  when  the  appli- 
ance line  already  exists,  or  when  the  connection  is  to  be  made  to 
an  existing  outlet  in  the  housepiping.  In  such  cases,  the  shut-off 
should  be  made  at  once  and  the  piping  started  at  the  outlet  and 
run  toward  the  appliance. 

RUNNING  PIPING 

It  now  should  be  definitely  decided  where  the  line,  if  one  is 
needed,  is  to  start,  and  its  location.  Unless  prevented  by  con- 
ditions as  stated  above,  or  by  other  local  conditions,  this  work 
should  be  started  at  the  point  from  which  the  supply  is  to  be 
furnished,  usually  at  the  meter  or  at  an  existing  outlet,  and  con- 
tinued to  the  appliance.  It  should  be  governed  by  the  piping 
rules  given  in  Chapter  LI  1 1.  The  following  additional  points 
may  be  noted : 

Avoid  a  location  subjected  to  draughts,  to  excessive 
heat  or  cold,  or  to  sudden  temperature  changes;  one 
that  will  interfere  with  the  operation  of  doors  or 
windows,  or  diminish  the  headroom  of  a  passageway 
or  stairs;  or  one  in  a  shaft  or  duct  whether  alone  or  in 
common  with  other  structures.  In  general,  the  easiest 
run  consistent  with  safety  and  good  workmanship 
should  be  followed,  but  an  unfavorable  location  should 
not  be  taken  because  it  affords  an  easy  installation. 
Run  exposed  piping  preferably.  If  exposed  where 
an  unfinished  appearance  is  objectionable,  use  galvan- 
ized material,  or  paint  to  conform  with  surroundings. 
If  the  piping  crosses  electric  wires  with  a  clearance  of 
less  than  six  inches,  protect  the  wires  with  porcelain 
split  sleeves. 

The  line  should  be  run  parallel  to  the  wall  of  the 
building  or  room.  It  should  have  a  fall  toward  the 
meter,  or  when  this  is  impossible,  should  be  provided 
with  drips  at  the  low  points.  These  should  be  so 
installed  that  condensation  may  be  easily  removed. 
Where  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  line  may  be 
used  to  supply  other  appliances  located  along  its 
length,  all  joints  should  be  made  with  a  tee  instead 
of  a  socket. 


710  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  jointing  material  should  be  chosen  with  the 
idea  of  making  a  tight  joint,  but  one  that  is  not 
extremely  hard  to  take  apart. 

In  dwellings,  except  where  a  tubing  connection  is 
used,  a  cock  on  the  line  at  the  appliance  is  unneces- 
sary, because  the  gas  may  be  conveniently  shut  off  by 
the  meter  cock.  In  restaurants,  or  other  places  where 
a  number  of  appliances  are  in  constant  use,  or  where, 
for  other  reasons,  the  even  temporary  discontinuance 
of  the  gas  supply  is  undesirable,  a  cock  should  be 
placed  on  the  line  at  the  appliance.  The  union  or 
long  screw  used  at  this  point  should  be  placed  between 
the  cock  and  the  appliance.  Ebonite  washers  are 
recommended  for  use  on  these  unions. 

Proper  swing  joints  should  be  placed  at  all  appli- 
ances with  burner  rails,  in  order  to  allow  easy  adjust- 
ment for  direction  of  burner  cocks. 

TURNING  ON  GAS 

After  the  gas  line  has  been  installed,  properly  fastened  in 
place,  and  connected  to  the  appliance,  the  gas  may  be  turned  on 
if  the  consumer  desires,  whether  or  not  a  flue  connection  is  to 
be  made.  The  turn  on  of  the  gas  should  be  made  with  care,  the 
instructions  given  for  this  work  being  faithfully  followed.  (See 
Chapter  XLIX.)  The  line  and  the  appliance  should  be  "gassed 
out"  and  all  new  work  tested  for  leak  by  sense  of  smell  and,  if 
necessary,  by  the  use  of  soapsuds. 

FLUE  CONNECTION 

A  flue  connection  to  a  gas-burning  appliance  is  often  desirable 
to  convey  from  the  room  the  products  of  combustion  or  of 
cooking,  and  thus  to  avoid  any  objectionable  odor,  or  deposit  of 
grease  that  otherwise  might  be  thrown  against  the  walls  and 
ceiling  by  the  products.  A  flue  connection  is  many  times  not 
only  desirable,  but  also  absolutely  necessary,  to  eliminate  the 
danger  resulting  from  an  escape  of  unburned  gas,  of  the  products 
of  uncompleted  combustion  into  any  room,  or  of  the  products  of 
combustion  into  a  small  room.  In  general,  a  flue  connection 
to  an  ordinary  domestic  range  is  unnecessary,  even  when 
equipped  with  a  canopy,  unless  the  amount  of  cooking  done  is 
abnormal,  but  it  is  very  necessary  on  hotel  ranges,  bakers'  ovens 
and  other  appliances  of  this  type,  especially  when  these  appli- 
ances are  located,  as  often  is  the  case,  in  unventilated  rooms  in 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  711 

the  basement  of  the  building..    To  some  extent,  a  hotel  range  is 
dependent  for  its  efficient  operation  on  the  chimney  draught. 

The  foregoing  principles  lead  to  the  adoption  of  the  following 
requirements,  which  should  be  met  by  the  company  in  all 
installations  made  by  its  employees,  and  insisted  on  in  installa- 
tions made  by  others  before  gas  will  be  turned  on  or  repair  work 
done. 

Flue  connections  are  necessary  to  cooking  appliances  of  the 
following  kinds  and  under  the  following  conditions: 

Any  appliance  (except  a  domestic  range)  when  the 
hourly  gas  consumption  exceeds  40  cubic  feet. 
A  hotel  range. 
A  baker's  oven. 

Any  other  appliance  when  the  previously  mentioned 
principles  require  it. 

Before  beginning  work  on  an  installation  which 
requires  a  flue,  the  fitter  should  explain  the  location 
of  the  flue  to  the  occupant,  so  that  no  question  will 
arise  as  to  the  alleged  unsightliness  or  the  disfigure- 
ment caused  by  the  flue  connection. 

It  is  preferable  to  have  a  separate  flue  or  chimney 
for  each  appliance,  but  as  this  is  seldom  possible,  each 
appliance  should,  if  practicable,  have  an  independent 
connection  to  the  main  flue  or  chimney.  If  this 
cannot  be  done,  the  new  flue  pipe  may  be  connected 
into  the  flue  pipe  which  already  exists. 

Blued  steel  flue  pipe  should  be  used  inside  of  a 
building,  where  the  location  is  not  damp.  Galvanized 
pipe  should  be  used  in  damp  locations,  in  cellars,  and 
on  the  outside.  No  flue  should  be  less  than  three 
inches  in  diameter.  The  following  schedule  shows 
the  sizes  for  various  kinds  of  cooking  appliances: 

Appliance  Size  of^FIue 

Ordinary  range 
Elevated  oven  range 
Cabinet  range 

Canopy  of  range  Outlet  Size 

Hotel  range 
Baker's  oven 

A  flue  connection  to  any  appliance,  except  a  range 
provided  with  a  canopy  or  its  equivalent,  should 
include  a  draft  hood,  Figure  214,  which  should  be 
placed  in  the  vertical  run  directly  above  the  appli- 


712 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


31ZE  OF 
PIPt 

3" 

A 

5" 

B 
«a 

C 

I3" 

D 

C. 

P 

G 

H 

1 

J 

03" 

K 

L 

M 

M 

0 

4" 

7 

Zi 

1" 

24- 

2  + 

1 

4- 

li 

JX 

4 

li 

A-  j 

NOTE:-THfctt  SHttT  STttL  STRAPS  OF  M?  18  GAUGE  (U.S.S)  z'WlDt  AND 
PLACLD  120* APART,  TO  Bt  U5tD  FOR  HOLDIHG  DRAFT  HOOD 

Figure  214.— Draft  Hood,  page  711. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  713 

ance.  This  hood  is  designed  with  a  double  cone 
baffle,  which  reduces  the  friction  encountered  by  the 
ascending  products  of  combustion,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevents  down  draught  from  striking  the  burner 
flame. 

When  there  is  a  side  broiling  or  baking  oven,  or 
when  two  flue  outlets  are  provided  in  a  range  having 
two  ovens,  pipe  of  the  size  of  each  outlet  should  be 
installed  to  a  central  Y  fitting,  and  from  there  a  4-inch 
connection  made. 

Where  there  are  more  than  two  ovens,  pipe  of  the 
outlet  size  should  be  installed;  if  there  are  two  flue 
outlets,  pipes  the  size  of  the  outlets  should  be  installed 
to  a  central  Y  fitting,  and  a  6-inch  pipe  run  from 
that  point. 

When  connecting  two  appliances,  whether  coal  or 
gas,  to  one  flue,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  area  of  the 
main  flue  equal  to  the  combined  areas  of  the  flues 
from  the  two  appliances.  The  flues  should  be  joined 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  point  where  connection  is 
made  to  the  chimney. 

The  flue  connection  should  be  as  short  as  possible, 
and  long  horizontal  runs  should  be  avoided.  To 
accomplish  this,  the  appliance  should  be  placed  close 
to  where  the  flue  connection  would  enter  the  main 
flue,  or  would  pass  out  of  the  room.  The  flue  pipe 
should  be  attached  to  the  appliance  by  means  of  a 
nail  slipped  through  the  hole  drilled  in  the  cast-iron 
lip  of  the  flue  outlet.  Horizontal  runs  should  be 
slanted  as  much  as  possible,  allowing  a  rise  of  at  least 
one  inch  in  three  feet.  The  joints  of  such  runs  should 
be  fastened  to  screw  eyes  in  the  ceiling  above,  with 
copper  or  malleable  iron  wire.  When  there  are  more 
than  two  lengths  in  any  such  run,  the  joints  should 
be  soldered  or  riveted  together.  Vertical  runs  ordi- 
narily require  no  support  except  that  given  by  their 
lower  connection.  When  this  is  insufficient,  they 
may  be  made  fast  in  the  same  way  as  horizontal  runs. 
A  tee,  with  a  capped  end  looking  down,  should  be 
placed  on  the  lower  end  of  every  vertical  run.  This 
serves  as  a  trap  for  any  dirt  or  moisture  that  may 
drop. 


714 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


SECTION     PLAH 
FINGE.R.S   Or    FLANGE    ARE  TURNED   BACK. 


iHOWlMG     PIMGERS    Of     FLAMGE.    TURME.D     BACK. 

Figure  215.— Hat  Flange,  page  716. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


715 


Figure  216. — Flue  Connection  to  Ordinary  Chimney, 
page  718. 


716 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


The  connection  into  an  existing  flue  pipe  should  be 
made  by  inserting  a  Y  fitting,  or  sometimes  a  tee. 
Another  connecting  device  is  used,  made  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  hat  flange  connection  to  a  street  main. 
A  hole  is  cut  in  the  existing  pipe  and  the  hat  flange, 
Figure  215,  inserted  and  fastened  by  bending  over  the 
numerous  thin  metal  lips  with  which  the  circumference 
is  provided. 

The  connection  into  a  brick  or  masonry  chimney  is 
made  by  cutting  out  a  hole  of  the  proper  size,  Figure 
216,  inserting  the  flue  pipe  and  making  the  opening 
tight  again  with  plaster  or  cement.  When  making 
such  connections,  care  should  be  exercised  not  to 


PLASTER.- 

COLLAR. 
TERRA-  COTTA 


Js: 


^ 


TE.RRA- COTTA 
COLLAR. 

>INISH    COLLAR. 
PLASTE.R. 


Figure  217.— Flue  Connection  through  Lath    and    Plaster, 
page  718. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


717 


Figure  218.— Flue  Connection  to  Outside  Wall,  page  718. 


718  APPLIANCE  WORK 

project  the  flue  pipe  into  the  chimney  so  far  as  to 
affect  the  draught  by  reducing  the  effective  area  of 
the  chimney. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  run  a  flue  through  a  parti- 
tion of  combustible  material,  such  as  lath  and  plaster, 
the  hole  should  be  cut  large  enough  to  insert  a  terra 
cotta  collar  of  inside  diameter  1  inch  larger  than  the 
flue  pipe.  This  is  shown  in  Figure  217.  The  ends  of 
the  collar  should  be  flush  with  the  sides  of  the  parti- 
tion. The  pipe  should  be  held  central  in  the  collar  by 
a  "spider"  or  by  corrugated  tape  about  2  inches  wide. 
A  finishing  collar  should  be  placed  around  the  pipe  on 
each  side  of  the  partition  and  flush  against  the  latter. 
When  there  is  no  main  flue  or  chimney  available 
inside,  the  flue  connection  should  be  extended  through 
the  building  wall  to  the  outside,  Figure  218.  If 
this  wall  is  constructed  of  combustible  material,  the 
method  just  described  for  an  interior  partition  should 
be  followed.  If  of  masonry,  a  neat  hole  should  be  cut, 
a  collar  of  some  sort  preferably  inserted,  and  the  flue 
run  through  this.  If  the  occupant  objects  to  cutting 
the  outside  wall,  the  extension  may  be  made  through 
a  window  unless  it  interferes  with  the  closing  of  fire 
shutters.  This  can  be  done  by  either  of  the  following 
methods :  First,  supply  a  board  as  long  as  the  window 
is  wide,  so  that  it  will  fit  snugly  in  the  window  frame 
above  the  upper  sash,  and  wade  enough  to  allow  1  inch 
clearance  on  each  side  of  the  hole  cut  for  the  flue.  Cut 
this  hole  1  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe,  and 
keep  the  latter  central  by  using  a  finishing  collar  of 
some  sort  on  each  side.  Second,  remove  a  pane  of 
glass  from  the  upper  sash,  and  replace  it  with  tin  or 
sheet  iron  in  which  is  cut  a  hole  for  the  flue.  In 
either  case, screw  the  upper  sash  fast,  and  nail  a  block 
in  the  lower  sash  groove,  to  prevent  the  lower  sash, 
when  raised,  from  striking  and  breaking  the  pipe. 

When  running  a  flue  outside  of  a  building  and 
parallel  to  the  wall,  the  length  of  the  vertical  outside 
pipe  should  be  not  less  than  3  feet  nor  more  than  10. 
Place  the  flue  so  that  the  inside  edge  of  the  standard 
cap  is  at  least  6  inches  from  the  wall,  to  prevent  back 
draughts  when  the  wind  is  blowing  against  the  wall. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  719 

The  flue  should  be  firmly  secured  to  the  wall  with 
braces. 

After  completing  any  flue  connection,  the  appliance 
should  be  lighted  to  see  that  the  products  of  combus- 
tion are  being  carried  away  by  the  flue.  The  con- 
sumer should  be  advised  of  the  purpose  of  the  flue 
connection,  and  warned  that  closing  off  or  removing 
the  flue  will  cause  an  unpleasant  odor,  or  even  more 
serious  results  in  the  case  of  a  small  room  and  a  "blue 
flame"  appliance. 

It  is  not  good  practice  to  install  a  damper  in  a  flue 
connection  to  a  gas-burning  appliance,  unless  it  is 
found  that  the  absence  of  the  damper  interferes  with 
the  draught  of  another  appliance,  or  the  consumer 
complains  that  its  opening  permits  the  entrance  of 
insects  or  cold  air,  or  the  exit  of  warm  air.  Under 
these  conditions,  there  should  be  installed  a  damper, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  hole  1  inch  in  diameter. 
This  1-inch  hole  is  not  always  sufficient  for  flues  from 
automatic  water  heaters,  and  in  these  cases,  the  area 
that  cannot  be  closed  should  be  supplemented  by 
using  a  damper  1  inch  smaller  in  diameter  than  the 
flue  pipe,  thus  providing  a  half  inch  annular  space 
between  the  flue  pipe  and  the  damper. 

INSPECTION 

After  all  connections  necessary  have  been  completed,  the 
workman  should  carefully  inspect  each  section  of  the  installation 
and  correct  any  fault  found. 

ADJUSTMENT  AND  INSTRUCTION 

If  the  workman's  orders  include  a  final  adjustment  of  the  kind 
of  appliance  just  connected,  this  should  be  done  now.  This 
adjustment  consists  principally  in  a  proper  regulation  of  the 
supply  of  gas  and  air  to  the  burner  and  mixer,  and  of  an  exami- 
nation to  make  sure  that  all  parts  are  in  place  and  functioning 
correctly.  When  the  appliance  is  of  a  type  that  the  workman 
has  been  instructed  not  to  adjust,  he  should  explain  that  another 
man  will  follow  for  that  purpose,  and  should  advise  the  consumer 
that  the  appliance  cannot  be  used  properly  until  after  a  final 
adjustment.  Under  either  condition,  the  man  who  makes  the 
final  adjustment,  and  the  fitter  before  him,  if  competent,  should 
nstruct  the  consumer  in  the  use  and  operation  of  the  appliance, 


720  APPLIANCE   WORK 

particular  attention  being  given  to  the  method  of  lighting  the 
oven  burners. 

RECORDS  OF  WORK 

All  records  required  for  the  work  should  be  made.  The  work 
order  should  be  posted  with  any  necessary  information,  the  lists 
of  material  used  filled  out,  and  an  order  originated  for  any  further 
work  required. 

CLEANING  UP 

The  workman  should  clean  up  any  dirt  for  which  his  work 
is  responsible,  replace  any  articles  moved,  and  notify  the  con- 
sumer either  that  the  job  is  entirely  complete  or  that  another 
call  will  be  made. 

SUBINSPECTI-ON    FOR 
QUALITY  OF  WORK 

When  the  fitter  who  makes  the  connection  is  not  considered 
competent  to  make  the  final  adjustments  and  to  give  the  neces- 
sary instructions,  an  inspection  should  be  made  by  a  qualified 
man  known  as  the  subinspector,  within  a  short  time  after  the 
installation.  Such  inspection  should  be  made  of  the  installa- 
tions of  all  appliances  having  ovens,  and  of  all  extra  large  and 
special  appliances,  and  those  of  new  or  unusual  type.  The 
inspection  should  consist  of  an  examination  of  the  mechanical 
work  of  the  connection  to  see  if  instal  ation  has  been  made 
according  to  the  rules  before  mentioned. 

OPERATION  OF  APPLIANCE 

The  subinspector  should  make  certain  that  the  appliance  is 
left  in  proper  adjustment.  He  is  presumably  the  last  repre- 
sentative of  the  distribution  department  who  will  call,  and  he 
should,  therefore,  also  determine  that  the  consumer  is  familiar 
with  the  use  and  operation  of  the  appliance,  and  any  instructions 
to  be  given,  or  needs  to  be  cared  for,  should  be  the  subject  of  his 
close  attention  at  that  time. 

SATISFACTION  OF  CONSUMER 

The  subinspector  should  endeavor  to  settle  all  questions  to 
the  consumer's  satisfaction,  and  if  unable  to  do  this,  he  should 
inform  the  consumer  that  further  steps  will  be  taken  to  assure 
complete  mutual  understanding.  When  these  points  have  been 
definitely  settled,  the  installation  may  be  considered  complete 
in  all  respects. 


CHAPTER  LXIV 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 
REASONS  NECESSITATING  MAINTENANCE 
The  rules  given  in  Chapter  LXIII  are  designed  not  only  to 
make  the  installation  of  an  appliance  satisfactory,  but  also  to 
reduce  to  a  minimum  the  necessity  for,  and,  therefore,  the  cost  of, 
maintenance  visits.  However,  no  appliance  can  remain  in 
constant  use  without  inspection  and  repairs,  and,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  appliance  that  is  used  the  most  frequently  will 
need  the  most  attention.  The  cooking  appliance  is  the  gas 
appliance  most  universally  used,  and  so  its  maintenance  necessi- 
tates considerable  attention  from  the  company.  Although 
adjustments  and  repairs  usually  are  rather  easy  to  make,  yet 
this  work  requires  the  services  of  a  well-trained  man,  and  should 
not  be  entrusted  to  any  one  who  does  not  thoroughly  understand 
the  proper  remedy  for  each  condition  he  may  meet. 

DOMESTIC  APPLIANCES 
ADJUSTMENTS 

Visits  to  maintain  domestic  cooking  appliances  usually  are  the 
result  of  a  request  by  the  consumer  for  attention.  The  most 
common  trouble  is  that  of  an  improper  adjustment  of  the  air  and 
gas  mixture,  which  results  in  poor  combustion  and  slow  cooking. 
This  may  be  due  to  a  change  in  the  condition  of  pressure  since 
the  burner  was  last  adjusted,  or  to  an  attempt  by  the  consumer 
himself  to  improve  conditions,  but  far  more  often  is  it  due  simply 
to  an  accumulation  of  dirt  and  grease  on  the  burner  top,  or  in 
the  gas  orifice,  or  both.  On  many  appliances  it  can  be  due  to  the 
air  shutter  slipping  out  of  position,  thereby  closing  or  opening 
the  air  ports  of  the  burner,  but  on  the  more  modern  ones,  this  is 
made  practically  impossible  by  the  improved  air  shutter  con- 
struction (see  Figure  192). 

When  a  complaint  man  finds  the  trouble  caused  by  wrong 
adjustment,  he  should  proceed  to  remedy  it,  remembering 

(721) 


722  APPLIANCE  WORK 

always  that  the  orifices,  burners,  burner  ports  and  other 
openings  through  which  gas  or  air  passes,  should  be  clean  and 
clear.  The  top  burners  of  a  domestic  cooking  appliance  should 
be  adjusted  to  a  medium  hard  flame,  having  a  blue  cone  from 
one-quarter  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long.  Usually  the  flame 
top  should  be  not  nearer  than  1^  inches  to  the  top  of  the  grate 
bars.  The  oven  burners  should  be  adjusted  to  a  slightly  longer 
and  softer  flame,  and  if  the  adjustment  is  made  while  the  oven 
is  cold,  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  flame  softening  still 
further  after  it  has  been  burning  for  a  short  time.  Bearing  these 
rules  in  mind,  if  the  complaint  man  finds  the  flames  yellow- 
tipped,  indicating  too  great  a  proportion  of  gas  in  the  mixture, 
he  should  investigate  and  find  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  If  it  is 
due  to  insufficient  air  being  admitted  through  the  air  shutter, 
the  latter  should  be  opened.  If  due  to  an  excess  of  gas,  the 
orifice  should  be  well  hammered  up  and  then  reamed  out  to  the 
proper  size.  If  due  to  a  gas  pressure  so  low  that  insufficient  air 
is  being  entrained  into  the  mixture,  the  cause  should  be  located 
and  remedied.  The  cause  of  such  poor  supply  may  be  a  stoppage 
in  the  orifice  or  the  burner  cock,  and  this  may  be  removed  by  a 
wire  or  a  reamer,  or  it  may  be  due  to  various  other  conditions  of 
stoppage,  small  size,  or  other  defect  in  the  supply  piping,  the 
meter,  the  service  or  the  main.  In  this  event,  it  should  be 
treated  in  accordance  with  the  rules  given  under  the  appropriate 
headings  in  Chapters  XXXIV  and  LVII.  Dirty  burners  are 
always  productive  of  trouble.  They  may  be  the  result  of  grease 
and  dirt  entering  the  ports  through  a  long  period  of  time,  to  food 
boiling  over,  or  to  the  flame  flashing  back  and  burning  at  the 
orifice  and  depositing  carbon  on  the  inside  of  the  burner.  Some- 
times sufficient  cleaning  can  be  done  with  any  sharp  instrument, 
but  more  often  a  thorough  boiling  in  a  soda  solution  is  necessary. 

After  an  orifice  has  been  reamed,  the  burner  cock  should  be 
turned  on  and  the  issuing  stream  of  gas  lighted,  in  order  to  be 
sure  that  it  will  be  central  in  the  mixer. 

When  the  complaint  man  finds  an  improper  adjustment 
caused  by  an  excess  of  air,  which  is  evidenced  by  the  flame  being 
too  hard,  or  by  its  flashing  back  into  the  mixer  and  burning  at 
the  orifice,  he  should  reduce  the  air  by  closing  the  shutter. 
When  an  appliance  is  not  provided  with  adjustable  air  shutters, 
the  gas  supply  alone  can  be  regulated  in  the  attempt  to  obtain 
the  proper  flame.  In  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  do  this 
satisfactorily. 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  723 

Many  times  a  complaint  is  found  to  be  due  not  to  an  improper 
adjustment,  but  merely  to  the  consumer's  ignorance  of  operation. 
The  remedy  for  this  is  a  full  and  clear  explanation  of  the  points 
about  which  there  has  been  a  misunderstanding. 

LEAKS 

A  leak  at  the  joints  of  cast-iron  burners,  and  pinholes,  or  small 
leaks,  at  casting  defects,  usually  can  be  repaired  with  stove 
cement,  but  if  elsewhere  on  the  burner,  or  if  too  extensive  to 
repair  thus,  the  whole  burner  must  be  replaced.  A  leak  at  the 
barrel  of  a  burner  cock  can  be  cured  by  greasing  in  or  tightening, 
if  the  cock  is  not  strained ;  otherwise,  the  cock  must  be  replaced. 
A  leak  at  the  burner  rail  thread  possibly  may  need  only  rejoint- 
ing,  but  if  the  thread  of  either  is  stripped,  a  replacement  is 
necessary.  A  cock  that  is  hard  to  turn  may  or  may  not  leak, 
but  it  may  be  remedied  in  accordance  with  the  preceding  rules. 
Leaks  at  other  points  of  an  appliance  are  rare,  and  should  be 
treated  as  their  nature  demands.  In  practically  every  case  a 
satisfactory  temporary  repair  can  be  made  with  soap,  which,  of 
course,  should  be  followed  as  soon  as  possible  with  the  perma- 
nent remedy. 

MISCELLANEOUS  REPAIR  WORK 

The  remedy  for  a  complaint  of  improper  adjustment  or  of  leak 
may  be  the  replacement  of  a  part  or  parts  of  the  appliance,  or 
such  replacement  may  be  needed  because  of  accidental  damage, 
or  of  old  age.  This  kind  of  repair  may  vary  from  replacing  a 
very  small  item  to  a  complete  overhauling  of  the  appliance. 
This  last  means  usually  that  the  appliance  must  be  taken  to  the 
company's  shop,  as  the  work  involved  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
done  on  the  consumer's  premises.  Whenever  a  complaint  man 
is  examining  a  range  and  estimating  on  the  cost  of  repairs, 
he  should  make  most  thorough  his  examination  of  all  concealed 
or  interlocking  parts,  such  as  linings,  burner  box,  and  sheet-iron 
body,  so  as  to  prevent  giving  a  price  based  on  the  renewal  of  a 
certain  number  of  articles,  only  to  find  later,  perhaps  after 
removal  to  the  shop,  that  others  are  required. 

The  complete  overhauling  of  a  domestic  cooking  appliance 
should  involve  a  thorough  cleaning  and  refinishing  and  the 
placing  of  all  parts  in  first-class  condition.  The  company's  shop 
should  be  equipped  with  tanks  or  vats,  of  such  size  that  the 
appliance  can  be  completely  immersed.  This  process  is  as 
follows:  The  appliance  is  stripped  of  all  removable  parts  and  a 


724  APPLIANCE  WORK 

complete  examination  made  to  learn  what  new  material  must  be 
used.  The  skeleton  is  lifted  by  a  chain  hoist  running  on  a 
monorail  ceiling  track  over  the  cleaning  tank,  and  then  com- 
pletely immersed  for  from  one  to  five  hours  in  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  lye,  heated  to  about  150  degrees  by  the  use  of  steam  coils 
or  gas  burners.  The  smaller  parts,  such  as  burners  and  linings, 
are  placed  in  a  wire  basket  and  immersed  at  the  same  time. 
After  the  grease  and  rust  has  been  thoroughly  softened,  the 
parts  and  skeleton  are  removed,  placed  on  a  drainboard,  and 
cleaned  with  a  wire  brush.  Then  they  are  immersed  in  a  tank 
containing  hot  water,  and  well  rinsed,  after  which  they  are 
removed  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  various  parts  are  refinished, 
if  necessary,  before  being  assembled.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the 
value  of  different  finishes,  but  in  general,  badly  rusted  or  scarred 
nickel  work  should  be  renickeled ;  inside  linings  should  be  given 
one  or  two  coats  of  dark  noncorrosive  compound ;  bodies,  a  coat 
of  flat  black;  exposed  castings,  a  coat  of  glossy  black,  and 
burners,  one  of  stove  blacking.  The  finished  assembly,  of 
course,  is  dependent  on  the  receipt,  or  the  presence  in  stock,  of 
whatever  new  parts  have  been  found  to  be  required. 

The  complaint  man  taking  orders  for  repairs,  should  have 
definite  information  in  his  possession  about  the  probable  length 
of  time  that  will  elapse  before  needed  parts  can  be  obtained,  so 
that  the  consumer  will  be  warned  of  possible  delay.  Parts  for 
old  types  of  appliances  are  quite  often  unobtainable.  In  some 
instances,  certain  parts  of  other  appliances  can  be  substituted; 
in  others,  the  part,  if  of  sheet  metal,  can  be  made;  or,  if  of  cast 
iron  and  all  pieces  are  at  hand,  can  be  repaired  by  welding. 

Each  man  should  be  encouraged  to  study  the  trouble  charac- 
teristic of  each  appliance,  and  to  report  promptly  anything  that 
may  result  in  improper  service,  and  in  an  unnecessarily  great 
number  of  maintenance  visits  with  a  correspondingly  increased 
cost.  When  working  on  an  appliance  with  which  he  is  unfamil- 
iar, if  he  is  not  sure  that  the  trouble  complained  of  has  been 
permanently  remedied,  or  otherwise  properly  disposed  of,  he 
should  refer  the  matter  to  his  foreman  for  further  investigation. 

Enameled  parts  for  domestic  ranges  have  recently  become 
popular,  and  while  of  attractive  appearance,  are  a  prolific  source 
of  complaint,  due  to  the  difficulty  of  perfect  manufacture  and  to 
the  ease  with  which  they  are  damaged.  The  sale  of  these  parts 
should  be  accompanied  by  the  definite  understanding  that  they 
cannot  be  guaranteed. 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  725 

When  a  complaint  is  found  to.  be  due  to  a  flue  connection 
affecting  the  draught  of  a  coal-burning  appliance  previously 
installed,  it  usually  may  be  remedied  by  placing  a  damper, 
provided  with  a  centre  hole  1  inch  in  diameter,  in  the  flue  of  the 
newer  appliance. 

When  the  company  is  active  in  the  sale  of  appliances,  and  when 
it  sells  only  those  which  have  been  properly  tested  in  its  labora- 
tories and  approved,  there  is  little  possibility  of  the  existence  of 
any  appreciable  number  of  really  defective  appliances. 

If  ordinary  adjustments  fail  to  remedy  a  complaint  of  poor 
cooking  performance,  it  is  likely  that  the  design  of  the  appliance 
is  faulty;  that  is,  that  there  is  improper  heat  distribution  or 
ventilation.  In  such  cases  there  usually  is  no  general  remedy 
that  can  be  prescribed,  but  the  matter,  if  important  enough, 
should  be  treated  by  an  expert.  The  principles  explained  in 
Chapter  LXII  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  these  cases. 

HOTEL  APPLIANCES 
ADJUSTMENTS  AND  REPAIRS 

In  general,  cooking  appliances  of  the  "hotel"  class  will  include 
almost  all  those  not  included  in  the  "domestic"  class.  It  has 
been  stated  that  visits  to  maintain  domestic  appliances  usually 
are  the  result  of  a  request  by  the  consumer  for  attention.  This 
is  true  also  of  the  majority  of  installations  in  hotels  and  res- 
taurants, and  these  visits  are  made  by  the  regular  complaint 
men.  In  some  situations,  the  company  has  organized  a  division 
which  not  only  attends  to  all  the  "complaint"  work  on  appli- 
ances of  this  class,  but  also  makes  periodical  visits  to  a  large 
number  of  places,  to  make  the  gas  service  extraordinarily 
efficient.  These  visits  vary  in  frequency  from  once  a  week  to 
once  every  month,  or  perhaps  two  months.  It  has  been  found 
that  they  are  very  beneficial  not  only  in  keeping  the  appliances 
in  proper  operation,  but  also  in  pleasing  the  consumer,  and 
making  him  a  booster  for  cooking  by  gas. 

The  knowledge  and  the  physical  work  involved  in  adjusting 
and  otherwise  repairing  these  appliances,  does  not  differ  from 
that  described  in  the  treatment  of  the  domestic  type,  except,  of 
course,  that  the  work  is  usually  more  difficult  and  requires  a 
longer  time,  job  for  job.  The  repair  of  leaks  and  miscellaneous 
troubles  is  cared  for  in  the  same  way.  It  is  an  impossibility  for 
such  an  appliance  to  be  removed  to  the  gas  company's  shop  for 
cleaning  and  installing  new  parts,  but,  fortunately,  this  is  seldom 


726  APPLIANCE  WORK 

necessary  because  of  the  more  sturdy  construction  throughout, 
and  the  general  tendency  of  the  consumer  to  make  repairs  as 
soon  as  their  advisability  becomes  evident,  instead  of  waiting 
until  the  appliance  reaches  such  a  stage  of  unrepair  that  radical 
action  is  necessary. 


SECTION   III 

WATER  HEATERS 


CHAPTER  LXV 

DESIGN 
INTRODUCTORY 

The  field  of  water  heating  by  gas  is  one  which  cannot  be 
covered  in  any  great  detail  within  the  space  allowable  here. 
As  in  the  case  of  cooking  appliances,  improvements  are  con- 
stantly being  effected  in  the  design  and  operation  of  gas-fired 
appliances  for  water  heating,  and  new  types  are  ever  appearing. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  worth  while  to  touch  upon  any  but  a  few 
of  the  more  commonly  used  types  of  the  present  time  and  ex- 
plain in  a  general  way  their  construction  and  operation. 

Unlike  cooking  appliances,  there  are  no  general  specifications 
covering  water  heaters.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  design  and 
operation  of  cooking  appliances,  whether  the  appliances  are  in- 
tended for  use  in  large  or  small,  rich  or  poor  homes.  A  number 
of  the  essential  parts  of  cooking  appliances,  for  whatever  purpose 
designed,  will  be  found  interchangeable,  or  at  least  of  the  same 
design.  In  the  case  of  water  heaters,  however,  although  their 
sole  function  is  to  heat  water,  a  great  difference  is  found  in 
design  and  construction  and  in  method  of  operation,  according 
to  the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  intended  to  be  used. 
While  it  might  be  said,  in  the  same  way,  that  the  function  of 
cooking  appliances  is  to  cook  food  only,  it  can  be  readily  seen 
that  their  use  necessarily  covers  a  very  much  broader  field  and 
many  more  classes  of  work  than  do  water-heating  appliances. 
The  successful  performance  of  a  water  heater  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  person  using  it,  but  the  success  with  which 
different  kinds  of  cooking  may  be  done  depends,  to  a  large 

(727) 


728  APPLIANCE  WORK 

extent,  upon  the  operator.  In  short,  it  might  be  said  that 
cooking  appliances  exist  in  one  general  design  for  a  variety  of 
purposes,  while  water-heating  appliances  exist  in  a  variety  of 
designs  for  one  general  purpose.  Accordingly,  while  it  is  not 
difficult  to  use  a  general  specification  for  the  construction  of  the 
cooking  appliance,  it  is  impossible  to  do  so  for  the  water  heater. 

The  first  water  heaters  were  necessarily  crude  and  inefficient. 
A  variety  of  forms  were  tried  in  succession,  each  an  improvement 
over  the  previous  one,  the  final  result  being  a  form  of  what  is 
now  known  as  the  circulating  or  tank  heater.  From  this  as  a 
starting  point,  the  various  types  of  heaters  in  present  day  use 
have  developed,  and  they  may  be  grouped  into  five  general 
classes : 

Circulating  or  tank  heaters, 

Combination  or  storage  heaters, 

Automatic  instantaneous  heaters, 

Multi-coil  storage  heaters, 

Small  instantaneous  heaters  generally  known  as  the  bathroom 
type. 

A  great  disadvantage  for  a  long  time  in  the  use  of  gas  for 
water  heating  was  the  cost  as  compared  with  coal.  In  addition 
to  this,  it  was  impossible  to  maintain  a  supply  of  hot  water 
unless  the  gas  heater  was  kept  burning  constantly.  This 
condition  was  naturally  not  looked  upon  with  favor  by  those 
who  were  accustomed  to  a  continuous  supply  of  hot  water  stored 
in  a  boiler  from  the  water  back  of  a  coal  range.  At  the  present 
time,  however,  it  is  possible  with  a  storage  heater  to  keep  a  boiler 
filled  with  hot  water  at  all  times,  the  gas  supply  being  thermo- 
statically controlled  so  that  the  water  is  held  at  the  determined 
constant  temperature.  Another  development  of  recent  years 
is  the  automatic  instantaneous  heater,  which  operates  only 
while  a  faucet  is  open,  the  main  gas  burners  being  extinguished 
when  no  water  is  being  drawn.  When  it  is  considered  that  the 
price  of  gas  has  gradually  decreased,  whereas  the  price  of  coal 
has  increased,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  a  relatively  high  efficiency 
is  obtained  from  modern  gas  water  heaters,  to  say  nothing  of 
freedom  from  storage  of  coal  and  ashes,  it  can  be  seen  that  the 
field  of  gas  water  heating  for  domestic  use  is  continually 
increasing. 

The  over-all  dimensions  of  some  standard  types  of  water 
heaters  are  as  follows : 


DESIGN  729 


Type 

Diameter  ! 

Height 

Tank  —  copper-coil  

64' 

28* 

Bathroom  —  contact  .  '  .  . 

20' 

30' 

Automatic  instantaneous  (smallest)  

23  ' 

39' 

"             (largest)  

32  ' 

59' 

TANK  HEATERS 
JACKET 

A  tank  heater  is  one  which  delivers  hot  water  into  an  inde- 
pendent boiler.  It  is  also  called  a  circulating  heater,  because  of 
the  circulation  induced  in  the  water -by  its  heating.  It  may  be 
divided  into  three  principal  parts:  the  jacket,  the  burner,  and 
the  "internal"  or  water-carrying  parts.  In  the  earlier  types  of 
water  heaters,  the  jacket  was  a  cylinder  of  sheet  steel,  riveted 
together  along  a  vertical  seam,  and  fitting  at  each  end  into  a 
casting.  In  service,  there  was  trouble  from  corrosion  of  the 
sheet  metal,  and  to  gain  access  to  the  internal,  the  inlet  water 
connection  had  to  be  broken  and  the  top  casting  removed  before 
the  jacket  could  come  off.  A  great  improvement  was  effected 
by  the  present-day  use  of  a  cast-iron  jacket  formed  of  two  halves 
of  a  split  sleeve,  and  the  removal  of  whose  retaining  bolts  is 
accomplished  speedily.  Another  variation  of  the  cast-iron 
jacket  is  with  one-half  serving  as  a  door  (Figure  221),  which 
not  only  gives  instant  observation  of  the  internal,  but  also 
avoids  any  danger  incident  to  the  absence  of  a  pilot  burner. 
The  door  lugs  should  be  set  between,  and  not  over,  the  lugs  on 
the  fixed  (back)  casting,  to  prevent  lifting  the  door  off  the  hinges 
when  pulling  up  on  the  handle  to  open. 

The  relation  of  the  jacket  to  the  internal  it  encloses  must  be 
such  as  to  allow  adequate  passage  for  the  products  of  com- 
bustion. 

The  obtainment  of  a  durable  jacket  finish  is  one  of  the  chief 
difficulties  of  construction.  Black  japan  is  the  material  gen- 
erally used,  but  unless  there  is  great  care  in  its  application,  and 
the  neater  is  of  such  design  that  the  jacket  temperature  is  kept 
down,  as,  for  instance,  by  an  asbestos  lining,  more  or  less  com- 
plete burning  or  discoloration  of  the  finish  occurs  after  a  short 
period  of  use. 

BURNER 

The  burner  of  a  tank  heater  is  similar  to  the  top  burner  of  a 
range,  and  is  always  made  of  cast  iron.  Its  ports  are  always 


730  APPLIANCE  WORK 

drilled  openings.  The  burner  shapes  are  various,  but  the  star 
is  the  most  frequent.  The  mixer  is  usually  tapped  to  receive  the 
water-heater  cock,  the  end  of  which  is  provided  with  a  thread 
about  1  inch  in  length.  The  cap  is  held  closely  against  the  face 
of  the  mixer  by  a  lock  nut.  For  manufacturing  reasons,  the 
mixer  tube  is  usually  a  separate  casting  from  the  burner  head, 
the  joint  being  machined  gas  tight  and  locked  with  a  set  bolt. 

The  water  heater,  like  the  gas  range  oven,  affords  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  the  rapid  formation  of  an  explosive  gas  and  air 
mixture  if  the  gas  is  turned  on  before  the  igniting  flame  is  at 
hand.  Therefore,  as  much  thought  has  been  given  to,  and 
precautions  taken  for,  its  proper  lighting  as  for  that  of  the  oven. 
The  designs  without  a  swing  door  provided  a  pilot  light  outside 
the  heater,  which  projected  a  long  horizontal  flame  over  the 
burner  through  a  hole  in  the  jacket.  (See  Figure  220.)  With 
this  construction,  safety  was  assured  by  following  the  rule  of 
never  turning  off  the  pilot  light  until  observation  through  the 
pilot  hole  showed  the  main  burner  was  lighted. 

With  a  swing  door,  the  pilot  burner  is  omitted  and  the  main 
burner  lighted  directly  through  the  open  door.  This  not  only 
makes  it  certain  that  any  failure  to  light  will  be  seen,  but  also 
prevents  the  accumulation  of  any  explosive  mixture  through 
such  failure.  The  observation  of  the  burner  while  lighted  is 
possible  through  a  cluster  of  small  holes  cored  in  the  door  casting, 
just  above  the  burner  level.  The  earlier  design  was  one  larger 
hole  covered  with  mica,  but  the  latter  was  continually  being 
broken. 

For  the  proper  operation  of  any  heater,  there  is  needed 
sufficient  combustion  space;  that  is,  clearance  between  the  top 
of  the  burner  and  the  bottom  of  the  internal.  Any  impingement 
of  the  flames  against  the  internal  should  not  be  sufficient  to 
cause  them  to  be  chilled  and  to  permit  the  escape  of  some 
unburned  gas,  with  the  accompanying  danger  from  incomplete 
combustion. 

The  burners  of  tank  heaters  range  in  consumption  from  35  to 
50  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

INTERNAL 

The  first  internals  were  of  iron,  and  of  two  general  types: 
tubular  and  sectional.  In  the  former,  the  burner,  F,  Figure  219, 
was  beneath,  and  the  products  of  combustion  rose  between  a 
nest  of  vertical  pairs  of  concentric  pipes.  The  water  entered  at 
the  bottom  and  went  up  through  the  centre  in  pipe  A  to  the  top 


DESIGN 


731 


Figure  219.— Pipe  Heater,  page  730:  A,  Inlet  Pipe; 
B,  WaterHead;  C,  Inner  Pipe;  D,  Outer 
Pipe;  E,  Outlet  Pipe;  F,  Burner. 


732  APPLIANCE   WORK 

of  the  water  head  B.  From  there  it  descended  through  the 
inner  pipes  C,  ascending  in  the  annular  spaces  between  C  and 
the  outer  pipes  D,  whose  bottom  ends  were  closed  by  screw 
caps.  At  the  top,  the  ascending  water  entered  the  annular 
space  in  the  bottom  of  B,  and  from  there  emerged  through 
the  outlet  pipe  E.  The  prolonged  contact  obtained  with  the 
hot  gases  was  made  more  efficient  by  the  enveloping  jacket, 
and  the  resulting  economy  of  the  heater  was  sufficient,  with 
its  low  price,  to  make  it  widely  used.  However,  because  of 
its  construction,  it  was  rather  easily  clogged  by  sediment,  so 
with  waters  carrying  much  solid  matter,  it  did  not  prove  as  satis- 
factory as  a  heater  of  the  second  class,  in  which  the  water- 
carrying  parts  consisted  of  three  superimposed  cast-iron  or 
(later)  cast-brass  sections,  Figure  220. 

Here  the  water  went  up  the  inlet  pipe  A,  and  circulated 
through  the  sections  B.  The  products  of  combustion  passed 
around  the  outside  of  the  sections  and  through  the  vertical 
passages  in  them.  The  sections  were  so  placed  that  corre- 
sponding passages  in  adjacent  sections  were  offset  and  thus 
each  section  acted  as  a  bafifte,  and  longer  contact  with  the 
products  resulted.  Where  the  sections  were  of  brass,  so  were 
the  connecting  nipples. 

Even  with  the  sectional  heaters,  trouble  from  sediment  and 
incrustation  was  frequent  enough  to  furnish  a  lively  incentive 
for  a  design  which  would  combine  long  contact  with  the  com- 
bustion products  and  a  water  path  smooth  and  direct,  and, 
therefore,  capable  of  thorough  flushing.  This  end  has  been 
achieved  in  the  copper-coil  heater,  Figure  221.  The  coil  is 
usually  double,  made  of  No.  20  gauge  (Stubbs)  seamless  tubing, 
f-inch  outside  diameter,  with  a  combined  length  of  18  to  25  feet. 
The  inner  coil  contains  the  greater  number  of  convolutions,  and 
is  from  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  while  the  corresponding 
diameter  of  the  outer  coil  is  from  5  to  6  inches.  The  coils  are 
brazed  at  both  inlet  and  outlet  ends  to  cast-brass  fittings. 
These  are  locked  at  the  jackets  by  lock  nuts,  and  are  tapped  for 
the  connecting  pipes,  ordinarily  f-inch.  Sometimes  the  ends  of 
the  coils  form  the  female  members  of  union  joints,  the  male  mem- 
bers being  cast-brass  manifolds  tapped  for  the  pipe  connections. 

If  a  single  coil  is  used,  it  is  of  $-  or  1-inch  tubing.  Triple  coils 
are  employed  if  high  capacity  is  required.  All  coils  are  sub- 
jected by  the  makers  to  a  hydrostatic  pressure  of  several  hundred 
pounds. 


DESIGN 


733 


Figure  220.— Cast  Sectional  Heater,  page  732:  A,  Inlet  Pipe; 
B,    Sections;  C,  Outlet  Pipe. 


734 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Baffle  plates,  varying  in  design  according  to  the  ideas  of  the 
makers,  but  usually  circular  plates  wired  to  the  inner  coil,  are 
utilized  to  obstruct  the  products  of  combustion  and  thereby 
increase  the  absorption  of  heat.  The  efficiency  of  the  heater 
depends  appreciably  upon  the  proper  location  of  these  plates 
with  reference  to  the  coils  and  to  the  jacket. 

The  average  working  efficiency  of  a  tank  heater  is  from  about 
50  to  55  per  cent. 


Figure  221.— Copper-Coil  Heater,  page  732. 

COMBINATION  HEATERS 

The    term    "combination    heater    and    storage    system"    is 
applied  to  any  form  of  gas  water  heater  in  which  the  heating 


DESIGN 


735 


! 


Figure  222. — Combination  Heater,  page  736. 


736  APPLIANCE  WORK 

unit  is  placed  either  within  or  beneath  the  body  of  an  upright 
boiler  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose.  There  is  usually  a 
central  stack  cut  longitudinally  through  the  boiler,  the  lower 
part  of  which  is  enlarged  to  receive  the  burner  and  an  internal, 
if  the  latter  is  employed.  The  internal  may  be  a  copper  coil,  or 
one  or  more  cast-brass  or  cast-iron  sections.  The  upper  part  of 
the  opening  forms  a  flue  for  the  products  of  combustion.  See 
Figure  222. 

The  burners  and  burner  cocks  are  of  the  same  general  design 
and  construction  as  those  on  tank  heaters,  excepting  that  the 
burners  are  in  one  piece.  They  are  also  fitted  with  gauzes,  as 
the  combination  heater  is  commonly  employed  for  both  auto- 
matic and  npnautomatic  service,  the  former  requiring  the  gauze 
type  of  burner  to  guard  against  flash  backs. 

Those  combination  heaters  in  which  a  water-heating  part  is 
placed  in  the  lower  enlarged  burner  chamber,  have  the  cold- 
water  inlet  pipe  extended  into  the  boiler  about  two-thirds  its 
depth.  The  hot  water  outlet  from  the  heater  runs  up  through 
the  flue  space  and  connects  into  the  top  of  the  boiler  at  the 
same  point  where  the  hot  water  outlet  from  the  boiler  is  taken  off. 

In  one  make  of  combination  heater,  no  water-heating  part  in 
the  combustion  chamber  is  employed,  the  water  being  heated  by 
passing  up  an  annular  space  between  the  walls  of  the  combustion 
chamber  and  another  concentric  shell  of  larger  diameter,  placed 
within  the  boiler  proper  and  extending  from  almost  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler  to  a  point  about  6  inches  from  the  top.  The 
narrow  flue  passage  extending  from  the  top  of  the  combustion 
chamber  to  the  top  of  the  heater  is  corrugated,  to  increase  the 
heating  surface,  and  a  twisted  flat  bar,  of  the  same  length  as  the 
flue,  serves  to  deflect  the  products  against  the  corrugated  surface 
and  effect  a  high  heat  absorption.  This  construction  leaves  a 
comparatively  thin  layer  of  water  in  contact  with  the  outside  of 
the  combustion  chamber,  and  as  this  water  is  heated  it  rises  and 
flows  over  the  top  of  the  concentric  ring  into  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  and  is  displaced  by  cold  water  from  the  bottom. 

The  combination  heater  is  used  as  an  automatic  heater  by 
installing  a  thermostat  (see  page  741)  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler,  and  thereby  securing  automatic  temperature  control.  In 
this  _  case,  the  outside  of  the  boiler  should  be  covered  with 
lagging  to  reduce  radiation.  A  flue  is  always  provided  to  carry 
off  the  normal  products  of  combustion  and  any  unburned  gases 
due  to  abnormal  conditions. 


DESIGN 


737 


Figure  223. — Instantaneous  Automatic  Heater,  page  739. 

INSTANTANEOUS  AUTOMATIC  HEATERS 
GENERAL 

So  far  the  heaters  considered  have  been  those  using  gas  at 
a  rather  moderate  rate  and  requiring  some  time  to  produce 
hot  water.  The  fact  that  these  early  heaters  were  comparatively 
slow  as  hot  water  producers,  and  that  dependence  on  them 
often  involved  aggravating  waiting  as  compared  with  the 


738 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


ability  to  obtain  hot  water  at  almost  any  time  from  a  coal-heated 
system,  helped,  together  with  the  high  price  of  gas,  to  retard  the 
introduction  of  water  heating  by  gas.  When,  however,  natural 
gas  furnished  a  source  of  heat  cheaper  even  than  coal,  human 
ingenuity  soon  provided  an  efficient,  reliable  means  of  using  this 

A 


VALVES  CLOSED  I 


VALVES    OPEN 


Figure  224.— Automatic  Water  Valve,  page  739:  A, 
Water  Outlet;  B,  Outlet  Port;  C,  Cap; 
D,  Plunger;  E,  Stuffing  Box;  F,  Stem; 
G,  Inlet  Port;  H.  Compression  Spring, 
I,  Water  Inlet;  J,  Gas  Inlet;  K,  Seat; 
L,  Disc;  M,  Gas  Outlet. 


DESIGN  739 

gas  to  obtain  hot  water  as  fast  as  it  could  be  delivered  to  the 
open  faucets.  Heaters  of  this  class  are  very  properly  called 
"instantaneous  automatic,"  Figure  223,  because,  as  will  be 
apparent  from  the  description  that  follows,  the  opening  of  a  hot 
water  faucet  operates  a  water  valve,  and  this  in  turn  lights  the 
main  gas  burner,  which  is  of  such  size  that  the  water  issues 
from  the  heater  at  the  required  temperature.  In  brief,  no  hot 
water  is  being  made  unless  a  faucet  is  open,  and  then  the  pro- 
duction of  the  water  required  is  practically  instantaneous.  To 
do  this  requires  a  high  rate  of  gas  supply,  and  unless  proper 
provision  is  made  for  this,  the  heater  will  not  furnish  sufficient 
hot  water,  and  in  addition,  the  gas  pressure  at  any  other  appli- 
ances supplied  from  the  same  source  will  fluctuate  sufficiently  to 
interfere  with  their  proper  performance. 

AUTOMATIC  WATER  VALVE 

The  automatic  water  valve  is  probably  the  most  vital  part  of 
this  appliance.  Before  describing  its  construction,  a  simple 
explanation  of  the  principles  governing  its  action  will  be  given. 

Figure  224  shows  a  type  of  water  valve,  with  the  accompanying 
gas  valve,  in  the  closed,  I,  and  open,  II,  positions.  The 
various  parts  of  the  valves  can  be  clearly  understood  by  an 
inspection  of  the  figure.  The  supply  line  to  the  heater  is  con- 
nected to  the  water  inlet  on  the  bottom  of  the  valve,  and  the 
line  running  to  the  hot-water  faucets  is  connected  to  the  water 
outlet  by  way  of  the  coils.  The  passage  of  water  and  gas 
through  their  respective  valves  is  as  indicated  by  the  arrows. 

Assume,  now,  that  the  valve  and  pipe  lines  running  to  the 
hot  faucets  are  filled  with  water  under  street  pressure,  the  faucets 
being  closed,  the  street  water  pressure,  acting  through  the  inlet 
port  against  the  face  of  the  plunger,  will  be  taken  as  25  pounds 
per  square  inch,  the  plunger  area  as  7.06  square  inches,  and  the 
tension  of  the  compression  spring,  2  pounds.  With  all  the 
various  hot  faucets  closed,  the  plunger  is  in  the  position  shown 
in  the  upper  sketch.  A  small  hole,  not  shown  in  the  sketch, 
drilled  through  the  plunger,  serves  to  equalize  the  water  pressure 
on  both  sides,  this  pressure  now  being  25  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Suppose  that  the  highest  faucet  in  the  house,  located  34  feet 
above  the  heater,  be  opened,  the  pressure  on  the  house  side  of  the 
plunger  becomes  that  exerted  by  a  column  of  water  34  feet  high, 
or  15  pounds  per  square  inch,  plus  the  2  pounds  exerted  by 
the  spring.  This  gives,  roughly,  107  pounds,  while  the  pressure 


740  APPLIANCE  WORK 

on  the  street  side  is,  roughly,  175  pounds.  The  plunger  accord- 
ingly will  move  forward  to  assume  the  position  shown  in  II. 
After  moving  a  short  distance,  the  plunger  uncovers  the  outlet 
port  and  so  permits  water  to  flow  through  the  valve  directly  to 
the  faucets.  As  it  moves  forward,  its  stem  engages  the 
stem  of  the  main  gas  valve  placed  in  line  with  it,  as  shown, 
and  unseats  it  against  the  compression  spring,  thus  permitting 
gas  to  pass. 

When  the  hot- water  faucet  is  closed,  the  25  pounds  pressure 
from  the  street  side  builds  up  through  the  equalizing  hole  until 
the  water  pressure  is  again  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the  plunger. 
The  pressure  exerted  by  the  spring  is  then  sufficient  to  move  the 
plunger  back  to  its  original  position,  as  shown  in  I,  the  main  gas 
valve  being  also  closed  by  the  compression  spring.  Each  time 
a  hot-water  faucet  is  opened,  the  cycle  just  described  is  repeated. 

There  are  two  types  of  plungers  in  general  use,  one  being  a 
packed  plunger,  which  is  machined  to  a  comparatively  loose  fit 
in  the  cylinder,  and  is  then,  by  cotton  or  other  packing,  made 
tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage  around  it.  The  second  type  is 
a  metal  contact  plunger,  which  is  turned  to  a  working  fit  with 
the  cylinder  walls. 

The  usual  location  of  water  and  gas  valves  is  with  their  stems 
in  line,  as  illustrated,  but  in  some  heaters  they  are  placed  at 
right  angles  to  one  another.  In  any  case,  they  are  rigidly  held 
in  their  relative  positions  by  being  bolted  to  a  cast-iron  or  brass 
yoke,  so  that  the  stem  cannot  be  thrown  out  of  line  by  the 
strains  due  to  pipe  connections  or  other  accidental  causes. 
When  the  heater  is  not  in  action,  there  is  a  small  clearance 
between  the  abutting  ends  of  the  water  and  gas  valve  stems,  to 
allow  the  water  valve  to  open  slightly  in  advance  of  the 
gas  valve. 

The  water  ports  in  the  cylinder  may  be  simple  rectangular 
openings  or  slots.  In  some  designs  the  port  is  in  the  plunger 
itself,  and  is  opened  by  the  gradual  recession  of  the  plunger  from 
a  tapered  plug.  The  cylinder  head  is  threaded  on  and  made 
tight  by  means  of  a  gasket.  To  prevent  leakage  and  yet  avoid 
undue  friction,  there  is  a  stuffing  box  with  glands  where  the 
stem  passes  out  of  the  cylinders. 

Plungers  must  be  large  enough  to  move  the  mechanism  under 
normal  water  pressure.  For  locations  where  the  pressure  is  very 
low,  larger  coils,  in  conjunction  with  special  valves  with  larger 
plungers,  are  used. 


DESIGN  741 


GAS  VALVES 

The  disc  of  the  main  gas  valve  (Figure  224)  generally  carries  a 
leather  washer,  which  makes  a  gas-tight  joint  with  the  brass 
seat.  The  spring  in  this  valve  is  usually  of  phosphor  bronze, 
but  sometimes  of  steel  with  a  coating  of  japan  as  a  protection 
against  corrosion. 

In  some  heaters  there  are  two  gas  valves,  one  of  which,  called 
the  main  gas  valve,  is  acted  on  by  the  automatic  water  valve, 
and  the  other,  called  the  thermostatic  gas  valve,  is  controlled 
by  the  thermostat.  In  other  types  a  single  gas  valve  is  acted 
upon  by  both  water  valve  and  thermostat. 

THERMOSTATS 

The  thermostat  is  a  contrivance  for  automatically  shutting  off 
the  gas  when  the  water  reaches  a  predetermined  temperature. 
It  generally  consists  of  a  copper  tube,  twelve  or  more  inches  in 
length,  one  end  of  which  is  closed  by  a  solid  head  and  the  other 
end  permanently  fastened  to  a  frame  in  which  a  system  of 
multiplying  levers  swing.  A  porcelain  or  carbon  rod  is  fitted 
loosely  in  the  tube.  One  end  of  the  rod  is  either  shod  with  a 
steel  button  or  abuts  on  a  short  brass  plug  which  has  a  steel 
pivot  on  its  end.  This  pivot  presses  on  what  (in  the  simplest 
forms)  is  the  short  arm  of  a  simple  lever,  the  long  arm  of  which 
acts  on  the  thermostatic  gas  valve.  The  fulcrum  of  the  lever 
can  be  adjusted  by  means  of  a  screw  having  a  lock  nut,  and  in 
this  manner  the  valve  can  be  set  to  close  off  at  any  desired 
temperature.  In  the  more  complicated  types,  a  system  of 
compound  levers  is  used,  but  the  principle  is  the  same. 

The  copper  tube  is  inserted  in  an  extension  of  the  outlet  end 
of  the  coil.  By  reason  of  the  difference  in  expansion  between 
the  copper  tube  and  the  porcelain  or  carbon  rod  placed  within  it, 
the  thermostatic  levers  are  made  to  operate.  A  spring,  of 
course,  is  provided  to  regulate  the  expansion  forces. 

BURNERS 

The  burners,  Figures  225  and  226,  consist  essentially  of  four 
parts:  the  burner  cap,  A,  the  mixer  tube,  B,  the  gauze,  C,  and 
the  orifice  spud,  D.  The  spud  is  drilled  with  a  so-called  "fixed 
orifice"  and  is  screwed  directly  into  the  burner  manifold,  E.  In 
the  usual  construction  the  spud  consists  of  two  parts  screwed 
together,  the  upper  part  carrying  the  orifice  known  as  the  spud 
cap.  The  mixer  tube  slips  loosely  into  place  over  this  spud. 


742 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  225.— Burner  of  an  Instantaneous  Automatic  Heater,  page 
741:  A,  Burner  Cap;    B,  Mixer  Tube;    C,  Gauze. 


DESIGN  743 

The  mixer  tube  is  bell-shaped  at  its  bottom  and  tapers  up  to  the 
burner  head,  which  is  generally  a  rectangular  box-like  casting, 
making  an  angle  with  the  vertical  mixing  tube.  The  primary  air 
openings  are  fixed  openings  located  in  the  base  of  the  mixer. 
The  gauze  is  placed  across  the  burner  head  and  is  clamped 
down  by  the  burner  cap,  which  is  bolted  to  the  tube.  The  caps 
are  so  designed  that  any  condensation  falling  on  them  is  shed 
and  thereby  prevented  from  entering  the  burner  ports. 

The  gas  consumption  ranges  from  90  to  480  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  according  to  the  size  of  the  heater,  and/in  general,  each 
cubic  foot  will  raise  1  gallon  of  water  63  degrees  in  1  minute. 

The  pilot  burner  head  is  made  of  soapstone,  lava  or  some 
other  refractory  material,  and  is  threaded  on  to  a  £-inch  pilot 
line  by  a  socket.  It  is  cylindrical  in  shape,  with  a  hemispherical 
cap,  the  ports  being  placed  just  under  the  cap. 

There  is  a  main  cock  on  the  gas  supply  line,  which  is  usually 
of  the  quarter-turn,  lever-handle  type. 

The  pilot  line  is  taken  from  the  gas  supply  line  at  a  point  just 
in  front  of  the  main  cock,  and  is  equipped  with  its  own  cock  and 
a  regulating  screw  to  fix  the  length  of  the  flames. 

COILS 

The  coils  are  made  of  seamless  copper  tubing,  and  vary  from 
^-inch  to  1-inch  in  diameter.  They  are  wound  in  a  series  of 
cone-shaped  spirals,  the  apexes  and  bases  of  adjacent  cones 
being  opposed.  The  length  of  the  coil  varies  for  each  size  of 
heaters.  The  bottom  part  is  usually  made  detachable  from  the 
rest  of  the  coil,  to  facilitate  repairs.  The  coils  are  supported 
by  hooks  or  racks,  which  are  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  jacket. 

JACKET 

The  jacket  is  of  cast  iron,  and  above  the  burners  has  cast-iron 
linings  providing  for  air  space  insulation.  The  upper  jacket 
always  has  a  front  double  door,  and  in  some  cases  a  double  door 
is  also  provided  at  the  back.  The  lower  jacket  always  has  a 
front  double  door  to  give  access  to  the  burners.  All  doors  used 
are  held  shut  by  spring  tension.  The  doors  are  fitted  with 
enameled  or  brass  direction  plates  explaining  the  method  to 
follow  in  lighting  the  heater. 

REGULATING  WATER  VALVE 

There  is  a  regulating  water  valve,  which  is  usually  located  at 
the  top  of  the  heater  where  the  cold  water  enters  the  coil.  This 
valve  is  made  necessary  by  the  varying  pressures  encountered, 


744 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  226. -Sectional  View  of  Burner  of  Instantaneous  Automatic 
Heater,  page  741:  A,  Burner  Cap;  B,  Mixer  Tube; 
G,  Gauze;  D,  Orifice  Spud;  E,  Burner  Ring. 


DESIGN  745 

and  throttles  down  the  water  supply  to  the  maximum  capacity 
of  the  heater.  It  is  covered  by  a  brass  screw  cap  to  prevent 
tampering. 

MULTI-COIL  HEATERS 

The  multi-coil  heater  is  adapted  for  use  with  large  storage 
heaters,  and  its  equipment,  includes  a  thermostat  for  auto- 
matically controlling  the  gas  to  the  burners.  In  general  design 
it  resembles  the  automatic  water  heater.  It  comprises  a 
number  of  short  copper  coils,  connected  in  parallel  to  two 
manifolds;  a  battery  of  bunsen  burners,  mounted  on  a  cast-iron 
manifold;  a  pilot;  a  cast-iron  jacket,  and  a  condensation  cup. 
In  some  makes  of  heaters,  the  manifolds  run  vertically,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  heater,  while  in  other  makes  the  manifolds  run 
horizontally  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  heater.  In  the 
vertical  manifold  heater,  the  coils  are  graduated  in  diameter,  the 
largest  coil  being  at  the  bottom  and  the  smallest  at  the  top. 
In  the  horizontal  manifold  heaters,  the  coils  are  of  the  same 
diameter.  As  in  the  instantaneous  automatic  heaters,  the  size 
of  the  coil  varies  with  the  size  of  the  heater. 

To  give  a  free  circulation  of  the  water  and  reduce  friction  to  a 
minimum,  the  area  of  either  manifold  is  made  equal  to  the 
combined  cross  sectional  area  of  the  coils. 

The  hand-operated  valves  on  a  multi-coil  heater  consist  of  a 
main  valve  controlling  the  gas  to  the  burners  and  a  pilot  valve 
controlling  the  gas  to  the  pilot  burner. 

The  thermostat,  which  is  the  only  automatic  mechanism  used 
on  this  heater,  is  one  of  two  types,  i.  e.,  the  "graduating"  or 
slow-acting  type,  and  the  "moment"  or  snap-acting  type.  The 
graduating  valve  is  similar  to  that  used  on  the  instantaneous 
automatic  heater.  A  type  of  moment  valve  is  shown  in  Figure 
227.  The  gas  valve  is  shown  in  its  open  position. 

As  the  water  in  the  boiler  becomes  heated,  the  copper 
expansion  tube  A,  projecting  into  the  center  of  the  boiler, 
expands,  allowing  the  porcelain  rod  B,  the  brass  thrust  block  I), 
and  the  steel  thrust  rod  C,  to  move  to  the  right.  This  permits 
the  multiplying  levers  E  and  F,  fulcrumed  at  "  e  "  and  "  f  "  re- 
spectively, to  move  to  the  right,  the  entire  movement  being 
effected  by  the  pull  of  the  tension  spring  G.  The  end  of  the 
lever  H  operates  over  the  spindle  of  the  gas  valve  J  between 
the  stops  as  shown.  The  upper  arm  bears  against  the  trip 
spring  I.  As  H  moves  upward  it  compresses  the  spring  I,  and 


746 


APPLIANCE   WORK 


Figure  227.— Moment  Valve,  page  745. 

at  the  same  time  moves  it  upwards,  nearer  to  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion. The  spring  I  in  compressing,  retards  H  until  it  has  just 
passed  beyond  the  horizontal  position  (its  dead  center)  when 
suddenly,  on  passing  the  dead  center,  it  releases,  accebrating  the 
movement  of  H  and  seating  the  valve  disc  with  a  "snap"  action. 

When  hot  water  is  drawn  off,  each  part  of  the  above  action 
takes  place  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
result  of  this  action  is  that  the  gas  valve  is  either  full  open  01 
tightly  closed,  and  no  graduation  of  the  gas  supply  is  permitted. 

For  the  storage  of  the  heated  water,  tanks  of  suitable  size  are 
used.  Stock  sizes  of  these  tanks  run  up  to  500  gallons,  but 
larger  tanks  can  be  procured.  These  tanks  are  usually  lagged 
to  reduce  losses  by  radiation  to  a  minimum. 

BATHROOM  HEATERS 

The  bathroom  type  of  water  heater  is  a  small  heater  of  one  or 
two  gallons  per  minute  capacity,  designed  for  installation  at  the 
point  at  which  the  hot  water  is  used.  It  is  generally  mounted 
upon  a  shelf  fastened  to  the  wrall,  in  the  room  containing  the 
fixtures  to  be  supplied  with  hot  water.  The  shelf,  in  most  cases, 
is  constructed  of  pressed  steel,  conforming  to  the  lines  of  the 


DESIGN 


747 


base  of  the  heater  shell,  and  is  either  nickel-plated  or  porcelain 
enameled.  To  carry  off  condensation,  a  threaded  outlet  is 
provided  in  the  shelf  to  which  a  permanent  drain  connection 
may  be  made. 


»—>  PRODUCTS  OF  COMBUSTION 
>»->  WATER  FLOW 

Figure  228 — Bathroom  Heater  -  Contact  Type, 
page  748:  A,  Cold  Water  Inlet;  B, 
Standpipe;  C,  Spray  Head;  D,  Con- 
tact Screen;  E,  Baffle  Cone;  F,  Col- 
lector; G,  Shell;  H;  Hot  Water 
Outlet;  I,  Vent. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  bathroom  heaters,   namely, 
the  contact  and   the  pressure,  the  former  also  being  known  as 


748  APPLIANCE  WORK 

the  geyser  type.  In  the  contact  type,  Figure  228,  the  water  is 
sprayed  in  a  thin  film  over  a  perforated  contact  screen  through 
which  the  products  of  combustion  pass.  It  drops  from  the 
screen  to  a  baffle  plate  and  then  through  a  funnel-shaped 
collector  to  the  outside  of  a  copper  cone,  within  which  is  placed 
a  yellow  or  illuminating  flame  burner.  The  base  of  this  cone 
and  the  heater  shell  form  a  water-tight  joint,  and  the  water, 
collecting  at  the  junction  of  these  two  parts,  is  led  off  through 
a  delivery  tube. 

The  burner  of  this  heater  consists  of  a  number  of  parallel  brass 
pipes,  drilled  with  numerous  small  orifices  from  which  the  gas 
burns  in  short  jets.  The  heater  is  equipped  with  a  main  gas 
valve  controlling  the  burner;  a  pilot  valve,  used  in  lighting  the 
burner;  a  water  valve  for  turning  on  the  water,  and  a  water- 
regulating  screw  for  regulating  the  flow  of  water  in  accordance 
with  the  prevailing  pressure  in  the  house  pipes.  The.  pilot, 
main  gas  and  water  valves  are  so  interlocked  that  the  operator 
is  compelled,  when  lighting  the  burners,  to  first  turn  on  the 
pilot  valve  and  then  the  water  valve,  after  which  the  main  gas 
valve  may  be  turned  on.  In  this  manner,  the  danger  of  an 
explosion  of  the' gas,  due  to  lighting  a  large  volume  of  it  in  an 
enclosed  space,  and  the  danger  of  burning  out  the  internal  parts 
of  the  heater  because  of  the  absence  of  water,  are  avoided. 
The  pilot  burner  is  not  designed  for  continuous  service,  but  is 
extinguished  immediately  after  the  main  burner  has  been 
lighted. 

In  the  pressure  type  of  bathroom  heaters,  the  heating  surface 
generally  consists  of  copper  tubing,  which  is  coiled  spirally  as  in 
the  automatic  heaters  or  wound  in  any  other  form  considered 
desirable  by  the  manufacturer.  The  burners  are  of  either  the 
bunsen  or  illuminating  flame  type.  The  valves  are  the  same  as 
for  the  contact  or  geyser  type  of  heater. 

CONDITIONS  OF  USE 
CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  CONSUMER 

The  type  of  heater  recommended  must  obviously  be  adapted 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  consumer  as  regards  cost,  although 
the  kind  of  service  required  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  as  the 
satisfaction  of  the  consumer  will  depend  principally  on  this  factor. 
The  company's  representative  would  not  attempt  to  sell  in 
the  tenement  district  the  same  automatic  service  that  he  would 
offer  in  the  wealthy  residential  section,  although  the  needs  of 


DESIGN  749 

the  two  parties  as  to  the  amount  of  hot  water  required  might  be 
identical.  The  tenement  dweller  could  not  afford  the  auto- 
matic type,  and  must  select  the  most  suitable  heater  within  his 
means.  In  the  wealthy  districts,  it  is  more  often  a  question  of 
selling  service  to  the  consumer,  -with  price  as  a  secondary  issue. 
Between  these  two  extremes,  we  have  the  middle  or  average 
residential  class.  In  this  case,  both  factors,  namely,  cost  and 
service,  enter  more  closely  into  the  selection,  but  in  this  field  we 
have  more  available  types  embodying  both  these  factors. 

SPACE  AVAILABLE 

The  heater  used  will  be  determined  often  by  the  space  avail- 
able. A  kitchen  location  would  call  for  either  a  circulating 
heater  or  a  combination  boiler  and  heater,  both  without  thermo- 
static  control,  since  the  necessity  of  lighting  a  heater  each  time 
hot  water  is  desired  involves  a  minimum  of  inconvenience  with 
the  heater  in  the  kitchen,  while  in  such  a  location  thermostatic 
control  is  unwise,  as  the  continuously  burning  pilot  is  liable  to 
extinguishment  either  from  drafts  or  from  tampering  by  children 
or  servants. 

For  .a  cellar  location  any  type  may  be  used,  but  the  most 
convenient  forms  are  the  automatic  instantaneous,  or  the 
automatic  storage,  for  the  pilot  ignition  makes  these  heaters 
self-acting,  and  in  the  cellar  the  pilot  is  not  apt  to  be  inter- 
fered with. 

CHARACTER  OF  WORK 
LIGHT  DEMAND 

Where  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water  is  needed  intermittently, 
as  for  a  small  family,  a  circulating  heater  connected  to  an 
independent  (coal  range)  boiler,  should  be  used.  This  condition 
is  usually  found  in  the  smaller  dwellings  where  the  circulating 
heater  is  connected  in  parallel  with  the  water  back  and  range 
boiler.  The  heater  would  thus  supplement  the  water  back,  or  it 
could  be  used  to  heat  the  boiler  independently.  If  there  is  no 
existing  boiler,  a  nonautomatic  combination  heater  and  boiler 
might  be  used.  This  could  be  supplemented  by  connection  to 
the  water  back  of  a  coal  range,  a  kitchen  heater,  or  a  coal  laundry 
stove.  In  this  latter  case,  the  gas  heater  would  probably  not  be 
needed  when  the  laundry  stove  was  in  use.  The  capacity  of  the 
boilers  generally  used  in  these  cases  would  probably  not  exceed 
24  to  30  gallons.  For  a  situation  such  as  small  barber  shops, 
requiring  a  very  small  supply  of  hot  water  at  any  one  time,  a  5- 


750  APPLIANCE  WORK 

or  10-gallon  barber's  boiler  should  be  used.  This  is  a  combina- 
tion boiler  and  heater,  either  with  or  without  thermostatic 
control. 

In  a  location  unprovided  with  hot-water  piping,  a  heater  is 
needed  which  can  be  placed  at  the  point  of  use  of  the  hot  water. 
For  this  condition,  if  the  demand  does  not  exceed  one  to  one 
and  one-half  gallons  per  minute,  the  bathroom  type  is  suitable, 
Figure  228. 

MODERATE  DEMAND 

Where  a  moderate  quantity  of  hot  water  is  needed  at  fairly 
regular  intervals,  as  in  the  larger  dwellings  and  in  small  res- 
taurants, the  requirements  can  be  met  by  the  smaller  sizes  of 
automatic  instantaneous  heaters  (not  larger  than  4  gallons  per 
minute)  or  by  the  medium-sized  storage  systems,  both  usually 
in  conjunction  with  an  existing  supply  of  hot  water  furnished 
by  some  coal-burning  appliance.  In  the  latter  case,  the  heater 
is  connected  by  what  is  known  as  the  reheat  system,  which 
permits  the  heater  to  be  used  alone,  or  to  supplement  the  existing 
hot-water  supply,  or  to  be  idle  if  the  existing  supply  suffices. 
It  is  obvious  that  this  method  of  connection  is  more  economical 
than  the  direct  system,  and  unless  it  is  desired  that  the  gas 
heater  be  prepared  to  supply  all  the  hot  water  required,  there  is 
a  saving  in  first  cost  due  to  the  use  of  a  smaller  heater. 

HEAVY  DEMAND 

In  the  field  of  heavy  demand  belong  large  restaurants,  hotels, 
clubs,  bathhouses,  etc.,  where  large  quantities  of  hot  water  are 
used  either  continuously  or  at  short  intervals.  These  require 
large  automatic  heaters,  either  instantaneous  or  in  connection 
with  storage  systems.  When  the  demand  is  heavy  and  uncer- 
tain, the  installation  should  be  large  enough  to  care  for  the 
peak  load  Any  existing  supply  of  hot  water  should  be  utilized 
by  a  reheating  system. 


CHAPTER  LXVI 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 

PREINSPECTION  FOR 
LOCATION  OF  APPLIANCE 

CONSUMER'S  WISHES 

The  routine  described  in  Chapter  LXIII  should  be  followed  in 
conferring  with  the  consumer,  and,  wherever  possible,  his  wishes 
about  location  should  be  complied  with.  Because  of  the  rela- 
tively small  size  of  circulating  heaters,  there  is  little  chance  of 
objection  to  any  location  selected  by  the  workman.  This  also 
applies  to  other  types  of  heaters,  since,  while  they  are  larger,  the 
installation  is  almost  always  in  the  basement  or  cellar,  and, 
therefore,  the  consumer  is  not  greatly  concerned  in  the  choice 
of  location.  If  an  objection  is  raised,  an  explanation  of  the 
reasons  for  the  location  chosen  will  usually  result  in  its  accept- 
ance without  further  question.  If  the  heater  is  a  large  one,  or 
the  connections  are  complicated,  the  location  should  be  marked 
on  the  floor,  the  connecting  pipes  should  be  properly  tagged  and 
the  flue  outlet  designated. 

FIRE  AND  OTHER  HAZARDS 

The  only  fire  hazard  usually  created  by  a  circulating  heater  is 
that  to  the  adjacent  wall.  When  this  is  of  an  inflammable 
character,  the  heater  should  not  be  placed  closer  than  six  inches, 
unless  the  wall  is  protected  as  described  on  page  704.  No  circu- 
lating heater,  or  combination  boiler  and  heater  unprovided  with 
a  flue,  should  be  placed  so  that  the  flue  outlet  is  vertically 
nearer  than  18  inches  to  an  inflammable  construction  unless  a 
proper  protection  is  provided.  As  ordinarily  located,  no  fire 
hazard  is  created  by  the  installation  of  a  storage  or  automatic 
instantaneous  water  heater.  Under  special  conditions,  protec- 
tion of  the  sort  just  described  should  be  given. 

Because  heating  water  by  gas  requires  no  attention  during  the 
process,  thus  differing  from  gas  cooking,  and  because  of  the 

(751) 


752  APPLIANCE   WORK 

small  size  of  the  circulating  heater,  it  is  possible  to  find  room  for 
such  an  one  in  a  closet  or  in  a  semiclosed  place,  like  the  top 
landing  of  a  cellar  stairs,  which,  with  room  at  a  premium,  is  often 
used  for  the  boiler  location,  and  in  that  cafee  efficiency  of  opera- 
tion would  call  for  the  heater  there  also.  There  are,  however, 
two  important  reasons,  both  of  which  may  be  urged  against  the 
closet  location  and  one,  or  both,  against  the  cellar  stairs.  Every 
gas  burner  needs  an  ample  supply  of  air  and  a  free  vent  for  the 
combustion  products.  Without  the  first,  there  may  be  incom- 
plete combustion  with  the  formation  of  carbon  monoxide,  a 
direct  poison.  Without  the  second,  the  proportion  of  carbon 
dioxide  will  become  unduly  high  in  the  atmosphere  surrounding 
the  heater.  The  second  objection  makes  it  inadvisable  to 
connect  a  heater  in  a  bathroom,  as  these  rooms  are  usually  of 
such  small  size  that  the  volume  of  combustion  products  bears 
too  large  a  proportion  to  the  total  room  contents. 

The  cellar  stairs  location  is  also  objectionable,  as  the  heater  is 
out  of  sight  and,  therefore,  the  consumer  may  easily  forget  to 
turn  it  off  at  the  proper  time,  thus  not  only  wasting  gas  and 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  high  bill,  but  possibly  generating 
steam,  which,  in  rare  cases,  might  cause  damage  especially  on  a 
metered  water  supply,  this  not  allowing  any  relief  of  the  excess 
pressure  by  return  to  the  street  main. 


APPEARANCE  AND  EASE  OF  CONNECTION 

It  is  desirable  that  the  installation  be  unobjectionable  and 
unobtrusive  in  appearance.  This  is  especially  true  in  a  finished 
room  or  in  one  of  average  size.  With  a  circulating  heater,  this 
requirement,  and  also  that  of  economical  operation,  is  obtained 
by  a  location  close  to  the  boiler.  Appearance  also  calls  for  the 
ornamental  face  to  the  front  and  for  a  position  well  off  the  floor, 
though  in  this  matter  of  height  the  circulation  requirements  will 
be  paramount.  The  appearance  of  the  gas  and  flue  (if  any) 
connections  must  also  be  considered.  Here  efficiency  has  little 
or  no  concern,  and  if  there  is  any  difficulty,  it  will  be  usually 
with  the  flue. 

Heaters  larger  than  the  circulating  type  are  generally  in  the 
cellar,  and,  therefore,  not  ordinarily  in  a  finished  room.  When 
they  are,  the  heater  itself  usually  makes  a  presentable  appear- 
ance, but  again  the  flue  connection  may  be  the  difficult  problem 
from  the  standpoint  of  appearance. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  753 

OPERATING  RESULTS 

For  the  most  economical  operation,  a  circulating  water  heater 
should  be  not  only  close  enough  to  the  boiler,  but  also  low 
enough  to  give  a  fast  circulation  to  the  issuing  hot  water.  Such 
a  location  is  usually  obtainable,  though  in  some  cases  its  advan- 
tages may  be  overridden  by  the  requirements  of  a  flue 
connection. 

Combination  and  storage  heaters  in  kitchens  should  be  placed 
near  any  coal  range,  and  in  cellars  near  the  house  heater. 

Instantaneous  heaters,  subject  to  those  previous  considerations 
which  call  for  a  cellar  location,  should  be  placed  to  deliver  their 
hot  water  to  the  desired  points  through  the  shortest  distance. 
Also  any  preheater  should  be  near  by.  A  cellar  location  usually 
affords  all  of  these  advantages,  as  well  as  satisfactory  flue 
connections. 

CONDITION  OF 
APPLIANCE 

The  routine  described  under  this  heading  for  a  cooking  appli- 
ance, on  page  705,  is  followed.  If,  as  is  usually  the  case,  there  is 
work  to  be  done  on  the  boiler  or  water  pipes,  they  should  be 
examined.  If  found  in  poor  condition,  the  consumer  should  be 
made  to  understand  that  the  company  will  not  be  responsible  for 
any  extensive  damage  that  may  occur  to  them. 


Except  for  an  instantaneous  heater,  no  enlargement  of  the 
existing  service  will,  as  a  rule,  be  required.  In  any  case,  if  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  size  need  be  increased,  a  trial  should  be 
made  of  the  completed  installation  before  incurring  the  con- 
siderable expense  usually  incident  to  a  service  change. 

METER  CONNECTIONS 

The  limits  of  meter  capacity,  as  shown  on  page  456,  are  so  well 
fixed,  and  the  cost  of  any  necessary  change  is  relatively  so  small 
that  the  indicated  size  should  be  set  without  any  preliminary 
trial.  A  prepayment  meter  should  never  supply  an  automatic 
heater. 

APPLIANCE  LINE 

The  use  of  an  existing  line,  or  the  size  of  a  new  line,  should  be 
governed  by  the  same  considerations  described  on  page  706. 


754  APPLIANCE  WORK 

WATER  PRESSURE 

For  each  instantaneous  heater,  there  is  a  minimum  water 
pressure  required  for  proper  valve  operation.  Before  taking  any 
steps  toward  installation,  the  adequacy  of  the  available  pressure 
should  be  ascertained.  The  measurement  should  be  taken  at 
the  highest  hot-water  faucet  and  at  a  time  when  the  street 
pressure  is  lowest.  Any  leaks  in  the  house  system  should  be 
repaired  before  the  test  is  made. 

MATERIAL  AND  TOOLS 

The  conditions  attending  water  heater  work  are  so  varied 
that  the  advantages  of  doing  it  under  a  preinspection  system  are 
even  greater  than  obtain  for  cooking  appliances,  and  the  deci- 
sions and  calculations  previously  mentioned  are  considered  as 
being  made  by  a  preinspector.  His  relation  to  the  necessary 
material  is  as  described  on  page  708. 

CONNECTION 

SHUTTING  OFF  AND  TURNING  ON  GAS  AND  WATER 
The  remarks  on  page  708  apply  here,  with  the  additional 
statement  that  water  supply  is  also  involved.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  gas  shut-off  is  apt  to  be  of  shorter  duration  than  when 
connecting  a  cooking  appliance,  as  in  the  case  of  a  circulating 
water  heater  the  gas  supply  is  generally  easily  and  quickly 
obtained  from  the  existing  line  to  the  cooking  appliance. 

RUNNING  PIPING 

CIRCULATING  HEATER 

The  preinspector  has  already  called  the  attention  of  the 
consumer  to  any  visible  defects  in  boiler  or  water  piping,  and, 
therefore,  the  fitter  presumably  should  not  have  any  duty  in  this 
line  unless  new  conditions  develop  as  he  proceeds  which  clearly 
have  not  been  due  to  his  work. 

As  the  satisfactory  operation  of  the  heater  demands  clean 
water,  it  is  first  necessary  to  remove  any  dirt  existing  either  in 
the  water  back,  the  boiler  or  the  connections,  that  might  be 
forced  into  circulation  by  the  new  conditions.  If,  with  water 
shut  off,  dirt  is  found  to  exist  on  drawing  off  water  from  the  low 
point  in  the  connections,  the  boiler  should  be  entirely  emptied 
and  then  partly  refilled,  repeating  this  process  until  all  the  dirt 
is  removed. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


755 


U-E. 


r1 


L. 


BOILER 


LINE: 


Figure  229. — Connection  to  Ordinary  Horizontal  Boiler,  page  756. 


756  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  illustrations  that  follow  show  the  method  of  making  water 
connections  to  various  types  under  varying  conditions.  Except 
as  otherwise  stated,  solid  lines  represent  piping  conveying  cold 
or  preheated  water,  and  dashed  lines  piping  conveying  heated 
water. 

Figure  229  shows  the  method  of  connection  to  an  ordinary 
horizontal  boiler,  which  is  heated  also  by  the  water  back  of  a 
coal  range.  A  is  the  cold-water  line  from  the  house  water 
supply  to  the  boiler;  B,  the  hot  water  from  the  boiler  to  the 
house  fixtures,  and  C  and  D,  the  connections  between  the  water 
back  and  the  boiler.  The  pipes  that  are  installed  by  the  fitter 
when  connecting  the  heater,  are  E,  the  hot-water  pipe  from  the 
heater  to  the  boiler;  F,  the  cold-water  pipe  from  the  boiler  (or 
water  back)  to  the  heater,  and  G,  the  gas  supply  line.  A  ^-inch 
clean-out  plug  is  placed  at  H,  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out, 
as  mentioned  on  page  772. 

Figure  230  shows  the  method  of  connection  to  an  ordinary 
vertical  boiler  with  water  back.  The  explanation  of  the  various 
letters  is  similar  to  that  already  given  for  Figure  229. 

Figure  231  shows  the  method  of  connection  to  what  is  com- 
monly termed  a  log  boiler.  This  is  found  usually  with  the  old- 
style,  bricked-in  coal  range,  and  presents  certain  difficulties  of 
installation  because  the  pipes  to  which  connection  must  be  made 
are  of  lead,  and  because  the  boiler  is  relatively  so  low  that  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  good  circulation.  A  is  the  cold-water  line 
from  the  house  supply  to  the  boiler,  and  B,  the  hot-water  from 
the  boiler  to  the  house  fixtures.  The  water  pipes  that  are 
installed  by  the  fitter  are  C,  D  and  E.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
water  that  is  drawn  through  B  from  coming  directly  through 
the  heater  instead  of  from  the  boiler,  and  to  facilitate  the 
hot  water  storage  in  the  boiler,  it  is  necessary  to  install  a  24-inch 
length  of  2-inch  pipe  in  line  E.  This  results  in  enough  difference 
in  weight  between  the  columns  D  and  E  to  cause  circulation 
toward  the  boiler  until  a  faucet  is  opened,  and  then  its  effect  is 
to  reduce  the  friction  loss  in  E  as  compared  to  D,  and  so  to 
cause  the  movement  of  the  water  in  the  proper  way.  H  is  the 
clean-put  plug,  and  G  the  gas  line  installed. 

If  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  completely  empty  the 
boiler,  the  water  connections  should  be  made  while  the  boiler  is 
empty.  If,  however,  no  dirt  appears,  the  connection  should  be 
made  in  the  following  manner.  All  the  faucets  on  the  system 
from  which  water  is  shut  off,  should  be  opened  and  water  drawn 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 

1 
I 


757 


Figure  230. — Connection  to  Ordinary  Vertical  Boiler,  page  756. 


758  APPLIANCE  WORK 

from  the  lowest  available  point  below  the  bottom  of  the  boiler 
until  the  latter  is  about  one-third  empty.  The  faucets  should 
now  be  tightly  closed,  and  if  no  air  leakage  exists,  the  cold- 
water  pipes  to  the  heater  can  be  run  with  a  very  small  loss  of 
water  from  the  open  boiler  outlet  from  which  the  connection  is 
being  made.  If  the  system  is  not  tight,  or  if  it  is  desirable  to 
spill  no  water,  the  boiler  must  be  emptied  completely  before  the 
connection  work  is  started.  When  the  cold  connection  is  finished 
and  the  heater  placed  upon  it,  a  vertical  nipple,  long  enough 
to  reach  above  the  level  of  the  water,  if  any,  in  the  boiler,  should 
be  inserted  in  the  top  outlet  of  the  heater.  Now  the  boiler 
connections  can  be  broken  at  the  top,  without  further  loss  of 
water,  and  then  the  hot-water  connection  can  be  made. 

At  this  point  an  investigation  should  be  made  to  determine 
whether  a  cold-water  carrying  tube  is  already  in  the  boiler.  If 
not,  one  should  be  inserted,  as  it  is  very  essential  for  efficient 
operation.  This  tube  should  be  preferably  of  copper,  one  or 
two  j^-inch  holes  being  drilled  in  it  at  the  entrance  end. 

In  making  the  water  connections,  the  following  rules  should 
be  followed : 

The  size  of  the  connecting  pipes  should  be  that  of 
the  outlets  provided  in  the  heater,  but  should  be 
never  less  than  f-inch.  Galvanized  or  copper  pipe 
and  fittings  should  be  used. 

Cocks  or  valves  should  not  be  placed  on  the  con- 
nections. 

If  the  water  to  the  house  is  metered,  a  safety  valve 
should  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  boiler.  This  is  to 
provide  against  excessive  pressure  in  the  system 
created  by  steam  generated  in  case  the  heater  is 
allowed  to  burn  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

A  union  should  be  installed  on  each  of  the  cold  and 
hot  connections.  Good  quality  fibre  washers  are 
recommended  for  use  in  these  unions. 

A  ^-inch  plugged  outlet,  provided,  if  desirable,  with 
a  draw-off  cock,  should  be  placed  on  the  lowest  access- 
ible point  of  the  circulating  system. 

As  tight  joints  are  a  requisite,  extraordinary  efforts 
should  be  made  to  pull  each  thread  very  tight  as  the 
connection  work  is  proceeding.  Jointing  material 
should  be  used  sparingly. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


759 


K 


L. 


BOILER. 


LlNfc 


Figure  231. — Connection  to  Log  Boiler,  page  756. 


760  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  water  connections  having  been  completed,  the  water 
should  be  turned  into  the  boiler  and  the  pipe  joints  carefully 
examined  to  see  if  leaks  develop.  Close  attention  to  this  may 
show  the  leaks  as  soon  as  the  water  level  reaches  the  defective 
joint,  and  will  save  time  in  cases  where  emptying  the  boiler  is 
necessary  to  make  repair. 

The  water  work  having  been  completed,  the  gas  and  flue 
connections  should  be  made  as  explained  in  Chapter  LXIII. 
A  flue  should  be  installed  on  every  water  heater  burning  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  35  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

The  heater  should  now  be  lighted,  a  temporary  or  final  adjust- 
ment given,  and  a  brief  test  of  the  installation  made.  Fifteen 
minutes  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  bring  to  light  any  defects, 
such  as  by-passing,  obstructions  or  leaks.  If  any  such  fault  is 
noticed,  steps  to  remedy  it  should  be  taken  at  once. 

COMBINATION  HEATER 

After  the  preinspection,  the  work  of  the  fitter  preliminary  to 
the  connection  of  a  combination  boiler  and  water  heater  is 
almost  exactly  the  same  as  just  explained  for  circulating  heaters. 
As  the  combination  heater  sometimes  replaces  the  coal  range 
and  boiler,  special  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  removal  and 
disposition  of  the  latter. 

Figure  232  shows  the  method  of  making  water  connections  to 
a  combination  boiler  by  the  "direct  system,"  so-called  because 
the  water  enters  the  heater  direct  from  the  cold-water  house 
service.  A  is  the  cold-water  line  from  the  house  water  supply, 
and  B,  the  hot  water  from  the  boiler  to  the  house,  fixtures. 
C  and  D  are,  respectively,  the  cold  and  hot  water  connections 
that  are  made  by  the  fitter.  E  is  a  gate  valve.  A  clean-out  is 
provided  at  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  G  is  the  gas  line. 

Figure  _  233  shows  the  method  of  making  connections  to  a 
combination  boiler  by  the  "reheat  system,"  so  called  because 
the  water  entering  the  heater  has  previously  received  some  heat 
from  an  auxiliary  system,  usually  the  kitchen  boiler.  The 
advantage  of  the  reheat  system  lies  in  the  reduction  of  the 
amount  of  gas  necessary  to  raise  the  volume  of  water  within  the 
boiler  to  the  temperature  that  will  close  the  thermally-controlled 
gas  valve.  The  reheat  system,  therefore,  is  the  one  most  fre- 
quently used  for  dwelling  houses.  A  is  the  supply  line  carrying 
the  previously  heated  water  to  the  boiler,  and  B,  the  line  from  the 
boiler  to  the  house  fixtures.  It  can  be  seen  that  before  the 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


761 


uJ 

J 

O 

cQ 


Figure  232. — Combination  Boiler  Connection — Direct  System,  page  760. 


762 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


*c-^* 

7  —  *&  —  T" 

1    t1 

T  i-*-- 

F-/-" 

f   '! 

VD 

\ 

jj 

i      j 

o 

^-Q 

/ 

1 

Figure  233.— CombinationBoilerConnection— ReheatSystem,  page  760. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


763 


heater  was  installed,  A  and  B  formed  a  continuous  line  from  the 
previous  sole  source  of  water  heating  to  the  fixtures.  The  lines 
C  and  D  conduct  the  water  to  and  from  the  boiler  respectively. 
It  is  seen  that  when  valve  E  is  open  and  valve  F  is  closed,  water 
will  flow  from  the  initial  source  of  heat  direct  to  the  fixtures 
without  passing  through  the  boiler,  and  that  when  valve  E  is 
closed  and  F  open,  the  water  to  the  fixtures  will  be  drawn  from 
the  boiler.  It  is  necessary  that  these  two  valves  be  neither  both 
closed,  or  both  open,  at  the  same  time.  The  consumer  should 
thoroughly  understand  their  functions. 

The  gas  and  flue  connections  should  be  made  and  all  other 
work  done  as  described  in  Chapter  LXIII. 

The  small  capacity  boilers  of  the  type  used  most  frequently 
in  barber  shops,  in  which  the  water  is  heated  by  application  of 
the  gas  flame  either  directly  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  or  to  a 
system  of  castings  or  coils  contained  in,  or  under,  the  boiler, 
similarly  to  boilers  of  larger  type,  are  located  usually  on  the 
floor,  no  flue  connection  being  required. 

Figure  234  shows  the  method  of  making  water  connections  to 
such  a  boiler  type.  A  and  B  are  the  cold  and  hot  water  con- 


I 


o  o  oo 


Figure  234.— Barber's  Boiler  Connection,  page  763. 


764 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


• 

d 

o 

cQ 

"\ 

\ 

i 

i 

i 

1  

i 

"Til 

WATER. 
BACK 

A 

1 

i 

iU  1    1    1 

L/fl 

M 

—  - 

L                 

J4 

H 

iATLR 

/  ^(  \ 

Figure  23Q—  Instantaneous  Automatic  Heater  Connection— 
Rtll68VHHH  System,  page  765. 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE  765 

nections,  and  G,  the  gas  line.  This  figure  shows  the  water 
being  received  from  the  cold-water  supply  to  the  house.  This 
may  be  varied  if  desirable,  and  the  reheat  system  used  by 
making  the  connections  in  the  way  shown  in  Figure  233. 

INSTANTANEOUS  HEATER 

Bearing  in  mind  the  details  of  construction  of  the  instanta- 
neous type  of  water  heaters,  the  methods  of  connection  shown 
in  the  following  figures  will  be  easily  understood. 

Figure  235  shows  the  method  ot  connecting  an  instantaneous 
water  heater  by  the  direct  system.  The  water  enters  the  heater 
from  A,  the  cold-water  house  supply,  through  connection  C,  and 
the  hot  water  is  delivered  through  connection  D  into  B,  the  hot- 
water  supply  line  to  the  house  fixtures.  In  order  to  permit 
the  shutting  off  of  either  the  coal  range  boiler  or  the  instan- 
taneous heater,  gate  valves  F  and  H  are  installed.  Valve  E  is  a 
check  to  prevent  water  passing  back  through  the  heater.  G  is 
the  gas  line. 

Figure  236  shows  the  method  of  connecting  an  instantaneous 
water  heater  by  the  reheat  system.  The  water  enters  the  boiler 
from  the  cold-water  supply  line,  A.  F  and  H  are  gate  valves 
and  E  a  check  valve.  G  is  the  gas  line.  F  and  the  short  con- 
nection on  which  it  is  placed  between  lines  C  and  B,  makes  it 
possible  to  operate  either  the  boiler  alone  or  the  heater  in  con- 
nection with  the  boiler,  whether  or  not  the  latter  is  being  heated 
by  the  water  back.  To  operate  the  boiler  alone,  H  should  be 
closed  and  F  opened.  To  operate  the  heater,  H  should  be 
opened  and  F  closed,  in  which  case,  it  is  seen  that  when  a  hot- 
water  faucet  on  line  B  is  opened,  water  will  enter  the  heater  from 
the  boiler  through  connection  C  and  will  be  discharged  through 
connection  D  into  line  B  and  to  the  fixtures. 

The  advantage  of  the  reheat  system  lies  in  the  reduction  of  the 
amount  of  gas  necessary  to  raise  the  water  passing  through  a 
thermostatically-controlled  heater  to  the  temperature  that  will 
close  the  thermally-controlled  gas  valve.  When  applied  to  an 
instantaneous  heater  that  is  not  thermostatically  controlled,  a 
higher  final  temperature  is  obtained  than  if  the  direct  system 
is  used. 

Almost  all  of  the  operations  described  or  referred  to  for  con- 
necting circulating  water  heaters,  apply  equally  to  heaters  of  the 
instantaneous  type.  A  few  additional  instructions  will  now  be 
given : 


766 


APPLIANCE  WORK 
1 


Figure  2^?— Instantaneous  Automatic  Heater  Connection- 
System,  page  765. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  767 

The  size  of  the  water  connections  should  be  that  indi- 
cated by  the  outlets  in  the  heater.  This  usually  will 
mean  piping  of  size  in  the  following  table: 

Heater  Number  Size  of  Water  Connections 

Inlet  and  Outlet  Piping 


8  1 

A  firm  foundation  should  be  provided  for  the  heater. 
A  hard  dirt  floor  is  not  satisfactory. 

Every  heater  should  be  connected  to  a  flue,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  in  Chapter  LXIII. 

If  necessary  to  provide  a  drain  to  the  drip  pan  or 
ring,  such  provision  should  be  made  by  connecting 
direct  to  an  existing  drain,  and  not  by  breaking  a 
cement  cellar  floor  and  inserting  the  drain  pipe  blind 
or  with  a  "French  drain"  effect. 

To  prevent  wasting  hot  water,  the  use  of  self- 
closing  faucets  at  the  points  where  most  hot  water 
will  be  used,  is  recommended. 

The  instruction  tags  furnished  by  the  company  or 
by  the  maker  of  the  appliance,  should  be  posted  as 
directed,  permanently  and  in  a  conspicuous  place. 

After  all  the  connections  have  been  completed,  the 
fitter  should  completely  fill  the  system  with  water 
and  should  test  the  heater  for  proper  operation  of  the 
pressure  and  thermal  valves. 

ALL  OTHER  TYPES  OF  HEATERS 

All  the  other  heaters  described  in  Chapter  LXV  fall  in  one  of 
the  above  classes,  for  which  connection  details  have  been  given. 

Special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  "  furnace  connection  " 
method  of  heating  water  for  domestic  use.  In  this  method,  a 
bulb-shaped  hollow  casting,  or  a  coil  of  pipe,  or  a  combination  of 
fittings,  is  placed  in  the  firebox  of  the  house  heater,  and  there 
acts  as  a  water  back,  being  connected  with  the  hot-water  boiler 
by  a  simple  return  system.  This  installation  is  sometimes  made 
by  gas  companies  to  provide  hot  water  by  other  means  than 
the  coal  range,  and  thus  promote  the  use  of  the  kitchen  gas 
range  during  the  winter.  Where  the  kitchen  would  ordinarily 


768  APPLIANCE  WORK 

be  heated  by  the  coal  range,  a  radiator  is   installed,  shunted 
between  the  hot  and  cold  furnace  connection  water  lines. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  such  an  installation  is  entirely 
satisfactory  only  when  a  good  fire  is  maintained  in  the  furnace. 
As  continuous  cold  weather  is  necessary  to  insure  such  a  fire, 
this  method  cannot  be  guaranteed  in  a  winter  climate  where 
intervals  of  warm  weather  are  likely  to  occur. 

RECORDS,  INSTRUCTIONS  AND  CLEANING  UP 

After  all  the  connection  work  is  completed,  the  fitter  should 
inspect  it,  clean  up,  make  the  necessary  records,  and  instruct  the 
consumer,  all  as  described  in  more  detail  in  Chapter  LXIII. 

SUBINSPECTION 

Subinspection  of  the  installation  of  circulating  and  combina- 
tion boiler  and  water  heaters  should  be  made  in  the  manner 
described  in  Chapter  LXIII.  In  the  case  of  automatic  or 
instantaneous  heaters,  it  should  include,  in  addition  to  the 
operations  already  described,  a  careful  inspection  of  the  special 
valves  and  an  examination  into  the  draught  afforded  the  heater. 


CHAPTER  LXVII 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 

REASONS  NECESSITATING  MAINTENANCE 
As  in  the  case  of  cooking  appliances,  water  heaters  are  designed 
with  the  idea  of  affording  maximum  efficiency  and  satisfaction 
to  the  consumer,  and  at  the  same  time,  of  reducing  the  number 
and  cost  of  maintenance  visits  to  a  minimum.  As  complaints  of 
water  heater  performance  are  more  difficult  to  remedy  than  those 
of  cooking  appliances,  it  is  essential  that  the  men  on  the  work 
be  well  skilled. 

TANK  HEATERS 
ADJUSTMENTS  AND  LEAKS 

The  burner  cock,  air  mixer  and  burner  of  the  average  tank 
heater  are  used  less  frequently  than  those  of  a  cooking  appliance, 
and  they  are  free  from  the  dirt  caused  by  cooking  materials. 
Therefore,  it  is  comparatively  seldom  that  they  need  adjustment. 
When  this  condition  occurs,  it  is  remedied  as  described  on  page 
721.  A  source  of  burner  stoppage  that  does  not  exist  in  a  cooking 
appliance,  is  the  deposit,  resulting  from  incomplete  combustion, 
that  forms  on  the  outside  of  the  heater  internal,  drops  on  to  the 
burner,  and  thence  finds  its  way  into  the  orifice  and  cock.  Its 
removal  is  necessary  for  proper  burner  adjustment,  but  fortu- 
nately is  easy.  The  internal  should  be  cleaned  of  this  deposit 
before  touching  the  burner. 

The  burner  of  a  tank  heater  should  be  adjusted  to  the  proper 
flame  when  consuming  the  standard  amount  of  gas  for  the 
conditions  under  which  it  is  installed.  When  no  flue  connection 
is  provided,  the  proper  rate  of  consumption  is  from  35  to  40 
cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  with  a  flue,  from  50  to  60  cubic  feet. 

Gas  leaks  should  be  repaired  as  told  in  detail  on  page  723. 
The  construction  of  the  burner  and  the  mixer  tube,  fastened 
together,  as  they  are,  by  a  slip  joint  and  set  screw,  affords  a 
chance  for  a  leak  that  does  not  exist  with  a  cooking  appliance 

(769) 


770  APPLIANCE  WORK 

burner.  The  slip  joint  may  be  parted  by  a  slipping  of  the 
set  screw,  or  by  force  or  weight  applied  accidentally  to  the  gas 
connections,  either  at  the  heater  or  sometimes  in  the  cellar. 
The  remedy  is  to  loosen  the  set  screw,  remake  the  slip  joint,  and, 
if  possible,  remove  the  cause  of  any  permanent  strain  that  tends 
to  pull  the  joint  apart. 

The  repair  of  water  leaks  in  the  connecting  pipes,  if  this 
kind  of  work  is  undertaken  by  the  company,  means  a  renewal  of 
the  leaking  pipe  or  fitting,  or  perhaps  only  the  tightening  of  a 
thread,  or  the  renewal  of  a  union  washer.  The  workman  who 
preinspects  this  kind  of  work  should  make  a  most  careful  exami- 
nation, not  only  of  the  leaking  pipe,  but  also  of  all  adjacent  pipes 
or  parts  that  will  in  any  probability  be  disturbed  by  the  work 
of  repair.  The  external  appearance  of  a  water-carrying  gal- 
vanized pipe  or  fitting  may  indicate  it  in  good  condition,  while, 
in  reality,  it  is  but  a  shell  that  will  be  crushed  or  will  otherwise 
fail  by  the  touch  of  a  wrench  or  by  the  application  of  the  slightest 
strain.  When  leaks  occur  rather  frequently  in  the  iron  pipe 
where  it  is  screwed  into  the  hot-water  outlet  of  the  heater,  the 
trouble  may  be  due  to  electrolysis  of  the  iron  pipe.  The  remedy 
is  to  use  a  short  brass  nipple  in  the  heater  outlet. 

A  water  leak  practically  never  can  be  repaired  on  the  con- 
sumer's premises,  and  seldom  can  it  be  permanently  repaired. 
This  necessitates  the  renewal  of  the  part  complete.  In  some 
cases,  the  company  allows  a  standard  credit  for  the  old  part, 
which  usually  contains  something  that  may  be  used  over  again, 
or  that  has  a  scrap  value. 

MISCELLANEOUS  REPAIRS 

The  design  of  the  modern  tank  heater  is  so  simple  that  repairs 
of  a  character  other  than  those  already  mentioned,  are  limited 
practically  to  the  replacement  of  broken  parts,  and  this  work  is 
very  easily  performed.  Complaints  of  insufficient  hot  water  or 
of  slow  heating  are  not  frequent,  but  when  due  to  sources  other 
than  poor  gas  supply  or  improper  burner  adjustment,  are  often 
difficult  and  sometimes  impossible  to  remedy.  This  remedy 
involves,  first,  an  investigation  for  stoppages  in  the  water 
system,  and  second,  a  removal  of  the  stoppage.  When  the 
water  supply  from  the  street  is  sufficient,  and  is  clean  and  free 
from  constituents  that,  when  heated,  form  new  chemical  com- 
binations, with  resultant  deposits,  stoppages  usually  occur  only 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  771 

within  the  boiler  or  the  water  back  of  the  coal  range,  or  in  the 
pipes  connecting  the  tank  heater  or  the  water  back  with  the 
boiler. 

With  connections  made  as  shown  in  Figures  229  to  231  the 
approximate  location  of  a  stoppage  may  usually  be  determined 
as  follows:  When  the  supply  co  the  cold-water  faucet  in  the 
kitchen  is  good,  it  is  probable  that  the  cold-water  supply  to  the 
boiler  also  is  good,  thus  indicating  no  stoppage  in  those  pipes. 
When,  under  these  conditions,  the  hot-water  supply  to  the  kitchen* 
faucet,  or  perhaps  to  the  whole  house,  is  considerably  less  than 
that  delivered  at  the  cold-water  faucets,  it  is  probable  that  a 
stoppage  exists  in  the  hot- water  line  near  its  point  of  take-off 
from  the  boiler.  When,  under  the  same  conditions,  the  water 
heated  by  the  water  heater  circulates  freely  through  the  hot- 
water  connection,  and  enters  the  boiler  with  the  same  freedom, 
it  is  probable  that  the  stoppage  is  in  the  hot-water  system 
beyond  the  point  at  which  the  hot- water  connection  of  the 
heater  is  made.  When  the  water  heated  by  the  gas  does  not 
ascend  freely,  but  tends  to  back  down  into  the  cold-water 
connection  of  the  heater,  it  is  probable  that  the  stoppage  is 
either  in  the  heater  itself  or  in  the  hot-water  connection,  unless 
one  of  the  previously  mentioned  tests  has  indicated  it  to  be  at 
some  other  point.  These  same  symptoms  may  indicate,  how- 
ever, a  stoppage  in  the  cold-water  supply  to  the  heater,  and,  in 
many  cases,  this  stoppage  may  be  in  the  water  back  connections 
or  in  the  water  back  itself.  This  kind  of  a  stoppage  can  usually 
be  removed  by  allowing  the  heater  to  burn  for  some  time  and 
then  drawing  off  the  water  through  the  draw-off  cock,  or  from 
any  other  draining  outlet.  This  is  the  most  common  of  all 
stoppages  affecting  water-heater  performance,  resulting  from 
the  fact  that  sediment  naturally  accumulates  in  the  lowest 
parts  of  the  water-carrying  system.  The  remedy  for  stoppages 
at  other  locations  usually  will  involve  taking  down  the  con- 
nections and  renewing  a  certain  portion.  Just  how  far  the 
company  will  proceed  with  this  kind  of  work,  is  a  question  to  be 
decided  in  each  situation. 

Another  kind  of  trouble  that  results  in  insufficient  hot-water 
complaints  is  due  to  "by-passing,"  so  named  for  the  reason  that 
the  water  that  has  been  heated  is  prevented  from  circulating  in 
the  intended  way,  and  is  either  forced  to  mix  with  cold  water  or 
is  by-passed  by  cold  water  when  the  hot-water  faucet  is  opened. 
This  trouble  may  be  recognized  by  the  delivery  from  the  hot 


772  APPLIANCE  WORK 

faucet,  of  cold,  or  of  alternate  cold  and  hot,  water,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  heater  seems  to  be  working  properly.  In  some 
cases,  this  may  be  due  to  a  partial  stoppage,  which  results  in 
the  water  drawn  from  the  hot  faucet  passing  directly  through  the 
heater  without  entering  the  boiler.  This  means  that  the  water 
is  following  the  path  of  least  resistance,  and  it  can  be  remedied  by 
clearing  out  or  enlarging  the  path  through  which  the  water  is 
intended  to  travel,  or  by  increasing  the  resistance  to  its  travel 
through  the  water  heater.  This  latter  can  be  done  by  throttling 
or  reducing  the  size  of,  or  by  inserting  a  number  of  elbows  in, 
the  cold-water  connection.  The  mixing  of  cold  water  with  that 
just  heated  is  usually  the  result  of  the  absence  of,  or  a  defect  in, 
the  cold-water  boiler  tube.  This  trouble  can  be  fairly  accurately 
diagnosed  by  the  fact  that  the  water  is  properly  heated  and 
circulates  well  up  to  the  point  of  entrance  to  the  boiler,  at  which 
point  it  seems  to  be  suddenly  cooled,  thus  preventing  its  storage 
in  the  top  of  the  boiler.  The  remedy  is  to  renew  the  tube. 

A  complaint  of  rusty  or  muddy  water  may  be  sometimes 
remedied  by  flushing  the  boiler  in  position;  that  is,  by  burning 
the  heater  for  about  a  half-hour  and  then  drawing  off  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  water  through  the  drain  outlet.  In  other, 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  boiler  down  and  give  it  a  thorough 
flushing,  and  in  still  others,  to  renew  the  pipes  that  may  be  the 
source  of  rust.  When  the  heater  is  an  iron  internal,  the  renewal 
of  the  latter  may  be  necessary  to  remedy  the  trouble. 
•  A  complaint  of  a  thumping,  cracking,  or  hammering  noise, 
which  is  due  to  a  stoppage  in  the  circulating  pipes,  should  be 
cared  for  by  a  removal  of  the  stoppage  in  the  manner  previously 
described. 

COMBINATION  HEATERS 

Since  there  is  no  standard  design  of  combination  heaters,  it  is 
not  possible  to  lay  down  specific  rules  for  their  maintenance. 
In  general,  complaint  work  on  the  burner,  shell,  internal,  and 
water  connections,  follows  the  principles  just  laid  down  for  tank 
heaters,  although  the  troubles  that  are  incident  to  the  differences 
in  design  should  be  remedied  in  the  manner  that  suggests  itself 
to  the  trained  complaint  man.  When  one  of  these  heaters  is 
automatically  operated,  to  the  troubles  already  mentioned  must 
be  added  those  occurring  with  the  automatic  valve  mechanism. 
Owing  to  its  lack  of  standardization,  no  attempt  is  made  to 
treat  of  the  various  troubles  to  which  it  may  be  subject. 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  773 

INSTANTANEOUS  AUTOMATIC  HEATERS 
ADJUSTMENTS  AND  LEAKS 

The  explanation  of  the  design  of  the  instantaneous  automatic 
water  heater  makes  plain  the  impossibility  of  adjustment,  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  of  the  burners  of  the  heater.  The 
size  of  the  air  openings,  of  the  gas  orifice,  of  the  burner  gauze 
and  of  the  burner  ports,  is  fixed.  It  is  important  that  proper 
gas  supply  be  available  for  this  type  of  heater  at  all  times,  and 
this  being  true,  the  only  necessary  burner  adjustment  will  be  a 
cleaning  of  the  gauzes  and  burner  heads.  The  importance  of 
keeping  the  burner  gauzes  clean  cannot  be  exaggerated.  The 
usual  location  of  the  heater  in  the  cellar  where  dirt  and  dust  are 
prevalent,  results  frequently  in  dirty  gauzes,  which,  in  turn, 
mean  complaints  of  gas  leak,  insufficient  hot  water,  and  of  a 
high  bill.  Such  a  condition  almost  invariably  causes  a  carbon 
deposit  on  the  coils  above  the  burner,  and  it  is  necessary  in  each 
case,  when  cleaning  the  gauze,  to  clean  the  coils  also. 

When  the  size  of  the  pilot  flame  is  too  large  and  has  caused  a 
carbon  deposit  on  its  head,  the  carbon  should  be  cleaned  off  and 
the  flame  adjusted.  The  proper  length  of  this  flame  is  about 
one  inch,  measured  from  the  port  to  the  end  of  the  flame  along 
the  natural  upward  curve  that  the  flame  assumes.  It  is  import- 
ant that  the  pilot  be  always  in  the  correct  position,  namely,  close 
to  one  of  the  main  burners  and  slightly  above  it. 

It  seldom  is  necessary  to  adjust  the  rate  of  water  flow  through 
the  heater,  or  the  temperature  of  the  water.  The  directions  for 
this  adjustment  in  a  typical  heater  are  now  given.  To  test  the 
adjustment  of  the  thermostat,  which  is  adjusted  at  the  factory 
to  about  140  degrees,  regulate  the  flow  of  cold  water  through 
the  heater  to  its  rated  capacity  by  using  an  ordinary  3-gallon 
scrub  pail  and  timing  the  flow.  Then  draw  hot  water  at  the 
faucet  nearest  the  heater  at  the  rate  of  one-half  the  heater 
capacity.  The  water  temperature  should  now  be  140  to  150 
degrees,  the  gas  going  on  and  off  intermittently.  If  it  is  too 
low,  the  regulating  screw  should  be  turned  inward,  and  if  too 
high,  outward.  A  quarter-turn  of  the  regulating  screw  usually 
makes  a  change  of  about  10  degrees  in  the  temperature.  When 
making  the  water  flow  adjustment,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  leaking  faucets  or  toilets  will,  in  some  cases,  greatly 
reduce  the  initial  pressure,  and  the  consumer  should  be  told  that 
these  must  be  repaired  before  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the 
heater  can  be  made. 


774  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  only  other  possible  adjustments  additional  to  those 
already  mentioned  are  some  minor  ones  connected  with  the 
water  and  gas  valves,  and  which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  described 
here,  but  are  self-evident  to  the  workman  who  is  familiar  with 
the  heater. 

The  occurrence  of  water  leaks  in  automatic  instantaneous 
water  heaters  is.  limited  practically  to  those  in  the  copper  coil. 
These  necessitate  the  renewal  of  the  coil  in  the  same  manner  as 
described  for  tank  heaters.  Gas  or  water  leaks  in  connecting 
pipes  are  cared  for  in  the  usual  way. 

MISCELLANEOUS  REPAIRS 

Owing  to  the  sturdy  construction  of  this  type  of  heater,  it 
seldom  is  necessary  to  make  repairs  that  would  involve  the  use 
of  material,  other  than  the  renewal  of  the  burner  gauzes  and 
copper  coils,  that  have  been  previously  referred  to.  However, 
there  are  some  troubles  which  occasionally  arise  in  the  operation 
of  the  heater  and  these  it  is  well  to  describe  and  to  tell  the 
remedy.  As  with  tank  heaters  the  most  common  complaint  is 
lack  of  sufficient  hot  water.  In  these  cases  the  complaint  man 
should  first  assure  himself  that  the  gas  supply  is  ample,  following 
the  rules  in  Chapter  LVIl;  also  that  the  gas  valve  operates 
properly,  that  the  burners  are  properly  adjusted,  and  the  coils  free 
from  carbon  deposit.  Then  he  should  test  the  water  pressure  at 
various  points  of  the  house,  and  if  this  seems  good,  he  should 
ask  the  consumer  whether  good  pressure  is  maintained  at  all 
times  of  day.  It  occurs  not  infrequently  that  the  trouble  is 
due  entirely  to  poor  water  pressure  in  the  street  or  at  the  head 
of  the  service,  and  that  this  makes  itself  felt  only  during  times 
of  peak  water  load,  either  within  the  building  or  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. In  certain  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  check  conditions 
by  setting  a  recording  gauge  for  24  hours.  When  the  trouble 
is  in  the  street,  a  pressure  increase  is  beyond  the  consumer's 
power,  and  if  in  the  service  or  the  building,  it  is  seldom  that 
the  consumer  will  approve  the  expenditure  usually  necessary. 
Under  these  conditions,  the  only  way  to  effect  any  improvement 
is  to  install  a  water  valve  with  a  large  piston  area,  or  to  replace 
the  springs  in  the  gas  and  water  valves  with  weaker  ones. 
Both  of  these  methods  are  intended  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  energy  expended  by  the  water  in  operating  the  heater 
mechanism. 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  77.5 

Insufficient  hot  water  may  be  caused  by  a  failure  of  the  water 
valve  to  open  all  the  way,  by  the  hot  water  outlet  pipe  being 
obstructed,  by  the  existence  of  poor  chimney  draft,  and  by  the 
improper  operation  of  the  water  valves  used  on  the  connections. 

When  the  pilot  flame  jumps  out,  when  not  due  to  insufficient 
gas  supply,  the  cause  may  be  the  too  rapid  operation  of  the  main 
water  and  gas  valves.  Intermittent  burning  or  fluttering  of  the 
heater  when  no  hot  water  is  being  drawn,  may  be  due  to  an 
obstruction  in  the  gas  valve,  or  to  the  omission  of  the  check  valve 
on  the  hot-water  line  at  the  heater  outlet. 

When  an  excessive  amount  of  water  is  condensed  on  the  coils 
and  drains  into  the  drip  pan  and  becomes  a  nuisance,  it  should 
be  removed  by  installing  a  small  drain  pipe  to  a  proper  place 
of  disposal. 

ALL  OTHER  TYPES  OF  HEATERS 

The  maintenance  of  any  other  type  of  heater  will  probably 
involve  no  other  principles  than  those  already  described. 


SECTION  IV 

ROOM  HEATING  APPLIANCES 

CHAPTER  LXVIII 

DESIGN 

INTRODUCTORY 

Under  normal  price  conditions,  manufactured  gas  can  seldom 
compete  on  a  cost  basis  with  coal  for  all  year  househeating 
purposes  except  in  southern  climates,  but  it  is  used  very  exten- 
sively throughout  this  country  as  a  means  of  auxiliary  house- 
heating  and  wherever  convenience  is  a  particularly  desirable 
consideration.  However,  in  natural  gas  regions,  househeating 
by  gas  is  often  cheaper  than  by  coal,  and  the  resultant  demand 
for  heaters  has,  as  in  the  case  of  cooking  and  water-heating 
appliances,  wonderfully  hastened  the  development  of  satisfactory 
house  and  room  heaters.  These  room  heaters  are  now  so 
inexpensive  and,  especially  in  the  portable  types,  so  convenient 
that  they  are  bought  each  year  by  thousands  of  consumers  of 
manufactured  gas,  and  in  times  of  extremely  cold  weather  or  of 
domestic  coal  shortage  prove  of  great  value. 

There  is  such  a  continuing  evolution  in  their  design  that  only 
some  of  the  more  important  examples  of  the  various  types  will 
be  described.  The  best  practice  in  room  heating  is  given  from 
year  to  year  in  the  appropriate  committee  reports  to  the  former 
national  gas  associations,  beginning  with  1912,  and  their  contents 
should  be  known  by  the  student  of  this  subject. 

CLASSIFICATION 
NATURE  OF  LOCATION 

A  room  heater  may  be  classified  in  at  least  three  different  ways. 
First,  with  reference  to  location  for  which  designed.  A  heater 
designed  to  be  set  out  or  moved  about  in  a  room  is  known  as  a 

(776) 


DESIGN  777 

"portable"  heater,  because,  subject  to  the  making  or  unmaking 
of  its  connection,  it  may  be  taken  anywhere.  One  of  the  con- 
veniences and  economies  of  heating  by  gas  is  this  ability  to 
move  a  heater  from  room  to  room,  and  it  has  been  a  determin- 
ing factor  in  the  prevalent  use  of  flexible  gas  tubing,  in  spite  of 
the  many  failings  of  tubing  connections  generally. 

A  heater  designed  for  location  in  a  fireplace  is  called  a  fireplace 
heater. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COMBUSTION 

The  second  method  of  classification  is  based  on  the  principle  of 
combustion  employed.  In  the  "blue-flame"  type,  the  bunsen 
burner  is  used.  The  hazards  arising  with  this  burner  from 
incomplete  combustion  have  been  discussed  in  Chapter  LXII, 
in  describing  bunsen  burners.  For  cooking  food  and  heating 
water,  or,  in  fact,  in  any  operation  where  the  flame  impinges 
directly  upon  the  article  to  be  heated,  the  bunsen  burner  is 
necessary,  but  for  room  heating  it  is  not  essential,  and,  therefore, 
should  not  be  used  in  any  heater  unprovided  with  a  flue  connec- 
tion, with  possible  exceptions  in  the  case  of  steam  gas-radiators, 
or  radiators  of  the  incandescent  or  radiant  types. 

The  "yellow-flame  "  heater  makes  use  of  a  flame  similar  to  that 
obtained  with  the  ordinary  flat-flame  burner.  The  oxygen  for 
combustion  is  obtained  from  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the 
flame,  which  is  free  to  extend  into  the  combustion  chamber  until 
combustion  is  complete,  and  with  careful  design,  there  should  be 
no  chance  for  flame  impingement  and  accompanying  carbon 
deposit.  In  any  case,  such  deposit  would  soon  make  itself  known, 
so  that  the  condition  could  be  remedied. 

There  is  no  difference  in  efficiency  between  the  two  types,  as 
the  complete  combustion  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  will  produce  the 
same  number  of  heat  units,  independent  of  the  kind  of  burner. 

METHODS  OF  HEAT  UTILIZATION 

The  third  basis  of  classification  is  with  reference  to  heat  util- 
ization, and  under  it  there  are  the  following  classes: 

(a)  Incandescent   heaters,  where   the  flame  heats  to  incan- 
descence, heating  elements  of  refractory  material. 

(b)  Reflector  heaters,  which  directly  reflect  the  flame  radiation. 

(c)  "Gas"  radiators,  in  which  the  combustion  products  pass 
through  and  heat  a  thin  metal  shell  serving  as  a  radiator. 


778  APPLIANCE  WORK 

(d)  Steam  or  hot  water  radiators,  which  absorb  the  heat  gen- 
erated by  the  combustion  of  the  gas,  and  radiate  it  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  ordinary  steam  or  hot-water  radiators. 


Figure  237. —  Incandescent  Heater. —  Fire- 
place Type,  page  778. 

INCANDESCENT  HEATER 

The  incandescent  heater  is  of  the  blue-flame  type.  In  the 
design  illustrated  by  Figure  237,  the  incandescent  effect  is  secured 
by  the  use  of  a  number  of  tubes,  or  "elements,"  of  ceramic 
material.  Their  sides  are  lacework  with  large  openings.  Each 
element  is  placed  directly  over  a  bunsen  flame,  and  acts  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  mantle  of  an  incandescent  lamp.  Spuds, 
having  fixed  rectangular  orifices,  are  provided,  and  there  is  no 
primary  air  regulation.  The  outside  frame  is  made  of  cast  iron 
with  an  oxidized  brass  or  similar  finish.  A  valve  controls  the 
gas  supply  to  all  the  burners.  This  type  of  heater  is  designed 
for  installation  in  a  fireplace,  where  it  presents  a  very  attractive 
appearance,  especially  when  lighted.  Because  of  the  intensity 
of  radiation  within  a  short  distance  from  the  heater,  if  the  floor 
covering  immediately  in  front  is  of  inflammable  material,  it 
should  be  screened  from  the  radiated  heat  by  an  extension  fitted 
on  the  metal  frame  at  the  bottom  of  the  elements. 


DESIGN 


779 


Figure  238.— Incandescent  Heater.— Portable  Type,  page  780. 


780  APPLIANCE  WORK 

Another  type  of  incandescent  heater  is  shown  in  Figure  238. 
Here  the  incandescing  material  consists  of  a  cone-shaped, 
perforated  sheet  of  cast  iron.  The  drilled  port  bunsen  burner  is 
placed  beneath  the  cone  bottom,  and  the  products  of  combustion 
pass  up  and  out  through  the  perforations.  The  body,  or  jacket, 
is  a  cylinder  of  sheet  steel,  clamped  by  long  through  rods  between 
the  top  and  base  castings,  in  part  cut  away  and  for  the  rest 
perforated  to  allow  the  emission  of  radiant  heat  from  the  cone 
and  the  escape  of  the  combustion  products.  This  is  a  portable 
heater,  and  as  such,  competes  for  favor  with  the  reflector  and 
radiator  types.  Neither  the  form  illustrated,  nor  another  form 
of  the  reflector  shape,  in  which  the  cone  is  visible,  has  met  with 
any  permanent  favor.  One  objection  is  the  odor  which  some- 
times results  from  incomplete  combustion,  due  to  the  impinge- 
ment of  the  flames  upon  the  cold  metal  cone  when  starting  the 
heater. 

REFLECTOR  HEATER 

The  reflector  heater  was  one  of  the  first  types  on  the  market, 
but  later  on,  for  a  time  its  popularity  was  subordinate  to  that  of 
the  gas  radiator,  due  partly,  no  doubt,  to  the  greater  cheapness 
ofr  the  latter.  More  recently,  however,  it  has  returned  to 
popular  favor.  It  has  to  its  advantage  what  may  be  called 
"  'physiological'  efficiency,  the  degree  of  which  is  dependent  on 
the  percentage  of  the  total  generated  heat  that  is  emitted  in  the 
form  of  radiant  energy;  and  the  room  heater  which  attains  a 
high  physiological  efficiency  is  more  effective,  not  in  heating  the  ' 
air  of  the  room,  but  in  making  it  comfortable  for  the  occupants, 
than  is  the  heater  in  which  such  efficiency  is  low."  The  same 
construction  that  enables  this  heater  to  throw  a  high  percentage 
of  its  radiant  energy  on  persons  in  front  of  it,  also  causes  its 
yellow  flames  to  be  in  sight  from  a  wide  range  of  positions,  and 
there  is  thus  added  the  pleasure  always  afforded  by  a  fire  glow. 
Figure  239  illustrates  a  reflector  heater.  It  consists  of  a  rec- 
tangular sheet-iron  box,  placed  on  four  legs,  and  having  an 
opening  in  its  front  side,  which  usually  extends  to  within  several 
inches  of  the  top  and  an  inch  or  so  of  the  bottom.  This  opening 
should  be  covered  by  a  wire  mesh  or  strap  iron  lattice  guard,  so 
that  curtains,  dresses  or  other  such  materials  cannot  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  burner  flames.  This  guard  should  be 
easily  removable  should  the  reflector  need  cleaning.  The  back 
and  sides  are  preferably  made  of  one  sheet,  but  in  some  cases 


DESIGN 


781 


Figure  239.— Reflector  Heater,  page  780. 


782  APPLIANCE  WORK 

they  are  composed  of  three  sheets  folded  together.  The  front 
of'  the  box  is  made  of  two  narrow  sheets,  one  above  and  one 
below  the  reflector  opening.  The  top  plate  usually  has  rolled 
edges,  and  is  secured  to  the  body  by  nickel  or  other  fancy  corner 
pieces  and  stove  bolts  with  ornamental  knobs. 

The  burner,  which  consists  of  a  small  pipe  into  which  are 
inserted  small  burner  tips,  is  about  an  inch  longer  than  the  width 
of  the  heater  body,  and  is  placed  across  the  inside  back  of  the 
heater  at  a  point  about  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  top  front 
sheet.  One  end  of  the  burner,  projecting  through  the  heater 
side,  is  capped.  The  other  end  is  equipped  with  a  cock  having  a 
lug  similar  to  a  drop  ell,  bolted  to  the  heater  side,  which  holds 
the  burner  in  proper  alignment.  A  circular  hole  in  the  side  sheet 
allows  the  insertion  of  a  light  for  ignition.  In  designing  the 
burner,  its  easy  and  prompt  ignition,  the  evenness  of  the  flames 
and  their  proper  alignment,  are  points  that  must  be  kept  in  mind. 
Prompt  ignition  of  all  the  tips  along  the  burner  is  necessary; 
otherwise,  there  may  be  a  considerable  escape  of  unburned  gas. 

Starting  at  the  burner  and  running  down  to  the  top  of  the 
bottom  front  sheet  is  an  elliptical-shaped,  corrugated  copper 
reflector.  In  the  best  heaters,  the  side  copper  sheets  are  secured 
by  being  folded  in  with  the  body  sheets,  but  in  the  cheaper  types 
the  sides  are  attached  by  what  is  called  tacking.  This  is  simply 
a  drop  of  solder  placed  every  inch  or  so.  The  entire  reflector  is 
attached  to  the  bottom  front  sheet  by  stove  bolts,  and  should  be 
easily  removable  through  the  heater  bottom  without  any  bending. 

A  baffle  extends  upwards  from  the  burner  to  within  two  inches 
of  the  front  of  the  heater,  and  forms  a  compartment  in  the  heater 
top.  There  is  a  capped  flue  collar  in  the  back  sheet,  for  use  where 
flue  connections  are  required.  The  bottom  of  the  heater  body 
should  be  reinforced  by  rolling  over  a  round  wire  or  a  strap  iron 
frame.  In  heaters  made  of  aluminum,  or  those  having  orna- 
ments which  would  tarnish  with  heat,  the  top  and  top  front 
sheets  have  an  extra  lining  and  air  space. 

GAS  RADIATOR 

Because  it  resembles,  in  a  general  way,  the  well-known  steam 
radiator,  the  name  gas  radiator"  has  been  given  to  the  type  of 
room  heater  shown  in  Figure  240.  Another  form  of  "radiator" 
has  only  one  cylinder  and  is  often  known  as  a  "round  heater," 

fo  811^  ^  ^  flam<* 


DESIGN 


783 


Figure  240.— Gas  Radiator,  page  783. 

The  burner  of  the  multi-tube  radiator,  Figure  240,  is  ordinarily 
a  half-inch  steel  pipe  extending  under  and  through  the  base 
casting.  One  end  is  equipped  with  a  cock,  and  the  other  end  is 
capped.  The  pipe  is  tapped  to  receive  the  burners,  which  are 
usually  union  Scotch  tips,  one  or  two  being  located  under  each 
tube.  The  hourly  consumption  per  tube  varies  from  5  to  8 
cubic  feet  at  2  inches  pressure.  Ignition  is  ordinarily  accom- 
plished by  inserting  a  light  through  a  slot  in  the  base  casting 


784  APPLIANCE  WORK 

extending  across  all  the  tubes,  and  the  light  must  be  applied  to 
each  tip.  In  one  type  of  construction,  a  plate  of  sheet  steel, 
known  as  a  flasher  or  spreader,  is  attached  to  the  door  in  the  base 
and  moves  about  the  burner  as  an  axis.  The  action  of  opening 
the  door  pulls  the  spreader  over  the  burner,  so  that  when  a  light 
is  applied  to  any  one  burner,  it  flashes  at  once  to  all  the  others. 
The  side  of  the  radiator  containing  the  slot  is  considered  as  the 
front,  and  by  the  interchange,  end  for  end,  of  the  cap  and  the 
cock  on  the  burner  pipe,  the  front  may  be  always  in  the  most 
convenient  position,  whether  the  gas  supply  comes  from  the 
right  or  the  left. 

The  tubes  are  of  thin  sheet  metal,  cylindrical  or  oval  in  section, 
about  three  or  four  inches  diameter.  Openings  around  the  cir- 
cumference near  the  top  allow  the  escape  of  the  heated  combus- 
tion products,  and  sometimes  there  are  baffles  above  these 
openings.  A  sheet  metal  bottom  is  bolted  or  wired  to  the  base 
beneath  the  burner,  to  prevent  a  dangerously  high  floor  tem- 
perature. 

The  burner  of  the  round  heater,  Figure  241,  may  be  either  a 
cast-iron,  cored  ring  burner,  varying  from  4  to  6  inches  in 
diameter,  and  containing  from  seven  to  eleven  tips,  or  it  may 
consist  of  a  cast-brass  or  iron  center  hub,  tapped  to  receive  six 
or  more  brass  tubes  radiating  from  a  center  header  and  drilled 
with  small  orifices.  The  burner  rests  on  an  inside  ring  of  the 
base  casting,  or  is  bolted  to  the  base  casting  by  projecting  lugs 
from  the  ring  burner,  or,  supported  by  a  heavy  piece  of  sheet 
metal,  is  attached  to  the  base  casting.  The  consumption  of  these 
burners  varies  from  20  to  30  cubic  feet  per  hour  at  2  inches 
pressure.  The  sheet  metal  body  contains  perforations,  often  of 
an  ornamental  design.  The  diameter  of  these  bodies  vary  from 
8  to  16  inches  and  the  heights  from  12  to  16  inches.  A  lighting 
hole  is  provided  near  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  just  above  the 
burner.  The  top  may  be  either  of  nickel-plated  cast-  iron,  or 
of  sheet  metal,  and  is  attached  by  rods  extending  through  the 
heater  to  the  base  by  through  bolts  or  by  welding  to  the  body  sheets. 
The  base  is  either  of  nickel-plated  cast  iron  or  of  sheet  metal. 
If  the  former,  the  casting  generally  consists  of  a  ring,  to  which 
three  or  four  legs  are  either  bolted  or  cast.  The  diameter  of 
these  castings  is  from  3  to  5  inches  greater  than  the  diameter  of 
the  cylindrical  sheet  metal  body.  The  legs  attached  to  the  base 
casting  raise  the  heater  several  inches  above  the  floor,  which  is 
protected  from  undue  heating  by  a  metal  plate  under  the  burner. 


DESIGN 


785 


Figure  241.— Round  Heater,  page  784. 


786 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


1 


Figure  242.— Gas  Steam  Radiator,  page  787. 


DESIGN  787 

STEAM  RADIATOR 

In  design  and  general  appearance,  these  radiators,  Figure  242, 
are  similar  to  the  ordinary  steam  radiator,  being  composed  of  a 
number  of  cast-iron  or  pressed  steel  sections,  joined  with  push 
nipples  and  held  together  with  through  rods.  Steam  is  generated 
from  the  water  which  is  contained  in  the  radiator  base  directly 
over  the  burner.  The  water  content  is  rather  small,  being  only 
one  or  two  quarts. 

The  burner,  which  extends  the  length  of  the  radiator,  is 
usually  of  cast  iron,  and  is  placed  at  a  distance  of  from  1|  to  2 
inches  below  the  base  in  order  to  obtain  good  combustion. 

The  gas  supply  is  controlled  by  a  governor,  the  most  common 
design  being  made  in  two  sections,  cup  shape,  about  2|  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  diaphragm  of  composition  or  of  phosphor 
bronze.  As  the  steam  pressure  increases,  this  diaphragm,  which 
is  connected  to  an  automatic  gas  valve,  slowly  closes  the  valve. 
However,  a  by-pass  insures  a  50  per  cent  flow  of  gas  to  the 
burner  at  all  times. 

The  radiators  are  equipped  with  automatic  or  manually  con- 
trolled air  valves,  safety  valves  and  filling  cups.  Water  sight 
glasses  are  sometimes  employed. 

FIREPLACE  HEATER 

The  fireplace  heater  (with  the  exception  of  the  gas  log)  is  an 
adaptation  for  use  in  a  fireplace  of  one  of  the  portable  types 
already  discussed.  When  it  is  provided  with  a  flue  connection, 
most  of  the  heat  in  the  combustion  products  is  wasted  up  the 
chimney.  For  that  reason,  and  also  to  save  the  expense  of 
providing  a  flue,  there  is  sometimes  a  disposition  to  dispense  with 
a  flue  connection,  even  when  considerations  of  safety  demand  one. 
If  the  heater  makes  use  of  a  yellow  flame,  the  products  of  com- 
bustion are  odorless  and  innocuous,  and  no  flue  outlet  is  necessary. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  blue  flame  is,  generally  speaking,  even 
more  objectionable  in  the  fireplace  heater  than  in  the  portable 
type.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  to  conform  to  the  fireplace 
construction,  the  combustion  surface  must  be  set  in  a  nearly 
vertical  position,  "and  it  is  impossible  to  burn  gas  through  ports 
in  a  vertical  metal  surface  (where  the  flames  issue  horizontally) 
and  at  the  same  time  secure  perfect  combustion.  Each  flame, 
as  it  issues,  bends  itself  upward,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the 
flame  licks  against  the  metal  surface,  thus  being  cooled,  and 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


delivering  some  products  of  incomplete  combustion,  with  their 

aC-TnPoatherncga0use0rof  incomplete  combustion  in  these  heaters  is 
the  vitiation  of  the  secondary  supply  to  the  upper  rows  of  burner 
ports;  the  products  of  combustion  from  the  lower  ports  rise 


Figure  243.— Fireplace  Heater— Yellow-Flame  Type,  page  789. 

the  face  of  the  upper  ports,  so  that  the  latter  are  compelled  to 
burn  the  gas  issuing  from  them  in  an  atmosphere  that  is  deficient 
in  oxygen.  In  many  heaters  these  effects  are  enhanced  by  the 
attachment  of  some  noncombustible  substance,  like  fibrous 
asbestos,  on  the  face  of  the  combustion  surface;  this  material, 
introduced  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  a  pleasant  glow  to  the 


DESIGN 


789 


heater,  is  an  important  factor  in  the  prevention  of  complete  com- 
bustion; it  blocks  the  gas  ports  to  a  greater  or  less  extent;  it 
accumulates  dust  and  dirt,  still  further  blocking  the  ports;  and 
it  brings  additional  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  secondary  air 
to  the  flames.  A  careful  inspection  of  a  heater  of  this  type  in 
operation  will  frequently  reveal  an  intermittent  extinguishing 
and  relighting  of  the  small  flames  issuing  from  numbers  of 
the  ports." 


Figure  244.— Sectional  View  of  Fireplace  Heater— Yellow- Flame 
Type,  page  789. 

For  the  above  reasons,  as  well  as  the  possible  back-firing  at 
the  air  mixers,  every  fireplace  heater  unprovided  with  a  flue 
should  be  of  the  yellow-flame  type.  Figure  243  shows  such  a 
heater  and  Figure  244  is  a  sectional  view,  indicating  the  flow  of 
air  and  combustion  products.  When  this  heater  is  installed  in  a 


790 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


fireplace  with  a  flue  connection,  the  air  for  combustion  is  par- 
tially drawn  from  the  chimney  at  the  back  bottom  part  of  the 
heater,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  air  being  drawn  in  at  the 
front.  A  coal  fire  effect  is  obtained  by  encasing  a  layer  of  pieces 
of  colored  glass  between  the  two  transparent  slabs.  The  upper 
part  of  the  heater  is  of  open  design,  to  permit  the  escape  of  the 
products  of  combustion.  The  heater  is  also  provided  with  a 
polished  metal  surface  back  of  the  burner  to  reflect  some  of  the  heat. 


Figure  245.— Fireplace  Heater— Blue-Flame  Type,  page  790. 

When  there  is  a  flue  connection,  there  is  no  objection  to  the 
use  of  the  blue-flame  type,  and  Figure  245  illustrates  an  asbestos 
front  grate  widely  used. 


DESIGN 
GAS  LOG 


791 


The  gas  log  owes  its  origin  to  the  attempt  to  imitate  the  very 
attractive  open-hearth  wood  fire.  One,  two  or  three  sticks  form 
the  log  casting,  and  the  material  is  clay  or  cast  iron,  designed  and 
colored  to  imitate  real  logs.  In  one  construction  there  are 
passages  connecting  the  hollow  castings  and  each  log  is  provided 
with  gas  ports.  In  another  type,  a  cast-iron  burner  is  concealed 
between  the  two  logs,  and  the  flame  lights  up  the  upper  log  only. 


Figure  246.— Gas  Log,  page  792. 

The  first  logs  used  yellow  flames.  There  was  continual 
trouble  due  to  carbon  deposit,  which,  besides  being  unsightly  on 
the  log  surface,  stopped  up  burner  ports  and  allowed  the  escape 
of  unburned  gas. 

The  next  step  was  a  semi-blue  flame,  created  by  the  use  of  an 
air  mixer,  furnishing  an  air  supply  insufficient  to  give  a  true 
bunsen  flame.  Trouble  arose  here  because  of  the  contamination 
by  combustion  products  of  the  secondary  air  supply  to  the  top 


792  APPLIANCE  WORK 

log.  In  many  of  these  installations,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
yellow-flame  logs  already  described,  there  were  no  flue  connec- 
tions, and  the  use  of  these  logs  resulted  in  many  complaints  and 
was  distinctively  unfavorable  to  this  form  of  gas  heating.  Of 
recent  years  properly  designed  logs,  Figure  246,  have  become 
available.  Both  the  air  and  gas  supply  may  be  regulated  to 
obtain  a  proper  mixture.  The  passages  or  channels  through 
the  logs  and  the  burner  ports  are  suitably  proportioned  to  the 
volumes  to  be  transmitted.  Such  a  log,  with  an  adequate  flue 
connection,  will  prove  a  satisfactory  source  of  auxiliary  heating. 

CONDITIONS  OF  USE 
CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  CONSUMER 

The  moderate  price  of  most  portable  gas  heaters  makes  them 
available  to  any  consumer.  Where  cost  is  the  main  considera- 
tion, the  radiator  is  usually  selected,  but  otherwise  the  reflector 
type,  with  its  more  cheerful  appearance,  is  apt  to  be  chosen. 
Fireplace  and  other  fixed  heaters  are,  as  a  rule,  not  found  in 
inexpensive  houses  because  of  the  comparatively  high  cost  and 
high  operating  expense,  but  are  growing  in  favor  among  the 
well-to-do. 

SPACE  AVAILABLE 

The  fireplace  heater  would  usually  occupy  space  not  needed  for 
other  purposes.  Its  use,  howexrer,  as  already  stated,  requires  a 
flue  and  also  is  generally  affected  by  other  conditions  much  more 
important  than  the  saving  of  space.  The  automatic  gas  hot 
water  or  steam  radiator  ranks  next  in  the  point  of  space  economy, 
as  these  heaters  take  little  room  and  then  generally  beneath 
windows  where  space  is  not  of  so  much  value.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  in  small  rooms,  portable  heaters  are  most  often 
found,  because  in  this  class  may  be  obtained  heaters  occupying 
the  smallest  amount  of  floor  space  and  consuming  the  least 
amount  of  gas, — two  requirements  generally  important  to 
occupants  of  small  rooms. 

CHARACTER  OF  WORK 

The  size  of  a  heater,  either  portable  or  fixed,  will  depend  upon 
the  duty  required,  this  being  a  function  of  the  space  to  be 
heated  and,  to  a  less  degree,  of  the  daily  hours  of  use.  The  sci- 
entific calculation  of  size,  where  duty  is  known,  is  on  the  increase, 
and  ensures  satisfaction  not  attained  by  "hit  or  miss"  methods. 


DESIGN  793 

One  of  the  chief  uses  for  gas  heaters  in  dwellings  is  for  general 
room  heating  in  the  late  spring  or  early  fall  when  the  central 
househeating  system  is  not  in  use.  A  portable  heater  best  meets 
this  demand.  Another  use  is  in  a  single  room  not  provided  with 
any  other  means  of  heating.  For  this,  a  fireplace  heater  would 
be  preferable  if  there  was  a  flue  available  and  the  higher  operating 
cost  was  not  objectionable;  but  generally  a  portable  heater  is 
used,  though  often  with  a  fixed  connection. 

In  offices,  gas  heaters  are  also  used,  both  as  auxiliaries  to  other 
heating  systems  and  as  the  sole  heat  supply.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  offices  are  apt  to  be  very  small  or  detached  buildings  where 
the  low  fuel  cost  of  coal  is  more  than  offset  by  the  comparatively 
high  first  cost  of  the  coal  furnace  and  the  incidental  trouble  and 
dirt.  For  this  service,  the  automatic  gas  hot-water  or  steam 
radiator  is  preferable  because  of  the  good  temperature  control. 
If  out  of  use  at  night,  however,  they  require  a  longer  time  to 
take  the  chill  off  than  do  the  other  types  of  room  heaters. 


CHAPTER  LXIX 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 
INTRODUCTORY 

The  connection  of  room  heaters  does  not,  except  in  very  rare 
instances,  require  the  visit  of  a  preinspector.  Therefore,  the  fol- 
lowing description,  as  it  relates  to  the  workman,  is  written 
entirely  from  the  standpoint  that  the  first  man  who  calls  is 
equipped  to  perform  the  connection  work.  Also,  as  the  general 
remarks  in  Chapter  LXIII  as  to  the  consumer's  wishes,  the 
inspection  of  the  appliance,  shutting  off  gas,  and  gas  supply 
apply  equally  well  to  room  heaters,  they  will  not  be  repeated  here. 

LOCATION  OF  APPLIANCE 

CONSUMER'S  WISHES 

Because  of  the  small  size  of  room  heaters,  it  is  seldom  that  a 
location  cannot  be  found  acceptable  to  both  company  and  con- 
sumer, and  because  of  the  prevalence  of  tubing  connections,  the 
consumer  is  free  to  change  the  location  of  the  heater  through  a 
fairly  wide  range. 

FIRE  AND  OTHER  HAZARDS 

Any  fire  hazard  from  a  room  heater  will  be  avoided  if  the 
location,  fixed  by  a  rigid  iron  connection  or  made  possible  with  a 
tubing  connection,  does  not  expose  inflammable  material  to 
unsafe  temperatures.  Window  draperies  and  wood  finish  are 
probably  the  most  common  sources  of  danger. 

With  tubing  connection,  a  tripping  hazard  may  be  caused  by 
a  heater  position  which  places  the  tubing  line  in  the  path  of 
travel. 

In   Chapter  LXVIII   it  was  stated   that,   with   certain   few 

exceptions,  no  blue-flame  heater  should  be  installed  without  a 

Hue      In  small  rooms  with  little  or  no  ventilation,  in  which  class 

>oms  are  almost  always  found,  even  a  yellow-flame  heater 

(794) 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  795 

may,  over  a  period  of  time,  vitiate  the  atmosphere  by  its  products 
of  combustion,  and,  therefore,  such  a  heater  of  more  than  25 
cubic  feet  per  hour  consumption  should  not  be  connected  in 
any  such  small  room. 

CONNECTION 
IRON  PIPING 

In  making  an  iron  pipe  connection,  the  workman  should  be 
governed  by  the  principles  laid  down  in  Chapter  LVI.  When 
the  connection  is  made  from  a  side  wall  outlet  with  exposed 
piping,  the  line  should  drop  directly  from  the  outlet  to  the 
surbase  and  run  along  this  to  the  point  desired.  If  the  heater 
is  unprovided  with  a  cock,  one  should  be  placed  as  close  to  the 
burner  as  possible,  with  a  union  on  the  heater  side. 

TUBING 

The  portable  feature,  which  so  largely  contributed  to  the 
widespread  use  of  room  heaters,  introduced  at  the  same  time  a 
connection  hazard  through  the  use  of  flexible  tubing.  The  ease 
with  which  a  piece  of  tubing  could  be  changed  from  one  cock  end 
to  another,  and  the  low  price  at  which  tubing  was  sold  by  outside 
dealers,  made  it  inevitable  that  the  large  majority  of  room 
heaters  would  be  tubing  connected.  The  condition  of  these 
tubing  connections  has,  of  course,  been  always  rendered  still 
worse  by  the  frequent  changes  from  one  cock  to  another.  With 
the  very  poor  quality  of  tubing  that  was  sold,  and  the  loose  fit 
of.  the  ends,  caused  by  constant  connection  and  disconnection, 
it  was  hard  to  say  whether  the  tubing  itself  or  the  ends  was  the 
greatest  source  of  gas  leakage. 

In  one  situation,  for  some  years  all  tubing  sold  by  the  gas 
company  was  provided  with  threaded  metal  ends.  One  of  these 
screwed  on  to  the  male  thread  of  the  cock  at  the  heater.  Into 
the  other  end  was  screwed  the  brass  tailpiece  of  a  union  with 
thumb-head  handles,  which  could  be  made  gas  tight  by  hand  by 
the  contact  of  its  sharp  metal  edge  upon  a  conical,  soft  metal 
seat  on  the  independent  cock  controlling  the  gas  supply  to  the 
tubing.  With  one  of  these  independent  cocks  in  every  room  in 
which  the  heater  was  needed,  it  was  possible  to  move  the  latter 
with  its  tubing  from  room  to  room  and  make  a  connection  better 
than  anything  yet  devised.  However,  the  connection  was  not  as 
convenient  as  the  slip  end,  and  its  cost  was  greater,  so  it  did  not 


796 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


meet  with  public  favor.  Also,  in  the  hands  of  consumers,  the 
use  of  the  soft  metal  seat  did  not  result  in  an  absolutely  tight  joint. 
In  other  locations  were  tried  other  devices  designed  to  make 
the  connection  between  cock  and  tubing  less  liable  to  pull  apart. 
Nevertheless  it  remained  true  that  throughout  the  country  most 
of  the  room  heaters  were  connected  by  flexible  tubing  of  poor 


Figure  247.— Proposed  Standard  Rubber  End,  page  797. 

composition  and  unsafe  ends.  It  seemed  as  if  the  only  solution 
for  the  protection  of  the  public  lay  in  legislation  prohibiting  any 
tubing  connections.  Fortunately,  in  1912,  there  was  produced  a 
flexible  tubing,  which  is  superior  in  every  respect  to  the  so-called 
"rubber"  tubing  and  also  to  the  plain,  spirally-wound,  metal 
tubing.  This  tubing  consists  of  a  spirally-wound  metallic  base, 
packed  with  a  threadlike  rubber  gasket.  Upon  this  base  is 


H 


16 


Figure  248.-Proposed  Standard  Hose  End  Nozzle,  page  797. 


CONNECTION  PRA  CTICE  797 

wound  coverings  of  paper,  followed  by  cotton  fabric  coated  on 
one  side  with  a  gas-tight  compound,  and  the  whole  enclosed  in  an 
outer  covering  of  cotton  braid.  Due  to  the  quality  and  strength 
of  its  composition,  this  tubing  is  not  affected  by  gas,  is  not  readily 
ruptured,  and  is  so  stiff  that  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  flatten  it 
sufficiently  to  seal  off  gas  flow.  Brass  ends,  screwed  into  the 
metallic  base,  afford  a  secure  attachment  for  the  tubing  ends. 
In  all  these  particulars  the  old  "rubber"  tubing  was  very 
deficient.  The  paper  and  fabric  coverings  prevent  the  small 
leaks  often  occurring  in  the  plain  metallic  tubing. 

With  the  tubing  and  its  attachments  to  its  ends  thus  provided 
for,  there  still  remained  the  problem  of  the  grip  of  the  tubing 
ends  upon  the  hose  ends  of  the  cocks  or  piping.  The  shape  of 
the  contact  surfaces  has  been  the  subject  of  much  study  by  the 
gas  associations,  and  Figures  247  and  248  represent  what  has 
been  recommended  for  adoption  as  the  standard  rubber  hose 
end  and  hose  end  nozzle,  respectively.  By  the  use  of  these 
designs  and  the  new  type  of  tubing,  it  is  possible  to  enjoy  all  the 
advantages  of  slip-end  tubing  connections  with  none  of  the  old 
objections.  The  need  now  is,  possibly  by  legislation,  but  pref- 
erably by  education  of  the  general  public,  to  reduce  and,  finally, 
entirely  prevent,  the  sale  of  inferior,  and  therefore  dangerous, 
tubing  and  attachments. 

No  tubing  connection  should  be  so  made  that  the  cock  con- 
trolling the  gas  in  the  tubing  is  not  within  easy  reach  from  the 
floor.  The  workman  should  inspect  very  carefully  any  tubing 
and  its  appurtenances  both  before  and  after  installation. 

COCK 

The  use  and  location  of  a  cock  on  the*  supply  line  to  a  room 
heater  formerly  involved  the  consideration  of  two  points:  first, 
the  ignition  of  the  heater,  and  second,  if  tubing  formed  part  of 
the  line,  the  exclusion  of  it  from  unnecessary  contact  with  gas. 
Taking  up  the  first  point,  it  has  been  generally  considered  that 
there  should  be  a  cock  at  the  heater  in  order  that  it  be  possible  to 
turn  on  gas  flow  with  one  hand  while  applying  the  light  with  the 
other.  It  was  feared  that  if  the  only  cock  on  the  line  were  at  the 
wall  or  fixture  connection,  the  interval  of  time  elapsing  between 
turning  on  gas  and  applying  the  light  would  allow  unburned  gas 
to  collect  in  the  heater  in  quantity  sufficient  to  make  an  unpleas- 
ant odor  and  also  to  form  an  explosive  mixture,  with  more  or  less 
of  a  flash  on  lighting  and  possible  danger  to  person.  However, 


798  APPLIANCE  WORK 

tests  considered  as  fairly  representative  of  working  conditions 
convinced  the  experimenters  that  the  dreaded  dangers  were 
practically  nonexistent,  and  could  be  considered  absolutely 
negligible  in  comparison  with  the  hazards  introduced  by  the 
cock  at  the  heater.  These  hazards  arose  from  the  fact  that  with 
a  tubing  connection,  a  cock  at  the  wall  or  fixture  was  required 
in  order  that  the  gas  might  be  shut  off  at  that  point.  In  this 
way  unnecessary  contact  of  tubing  with  gas  (our  second  point 
above)  was  prevented,  and  this  was  quite  important  before  the 
new  tubing  was  available,  as  the  other  types  deteriorated  rapidly 
if  exposed  to  gas  continuously.  Also,  it  was  very  essential,  with 
the  then  existing  slip  ends,  to  avoid  any  unnecessary  chance  of 
gas  escape  should  the  tubing  become  detached  at  the  wall  end. 
Unfortunately,  experience  showed  that  with  two  cocks  it  was 
impossible,  notwithstanding  verbal  and  printed  instructions,  to 
prevent  many  users  from  keeping  the  cock  at  the  wall  open 
at  all  times. 

In  view  of  the  above  considerations,  some  of  the  larger  gas 
companies  omit  the  cock  at  the  heater,  and  it  would  seem  that 
this  is  bound  to  become  standard  practice.  A  special  fitting  at 
the  inlet  to  the  heater  burner  is  threaded  for  iron  pipe  connec- 
tions or  for  the  attachment  of  the  hose  end  nozzle,  Figure  248. 
This  nozzle  should  lie  in  such  a  direction  as  to  prevent  any  sharp 
bend  in  the  tubing  at  this  point. 

Where  a  tubing  connection  is  made  by  means  of  an  independ- 
ent hose  cock,  to  an  outlet  supplying  gas  for  some  other  pur- 
pose,— usually  a  side  bracket  for  lighting, — a  hazard  is  intro- 
duced, due  to  the  proximity  of  the  cock  on  the  outlet  to  the 
tubing,  to  the  cock  on  the  lighting  bracket.  With  the  two  cocks 
close  together,  and  their  keys  of  approximately  the  same  shape, 
experience  has  shown  that  it  is  possible  for  the  heater  cock  to  be 
turned  on  in  mistake  for  the  lighting  cock  and  left  on  with  the 
heater  unlighted,  even  after  the  consumer  has  found  it  necessary 
to  turn  a  second  cock  to  get  the  desired  light.  To  diminish  this 
hazard,  the  keys  of  the  two  cocks  should  be  as  far  apart  as 
possible,  and  the  cock  for  the  heater  connection  should  have  a 
key  of  different  shape,  so  as  to  be  readily  distinguishable,  by  the 
sense  of  touch,  from  the  one  controlling  the  light.  As  the  usual 
u tU!"!  uCOC^  has  the  kev  beneath,  the  independent  hose  cock 
should  be  of  such  design  that  with  the  hose  and  nozzle  vertically 
downward  the  key  will  be  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cock,  and, 
therefore,  180  degrees  apart  from  the  fixture  key. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  799 

ADJUSTMENT,  RECORDS  AND  CLEANING  UP 

When  the  installation  is  complete,  the  fitter  should  inspect  it, 
clean  up,  and  make  the  necessary  records,  all  as  described  in 
more  detail  in  Chapter  LXIII.  The  appliance  should  be 
adjusted,  and,  if  necessary,  the  fitter  should  wait  until  the 
cessation  of  any  fumes  caused  by  the  first  burning  off. 

INSTRUCTION  OF  CONSUMER 

The  consumer  should  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  precautions 
as  below  for  the  various  types  of  heaters : 

Yellow-flame  heaters  should  be  regulated  by  the 
cock  on  the  appliance.  When,  as  might  be  the  case 
with  a  tubing  connection,  the  gas  is  controlled  by  two 
cocks,  both  cocks  should  be  shut  when  the  heater  is  not 
lighted.  When  lighting,  the  cock  furthest  from  the 
heater  should  be  turned  on  first. 

When  lighting  gas  logs  or  fireplace  heaters  of  similar 
construction,  the  gas  should  be  turned  on  full  for 
about  ten  seconds  before  applying  the  match.  This 
allows  time  for  the  expulsion  of  all  of  the  air  before 
lighting  takes  place  and,  therefore,  prevents  backfiring. 

No  heater  should  be  turned  down  very  low,  and 
there  should  be  no  bends  or  kinks  in  a  tubing  con- 
nection. 

Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  place  portable 
heaters  near  inflammable  material,  or  where  a  draft 
is  liable  to  extinguish  the  flame. 

SUBINSPECTION 

A  subinspection  of  heating  appliance  installations  is  usually 
thought  unnecessary,  except  where  the  type  is  unusual  or  where 
some  special  reason  for  the  inspection  exists.  However,  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  installations  should  be  subinspected  as 
part  of  a  general  check  on  each  man's  work.  When  such  an 
inspection  is  made,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  quality  of 
the  work,  also  to  the  proper  adjustment  and  operation  of  the 
appliance  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  consumer. 


CHAPTER  LXX 

MAINTENANCE 

The  design  of  a  room-heating  appliance  is  so  simple  that  its 
maintenance  requires  but  few  visits  and  little  resultant  work. 
The  adjustment  of  a  "yellow-flame"  heater  is  accomplished  by 
reaming  out  or  hammering  up  the  fixed  orifice  spud,  or  by 
turning  the  screw  in  the  adjustable  spud.  Proper  adjustment 
means  that  the  flames  should  be  practically  as  large  as  possible, 
and  at  the  same  time  complete  combustion  should  exist,  but  no 
blowing,  smoking,  or  flame  contact  with  the  heater  parts.  This 
adjustment  should  be  made  with  the  appliance  cock  fully  open, 
so  that  the  widest  possible  heating  range  can  be  obtained  by 
manipulating  the  cock.  The  adjustment  of  a  "blue-flame" 
heater  is  accomplished  by  regulating  the  supply  of  gas  and  air 
by  means  of  the  gas  orifice  and  air  shutter  in  the  same  way 
as  explained  on  page  722.  Adjustment  of  automatic  control 
mechanism  requires  the  special  knowledge,  by  a  good  mechanic, 
of  the  principle  of  its  construction. 

Leaks  in  room-heating  appliances  proper  are  rare,  and  consist 
principally  of  cock  leaks,  remedied  by  tightening  or  greasing,  of 
leaks  at  burners,  which  should  be  cemented  or  renewed,  and  of 
leaks  at  burner  tips,  which  should  be  tightened,  cemented  or 
renewed.  Complaints  of  odors  that  are  thought  by  the  con- 
sumer to  be  due  to  escaping  gas,  often  are  due  to  incomplete 
combustion,  caused  by  wrong  adjustment  or  flame  contact  with 
metal,  to  the  absence  of  a  flue  or  of  proper  draft,  and  to  dirt,  dust, 
or  combustion  deposit  in  or  on  the  appliance.  To  be  satisfac- 
tory, it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  a  room  heater  be  odorless, 
and  so  it  is  very  important  for  the  workman  who  answers  a 
complaint  of  this  nature,  to  be  competent  and  on  the  alert  either 
to  remedy  the  trouble  or  to  advise  the  consumer  of  its  exact  cause. 

Poor  supply,  when  found  to  be  at  the  heater  proper,  is  due 
most  frequently  to  obstructed  burner  tips  or  ports,  which  can  be 
easily  cleaned,  and  sometimes  to  obstructed  orifices  or  cocks, 

(800) 


MAINTENANCE  801 

which  should  be  cleaned  as  explained  on  page  722.  Miscellan- 
eous repairs  consist  of  broken  or  worn  part  renewal,  of  general 
overhauling  and  cleaning,  both  of  which  are  comparatively 
simple.  Repairs  to  flexible  tubing  connections,  made  necessary 
by  leaks  or  stoppages,  should  be  accomplished  in  accordance 
with  the  thought  that  permanent  repairs  only  should  be  made. 
In  other  words,  split  tubing  and  broken  ends  should  be  renewed 
and  not  taped.  In  many  cases  the  defective  part  may  be  cut 
off,  the  end  replaced,  and  a  good,  but  shorter,  length  of  tubing 
will  be  the  result. 

A  complaint  may  be  sometimes  caused  by  the  ignorance  of  the 
consumer  as  to  the  proper  method  of  lighting  room  heaters, 
especially  fireplace  heaters  and  gas  logs. 


SECTION  V 

INDUSTRIAL  APPLIANCES  AND  GAS  ENGINES 

CHAPTER  LXXI 

INDUSTRIAL  APPLIANCES 
DESIGN 

Preceding  sections  have  contained  a  description  of  cooking 
appliances,  water  heaters  and  room  heaters.  All  these  types  of 
gas-using  appliances  have  been  largely  standardized,  and  such 
standard  forms  are  met  with  so  constantly  in  distribution  work 
that  they  may  rightly  claim  a  place  in  a  distribution  manual. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  industrial  appliances,  of  which  the 
general  statement  is  true,  that  each  industrial  use  requires  an 
appliance  of  special  design.  Because  of  this  almost  infinite 
variety  in  industrial  appliances,  their  connection  and  mainte- 
nance are  assigned  to  a  special  force  of  employees,  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  train  the  entire  fitting  force  in  this  regard. 
New  designs  are  appearing  continually,  and  to  keep  posted  in  the 
subject,  one  should  be  familiar  with  the  "Salesman's  Hand 
Book,"  Sections  IX  and  X,  and  "  Practical  Educational  Courses," 
as  formerly  issued  by  the  National  Commercial  Gas  Association, 
and  also  be  a  close  reader  of  the  gas  journals  and  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  American  Gas  Association. 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 

The  principles  which  should  govern  the  connection  of  an 
industrial  appliance  have  been  given  in  detail  in  Chapters  LX  and 
LXIII.  The  fact  that  the  design  of  these  appliances  is  so  varied 
as  to  preclude  a  satisfactory  detailed  treatment,  makes  it 
impossible  also  to  treat  the  details  of  connections  in  any  but  a 
general  manner.  The  preinspector  should  locate  and  measure 
tor  an  industrial  appliance  and  the  fitter  should  connect  it  as 
demanded  by  its  design,  its  principles  of  operation,  and  its 

(802) 


INDUSTRIAL  APPLIANCES  803 

proposed  use.  The  use  of  blast  air,  requiring  a  system  of  piping 
additional  to  those  already  spoken  of,  and  the  installation  of  a 
mechanical  blower,  does  not  greatly  complicate  the  connection 
work.  Nevertheless,  generally  speaking,  the  men  directing  and 
making  the  installation  of  all  unusual  types  should  be  of  the 
highest  calibre  available. 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 

Visits  to  maintain  industrial  appliances  are  made  in  the  same 
general  way  as  are  those  to  maintain  hotel  appliances,  as 
described  in  Chapter  LXIV.  The  adjustment  of  the  rarer  types, 
or  of  those  used  for  special  purposes,  requires  considerably 
greater  knowledge  and  a  higher  grade  of  man  than  the  ordinary 
type  of  complaint  man.  The  repair  of  leaks  is  much  the  same 
as  that  described  for  domestic  appliances  in  Chapter  LXIV,  but 
miscellaneous  repair  work,  often  involving  firebrick  and  sheet 
metal  work,  should  be  entrusted  only  to  a  trained  expert. 


CHAPTER  LXXII 

GAS  ENGINES 

DESIGN- 
NO  description  of  a  gas  engine  will  be  included  here,  because  of 
the  general  familiarity  with  the  internal  combustion  engine 
brought  about  by  the  widespread  use  of  the  motor  vehicle ;  of  the 
many  existing  treatises  on  gas  engines,  and  of  the  small  number 
of  gas  engine  jobs  compared  to  the  total  volume  of  distribution 
work.  The  reader  is  referred  specifically  to  the  "Salesman's 
Hand  Book,"  Section  IX,  and  to  the  "Practical  Educational 
Courses,"  Lesson  17. 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 
GENERAL 

The  work  preliminary  to  the  installation  and  operation  of  a  gas 
engine  involves  detailed  plans  of  various  kinds,  including  power 
calculations,  shaft  and  machine  locating,  and  other  items  of  a 
more  or  less  mathematical  nature.  The  only  work  that  will  be 
here  described  is  that  necessary  to  the  installation  of,  and  the 
piping  connections  to,  the  engine  proper. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  engine  be  set  on  a  substantial  foundation 
and  that  this  foundation  be  placed  where  the  engine  vibrations 
will  not  be  transmitted  in  any  annoying  or  harmful  way.  The 
best  location,  therefore,  is  on  the  earth.  The  foundation  should 
be  composed  preferably  of  a  one-three-five  mixture  of  concrete, 
should  have  ample  bearing  surface,  and  should  extend  well  into 
the  ground.  When  it  is  impossible  so  to  locate  it,  and  when  it 
must  be  entirely  above  the  ground  level,  it  should  be  made 
correspondingly  heavier  to  obtain  an  absence  of  vibration  similar 
to  that  of  the  underground  base.  The  anchor  bolt  heads  should 
be  well  bedded  and  the  shanks  encased  in  pipe  nipples,  about 
2-inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  bolt  shanks,  to  allow  for  any 
slight  movement  necessary  when  placing  the  engine.  The 

(804) 


GAS  ENGINES 


805 


concrete  should  be  allowed  to  set  for  several  days  before  putting 
the  engine  on  it.  After  receiving  the  engine,  the  foundations 
may  be  made  more  sightly  by  filling  in  the  depressions  with 
cement  grout  and  giving  the  whole  a  coat  of  cement  plaster. 

ANTIFLUCTUATORS 

Before  describing  the  necessary  piping  connections,  it  will  be 
well  to  understand  a  most  important  feature  of  the  gas  supply 
system,  namely,  the  method  used  to  overcome  the  fluctuation  in 
pressure  that  is  produced  by  the  sudden  pull  or  demand  for  gas 
by  the  engine  on  its  intake  stroke.  This  fluctuation  can  make 
itself  evident  for  varying  distances  from  the  engine,  and  when 
the  proper  compensating  devices  do  not  exist,  it  frequently 
affects  the  next  door  consumer,  and  when  the  system  of  mains  is 
loaded  to  its  capacity,  or  when  a  dead  ended  main  exists,  it  may 
prove  a  source  of  annoyance  at  a  point  many  hundred  feet 
away.  The  antifluctuation  devices  that  are  used  are  varied  in 
design,  but  similar  in  principle,  which  is,  briefly,  the  provision  of 
a  chamber  containing  a  quantity  of  gas,  placed  near  the  engine, 


Figure  249.— Elevation  of  Antifluctuator— Method  of 
Connection,  page  807. 


806 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


from  which  the  engine  will  take  the  quantity  of  gas  needed,  so 
avoiding  the  momentary  condition  of  a  near  vacuum  in  the 
supply  line.  Theoretically,  the  desired  effect  would  be  produced 
if  the  volume  of  extra  gas  thus  stored  was  so  large  that  the 
engine  would  require  only  a  small  portion,  but  practically,  this 
would  mean  such  a  large  storage  tank  as  to  be  very  undesirable. 
Consequently  the  storage  principle  is  made  more  effective  by 
the  addition  of  a  feature  which  automatically  contracts  or 
reduces  the  storage  space  simultaneously  with  the  subtraction 
of  gas  from  it  by  the  engine.  In  other  words,  the  tendency  to 
vacuum  is  prevented,  and  so  therefore  is  the  fluctuation.  Devices 
employing  these  principles  in  their  operation  take  the  form  of  a 


AIR.   VENT- 


EUNI  VENT  JO  0UT.SIDE  Of 
bUILDING    IF   RE(2UIR.E.D 

U£>E    l_ON<S  .SCREW    IF 
VENT  LINE  16  VERY   L<9NG 


AIR.    INTAKE    (VALVE) 


LEATHER. 
DIAPHRAGM 


Figure  250.— Antifluctuator,  page  807. 


GAS  ENGINES 


807 


simple  rubber  bag,  of  a  metal  drum  with  rubber  heads,  of  two 
metal  cylinders  working  one  within  the  other  like  a  gas  holder 
tank  and  lift,  but  with  a  glycerine  seal  and  a  spring  tending  to 
bring  them  together,  and  finally,  of  a  device  known  as  an  anti- 
fluctuator,  which  embodies  complete  satisfaction  with  compact- 
ness and  low  maintenance  cost. 

Figures  249  and  250  show  the  types  of  antifluctuator  employed 
successfully  in  Philadelphia.  Several  different  sizes  are  provided 
for  engines  of  different  horse  power,  the  largest  being  one  capable 
of  caring  for  a  50-HP  engine.  When  large  capacity  is  necessary, 
several  antifluctuators  may  be  connected  in  parallel.  The 
general  dimensions  of  the  antifluctuator  and  gas  connections  are 
as  follows: 

ANTIFLUCTUATOR  DIMENSIONS 

(See  Figure  249) 


Antifluctuator 
Number  

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Engine  H.  P  

Under  3 

3-5 

6-15 

16-35 

36-50 

Dimension  M 

r* 

12  ' 

17  • 

23|" 

25  ' 

N       . 

* 

13  * 

15  ' 

17  " 

18  ' 

P 

y 

4f" 

5F 

8  ' 

8|" 

D       . 

1  ^"x4* 

2"x5" 

2|*x6*r 

3"x7"' 

3"x7" 

E 

Ij'xlj'xli"' 

2rx2'xli<r 

2"|x2ffx2*r 

3"x2^*x25*r 

3*x2|*x3* 

F 

2*xf» 

2'xf* 

2*xf 

2'xf 

2"x|"' 

k 

L      .. 

r. 

u- 

r. 

2*" 

If 

^ 

2" 
2" 
3" 

The  antifluctuator  in  Figure  249  is  composed  of  two  circular, 
reinforced,  round  tin  discs,  A  and  B,  connected  with  a  leather 
diaphragm  C,  thus  forming  a  collapsible  cylinder.  To  disc  B  is 
soldered  a  pipe  nipple,  D,  which  is  further  extended  downwards 
by  the  tee  E,  the  nipple  F,  and  the  cap  G.  A  spring,  S,  of  which 
the  tension  may  be  adjusted,  is  connected  between  disc  A  and 
cap  G,  and  tends  to  draw  the  two  discs  together.  The  action 
and  the  effect  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows.  When  cock  K  is 
opened,  the  antifluctuator  is  filled  with  gas  flowing  through 
pipe  J.  At  this  time  the  whole  supply  system  is  filled  with  gas, 
not  in  motion,  and  with  a  pressure  similar  at  all  points.  Under 
these  conditions,  spring  S  is  extended  to  just  short  of  the  limit 
allowed  by  chains  H.  When  the  inlet  valve  of  the  engine  opens, 
gas  is  sucked  into  the  cylinder  out  of  the  antifluctuator  through 
outlet  of  tee,  L.  This  suction  is  so  rapid  that  if  the  anti- 
fluctuator were  a  cylinder  of  constant  volume,  a  tendency  to 


808  APPLIANCE  WORK 

vacuum  would  be  created,  and  a  fluctuation  produced  in  the  gas 
pressure  that  certainly  would  be  effective  on  any  appliance  con- 
nected to  the  same  line  of  piping  on  the  outlet  side  of  the  meter, 
and  might  be  transferred  through  the  meter  and  into  the  street 
mains.  However,  as  gas  is  drawn  out  of  the  antifluctuator,  and 
the  pressure  within  it  is  decreased,  the  spring  contracts,  reducing 
the  volume  within  the  antifluctuator  almost  as  fast  as  the  gas  is 
pulled  out.  Therefore  there  can  be  little  inrush  from  the  supply 
line  and  the  pressure  in  the  latter  does  not  fluctuate  to  any 
harmful  extent. 

As  a  result  of  a  demand  from  insurance  interests  for  a  more 
complete  protection  from  leakage  of  gas  through  the  leather 
diaphragm,  an  antifluctuator  heavier  and  more  costly  than  that 
shown  in  Figure  249  has  been  developed.  It  consists  of  a  spun 
metal  casing,  preferably  of  soft  steel,  made  in  two  parts  of 
equal  size.  Figure  250  shows,  in  a  general  way,  its  construction. 
Practical  experience  with  the  simpler  type  has  been  entirely 
satisfactory,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  discontinuance  may 
not  be  forced  by  an  over  emphasis  placed  on  a  danger  that  is 
only  theoretical.  The  steel  antifluctuator,  except  when  very 
greatly  oversized,  produces  an  air  bind  that  is  detrimental  to  the 
operation  of  the  disc.  Its  dimensions  are  approximately  the 
same  as  those  already  given  for  the  other  type. 

GAS  PIPING 

The  gas  engine  preferably  should  be  supplied  by  an  independ- 
ent line  from  the  meter,  and  to  make  doubly  sure  that  no  trouble 
from  fluctuation  will  exist,  no  other  consumption  should  be 
taken  from  this  line.  The  following  table  shows  the  proper  size 
of  line  to  install  for  lengths  of  100  feet  or  less.  Greater  lengths 
should  be  determined  by  the  computer,  allowing  a  loss  of  pressure 
of  0.2  inches^  through  the  total  length.  A  fair  consumption 
figure  to  use  is  20  cubic  feet  per  horse  power  per  hour. 

GAS  PIPING  FOR  GAS  ENGINES 


Engine  Horse  Power 

Pipe  Size 

1—  5 
6—10 
11—15 
16—35 
36—60 

$ 

2i" 

GAS  ENGINES 


809 


WATER  PIPING 

The  cooling  water  for  the  cylinder  jacket  is  supplied  either 
from  a  tank,  so  connected  that  the  water  will  circulate  naturally 
between  the  cylinder  and  the  cooling  tank,  or  directly  from  the 
street  main  into  the  cylinder,  and  from  the  cylinder  to  a  drain. 
When  the  latter  method  is  used,  a  break  or  gap  is  left  in  the 
vertical  line  leading  from  the  cylinder,  at  which  point  the  water 
may  be  felt  with  the  hand,  and  the  rate  of  flow  properly  adjusted. 
At  the  lower  end  of  this  gap,  which  is  about  2  inches  long,  is 
placed  a  large  reducing  socket  to  catch  the  water  flowing  or 
spilling  from  the  end  of  the  smaller  pipe  at  the  upper  end.  The 
proper  size  of  water  piping  is  shown  in  the  following  table. 

WATER  PIPING  FOR  GAS  ENGINES 


Engine  Horse  Power 

Tank  Supply 

Street  Supply 

Inlet 

Outlet 

Inlet 

Outlet 

1—2 
3—10 

11—15 

16—30 
31-40 
41—50 

1 

I 

1 
If 
1} 

1* 

lf 

1* 
1 

1 

H 

EXHAUST  PIPING 

The  function  of  the  exhaust  system  is  to  reduce  the  noise  and 
to  carry  off  the  gases.  Its  proper  installation  is  only  secondary 
in  importance  to  that  of  the  gas  line  and  antifluctuator.  So 
that  no  back  pressure  will  be  exerted  to  reduce  power  and  to 
decrease  engine  efficiency,  the  exhaust  pot,  or  other  muffling 
device,  should  be  placed  fairly  close  to  the  engine,  and  from 
there  the  exhaust  line  should  be  run  with  as  few  bends  and  as 
short  a  length  as  practical  to  the  outside.  Horizontal  runs 
should  be  avoided  if  possible,  but  if  unavoidable,  a  larger  size  of 
piping  should  be  used.  A  straight  vertical  run  to  the  roof  of  a 
building  of  ordinary  height  is  to  be  preferred.  The  size  of  the 
line  should  be  never  less  than  the  engine  outlet,  and  when  its 
length  is  over  25  feet,  the  size  should  be  increased,  and  the 
whole  tendency  should  be  to  make  the  line  over,  rather  than 
under,  size. 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 

The  maintenance  of  a  gas  engine  involves  a  certain  amount  of 
attention  to  its  mechanism  and  a  relatively  small  amount  to  the 


810  APPLIANCE  WORK 

gas  supply.  While  in  some  instances  the  gas  company  maintains 
a  force  of  repair  men  capable  of  attending  to  the  mechanical 
adjustments  and  repairs  on  the  engine  proper,  this  kind  of  work 
frequently  is  attended  to  by  mechanics  in  the  employ  of  the 
consumer,  or  by  the  local  agent  for  the  particular  make  of  engine. 
No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  describe  the  details  of  such  work, 
because  if  the  reader  is  sufficiently  interested  to  investigate  in 
other  treatises,  the  details  of  gas  engine  design,  he  will  obtain 
knowledge  also  of  the  details  of  adjustment  and  repairs.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  gas  company,  it  is  necessary  only  to  main- 
tain the  supply  system  free  from  leaks  and  causes  of  insufficient 
supply,  as  explained  in  Chapter  LVII. 


SECTION  VI 

ILLUMINATING  APPLIANCES 

CHAPTER  LXXIII 

DESIGN 
INTRODUCTORY 

Gas  was  introduced  as  a  lighting  medium  and  for  seventy-five 
years  it  was  preeminent  in  the  field,  although  for  a  long  time 
after  the  introductory  years  there  was  little  improvement  in  the 
burners  used.  However,  following  closely  upon  the  advent  of 
electricity  as  a  rival  illuminant  came  the  discovery  of  the  incan- 
descent gas  mantle.  Its  development  and  perfection  have  pro- 
vided gas  lighting  units  as  far  superior  to  the  old  "open"  or 
"flat-flame"  burner  as  the  latter  was  superior  to  the  whale  oil 
lamp  or  the  candle. 

Space  does  not  permit  further  reference  to  the  open  burner 
than  to  chronicle  its  passing,  which  has  progressed  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  old  candlepower  requirements  or  standards  are 
giving  place  everywhere  to  the  calorific  standard  as  the  proper 
measure  of  the  usefulness  of  a  product  that  is  most  efficient  when 
used  in  a  bunsen  burner.  As  the  incandescent  gas  lamp  makes 
use  of  a  burner  of  the  atmospheric  type,  the  principle  of  which  is 
described  in  Chapter  LXII,  the  only  further  description  neces- 
sary is  confined  to  the  structural  details  of  the  burners  as  adapted 
to  lighting  units,  and  these  will  be  given  in  describing  each  unit. 
These  details  of  design  and  construction,  as  will  be  later  apparent, 
are  of  great  importance,  and  determine  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  burner.  This  follows  from  the  fact  that  the  illumination  of 
the  incandescent  burner  is  derived  entirely  from  the  incandes- 
cence of  the  mantle,  and  in  turn  this  incandescence  is  attained  in 
perfection  only  in  so  far  as  the  flame  volume  is  contained  within, 

(811) 


812  APPLIANCE  WORK 

and  coincides  in  shape  with,  the  mantle.  This,  as  the  preceding 
chapters  have  shown,  is  an  entirely  different  problem  in  burner 
construction  to  that  presented  by  a  cooking  or  heating  appliance. 
The  newest  types  of  incandescent  lights  bear  witness  to  the 
success  that  has  attended  years  of  patient  and  brilliant  effort 
given  to  its  solution. 

However,  for  a  satisfactory  incandescent  lamp,  not  only  a  good 
burner,  but  also  a  mantle  of  proper  composition  and  durability  is 
needed.  Long  after  the  proper  mixture  of  thorium  and  cerium 
was  known,  the  fragility  of  the  mantle  was  an  almost  insuperable 
bar  to  its  commercial  use.  The  first  mantles  were  formed  by 
saturating  cotton  "stockings"  with  a  solution  of  thorium  and 
cerium  salts  and  then  burning  off  the  cotton.  By  the  substitu- 
tion of  an  artificial  fibre,  the  problem  was  solved,  and  a  life  of 
2000  hours  is  a  conservative  average  for  the  best  grade  of 
modern  mantles. 

SMALL  UNITS 
UPRIGHT  LIGHT 

BURNER 

The  first  type  of  burner  to  be  adapted  to  the  incandescent 
mantle,  and  for  years  the  only  type  in  wide  use,  was  what  is  now 
known  as  the  upright  burner.  This  form  was  a  perfectly  natural 
evolution  from  the  flat-flame  burner,  and  the  resultant  light  was 
such  a  great  improvement  over  that  furnished  by  the  gas  burners 
previously  available  that,  in  the  beginning,  quantity  production 
was  of  more  importance  than  further  improvements.  These 
improvements  came  in  the  process  of  time,  and  in  general  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  relating  to  the  burner  as  a 
connection  between  the  fixture  and  the  glassware  and  as  a  sup- 
porter of  the  latter.  Along  this  line  the  ingenuity  of  the  workers 
in  brass,  both  stamped  and  spun,  was  equal  to  the  tasks  assigned. 

The  second  class  of  improvements  was  concerned  with  obtain- 
ing a  more  perfect  admixture  of  gas  and  air,  and  a  more  con- 
venient regulation  of  the  varying  quantities  of  each  constituent 
needed  for  the  perfect  mixture  under  different  conditions  of  gas 
quality  and  pressure.  The  mixture  was  affected  by  the  shape  of 
the  conducting  passages,  as  well  as  by  the  position  and  form  of 
the  gas  orifice  and  air  inlets. 

Figure  251  shows  in  vertical  section  the  latest  development  of 

ie  upright  burner.  The  gas  enters  the  mixing  chamber,  A,  in 
the  base  of  the  bunsen  tube  through  the  passage,  B.  It  may 
also  enter  through  the  slots,  C,  in  the  top  of  the  bunsen  base, 


DESIGN 


813 


Figure  251.— Upright  Incandescent  Gas  Light  Burner- 
Vertical  Section,  page  812. 


814  APPLIANCE  WORK 

the  amount  so  entering  depending  upon  the  number  of  slots 
uncovered  by  the  perforations,  D,  in  the  disc,  E,  rotated  by  the 
cap,  F,  that  covers  the  primary  air  ports,  G.  This  combination 
of  rotating  with  fixed  openings  results  in  a  very  dependable 
"multiple  orifice  gas  control"  and  makes  the  burner  instantly 
adaptable  to  gas  of  varying  pressure  and  quality.  The  air  ports 
themselves  are  fixed  openings. 

The  primary  air  reaches  the  mixing  chamber  as  indicated  by 
the  arrows.  In  its  passage  through  the  bunsen  tube,  H,  it  mixes 
intimately  with  the  fine  jets  of  gas  issuing  from  the  multiple 
orifice.  The  mixture  expands  into  the  burner  head,  I,  passes 
through  a  coarse  gauze,  J,  and  finally  reaches  the  finer  gauze,  K, 
of  the  mantle  cap.  This  last  gauze  has  a  disc  spreader,  L, 
centered  to  the  gauze,  and  this  forces  the  mixture,  and  hence  the 
flame,  out  toward  the  inner  surface  of  the  conical  mantle. 

In  this,  as  in  the  other  burners  to  be  described,  the  gauzes  have 
a  dual  function.  The  most  important  is  to  prevent  back-firing, 
i.  e.,  igniting  at  the  gas  orifice,  especially  at  the  moment  of  light- 
ing. The  second  is  to  reduce  the  noise,  which  tends  to  become 
troublesome  as  gas  pressure  increases. 

The  secondary  air  required  for  the  complete  combustion 
of  the  gas  in  the  bunsen  flame  reaches  the  mantle  through  the 
openings,  M,  in  the  gallery  base,  or,  in  the  case  of  "side-hole 
glassware,"  through  openings  at  the  base  of  the  chimney,  as 
shown  in  Figure  252. 

Although  this  is  one  of  the  most  successful  burners  of  the 
upright  type,  the  light  is  not  distributed  as  favorably  as  from 
other  types,  nor  does  the  lamp  lend  itself  as  well  to  use  on 
existing  fixtures.  For  these  reasons,  the  burner  is  rapidly  being- 
superseded. 

MANTLE 

The  standard  mantle,  N,  Figure  251,  for  the  upright  burner  is 
%  inches  long,  has  an  average  diameter  of  slightly  over  1  inch,  and 
has  a  somewhat  tapering  form  from  the  mantle  cap  to  the  top. 
Its  greater  length,  as  compared  with  other  modern  mantles, 
involves  a  greater  area  and  so  makes  more  difficult  the  necessary 
coincidence  of  flame  and  mantle  surface  required  for  complete 
incandescence.  This  follows  because  correct  burner  design, 
umtorm  gas  quality  and  pressure,  and  correct  gas  and  air  mixture 
are  essential  to  bring  about  the  ideal  condition  where  the  zone  of 
combustion  conforms  to  the  surface  of  the  mantle;  and  a  given 


DESIGN 


815 


variation  in  the  above  gas  requirements  will  cause  a  greater  dis- 
placement of  this  zone  in  a  large  mantle  than  in  a  small  one. 


Figure  252.— Upright  Incandescent  Gas  Light,  page  814. 

To  preserve  the  desired  coincidence  of  flame  with  mantle,  the 
latter  as  much  as  the  former  must  be  kept  from  changing  position. 


816  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  correct  position  is  a  vertical  one,  because  the  flame  tends  to 
assume  a  vertical  position  even  though  the  burner  may  not  be 
vertical.  Faulty  fixture  design  often  makes  impossible  a  vertical 
burner  position,  and  this  results  in  decreased  initial  illumination, 
followed  by  a  breaking  up  of  the  mantle  as  its  skirt  rubs  back  and 
forth  over  the  edge  of  the  burner  during  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction following  heating  and  cooling.  In  course  of  time  that 
portion  of  the  mantle  around  the  burner  top  will  drop  off  and 
then  the  mantle  will  swing  on  its  top  support  and  assume  a 
vertical  position.  When  the  burner  is  at  an  appreciable  angle 
from  the  vertical,  this  change  will  force  the  mantle  so  far  out  of 
the  flame  as  to  effect  a  marked  reduction  in  illumination. 

Even  where  the  burner  position  is  always  correct,  the  main- 
tenance of  the  upright  mantle  in  a  vertical  position  to  the  end  of 
its  useful  life  may  still  be  very  uncertain  because  of  the  difficult 
problem  of  its  support.  It  has  been  supported  variously  by 
resting  a  cross  strand  of  a  supporting  ring  on  a  notched  central 
standard,  or  upon  appropriately  formed  single  or  double  side 
standards.  These  standards,  in  the  course  of  development, 
have  been  formed  of  steel  wrire,  nichrome  wire  or  clay-magnesia 
material.  The  supporting  ring  itself  was  for  some  time  made  of 
platinum,  but  finally  of  asbestos.  The  deterioration  of  strands 
or  standard  under  the  intense  heat  has  always  tended  to  limit  the 
useful  life  of  an  upright  mantle  to  the  life  of  its  support.  The 
maximum  horizontal  candlepower  available  is  120,  with  an  hourly 
gas  consumption  of  6  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

It  is  not  the  purpose  to  cover  the  field  of  glassware  as  applied  to 
lighting  burners,  but  merely  to  note  how  the  particular  design  of 
each  burner  affects  glassware.  It  has  already  been  mentioned 
that  a  chimney  is  essential  to  the  upright  mantle,  and  herein  lies 
another  weakness  of  the  upright  light.  Any  departure  from 
the  vertical  of  burner  or  mantle  involves  excess  of  heat  on  one 
side  of  the  chimney,  and  as  the  mantle  ages  or  suffers  from  its 
incorrect  position,  the  menace  to  the  chimney  increases,  with  the 
usual  final  result  of  a  broken  chimney,  if  it  is  of  glass,  or  ruined 
surface  if  of  mica.  Often  the  breaking  of  a  glass  chimney  causes 

ie  destruction  of  a  mantle  still  in  very  good  condition.  A 
common  shade  equipment  for  the  upright  light  is  shown  in 
figure  252  I  his  shade  has  the  disadvantage  of  adding  appre- 
ciable weight  to  the  fixture,  and  because  of  the  unsubstantial 
tion  of  many  existing  fixtures  on  which  the  upright 


DESIGN 


817 


Figure  253 — Inverted  Incandescent  Gas  Light  Burner — 
Vertical  Section,  page  818. 


818  APPLIANCE  WORK 

lights  have  been  installed,  the  resultant  sagging  accentuates  the 
departure  of  the  light  from  the  vertical. 

INVERTED  LIGHT 

BURNER 

About  1903,  the  type  of  burner  shown  in  Figure  253  was 
developed.  Its  name,  "inverted,  "  describes  the  radical  innova- 
tion it  introduced  in  the  downward  projection  of  the  flame. 
This  permitted  an  unobstructed  flow  of  light  downward, — the 
usual  direction  of  required  maximum  illumination.  As  will  be 
later  described,  the  lamp  also  possessed  other  advantages  over 
the  upright  form,  which,  therefore,  it  rapidly  replaced. 

Because  the  inverted  light  requires  the  gas  and  air  stream  to 
move  in  a  direction  opposed  to  its  natural  upward  flow,  a  burner 
design  was  essential  which  would  utilize  the  energy  of  the  gas 
stream  to  entrain  air  and  force  the  mixture  downwardly.  This, 
a  problem  of  no  mean  proportion,  was  solved  by  giving  close 
attention  to  the  design  of  the  portion  of  the  bunsen  tube  just 
below  the  air  ports.  In  a  general  way,  this  tube  modification 
consisted  in  introducing  a  constriction  so  that  the  mixed  gases 
would  first  flow  through  a  tube  of  large  diameter,  then  through  a 
tube  of  smaller  diameter,  and  finally  into  a  mixing  tube  or 
chamber  of  larger  diameter.  The  proper  proportioning  of  these 
tubes  immediately  gave  an  increase  in  the  efficiency  of  the  device. 

The  downward  direction  of  the  air  and  gas  stream  naturally 
increases  the  tendency  to  back-fire.  In  the  earlier  forms  of  the 
best  inverted  Burners,  the  difficulty  was  overcome  by  a  very 
ingenious  device  known  as  a  thermostat,  located  in  the  lower 
section  of  the  bunsen  tube.  The  thermostat  when  cool  was 
shaped  like  a  cone  with  very  small  openings  at  the  apex  between 
the  fingers,  or  strips  of  metal,  of  which  it  was  composed.  Hence, 
there  could  be  no  great  entrainment  of  air  until,  with  the  heating 
of  the  burner,  the  expansion  of  the  fingers  changed  the  shape  of 
the  thermostat  into  a  cylinder  with  wide  open  end.  In  the 
latest  development,  the  thermostat  has  been  replaced  by  gauze 
m  a  tip  of  the  widened  inlet,  fitted  to  a  mixing  chamber' shaped 
for  attachment  of  the  tip.  The  widening  also  reduces  noise. 

Referring  specifically  to  Figure  253,  gas  enters  the  mixing 
chamber,  A,  through  the  orifice,  B,  which  it  reaches  through  the 
nmgs,  C,  in  the  base  of  the  cylindrical  part,  D.  These 
openings  are  clearly  shown  in  the  large  scale  perspective  view  of 
L>,  to  the  upper  left  of  the  main  figure.  The  gas  flow  through  B 
is  regulated  by  rotating  the  screw,  E.  As  this  screw  moves 


DESIGN 


819 


Figure  254 — Inverted  Incandescent  Gas  Light,  page  822. 


820  APPLIANCE  WORK 

inward,  the  lower  portion  of  its  conical  surface,  F,  moves  into  an 
opening  in  the  side  of  D,  and  in  so  doing  forces  D  downward,  and 
this  motion  may  be  continued  until  the  conical  projection,  G,  has 
entirely  closed  B.  As  the  screw,  E,  moves  outward,  the  coiled 
spring  under  D  lifts  the  latter. 

In  the  mixing  chamber,  A,  the  gas  meets  the  primary  air 
entering  through  the  openings,  H,  in  the  air  shutter,  J.  The 
width  of  these  openings  is  regulated  by  rotating  the  shutter. 
The  mixture  then  moves  down  the  constricted  portion,  K,  of  the 
bunsen  tube.  Getting  hotter  as  it  advances,  it  expands  in  the 
under  portion,  L,  and  still  more  in  the  tip,  M.  Into  M  screws 
the  clay  burner  tip,  N.  It  contains  two  gauzes,  O,  which  are 
material  aids  in  forming  a  perfect  air  and  gas  mixture  and  in 
preventing  the  flame  from  flashing  back  up  the  tube.  After 
passing  through  O,  the  mixture  flows  down  through  the  burner 
tip,  and  burning  from  its  lower  end,  is  forced  down  and  out 
against  _  the  mantle  surface,  meeting  there  the  secondary  air 
which  rises  through  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  inner  glass 
cylinder.  Attached  to  the  burner  structure  is  the  dome,  or 
crown,  P,  designed  to  permit  the  escape  of  products  of  combus- 
tion through  vents,  Q,  on  one  side  and  thus  to  direct  them  away 
from  the  air  ports.  This  dome  also  serves  as  a  support  for  glass- 
ware. It  will  be  noted  that  above  the  dome  are  annular  vented 
spaces  surrounding  the  bunsen  tube,  K,  designed  to  reduce  as 
far  as  possible  the  heating  of  this  tube  through  contact  with  the 
upward  passing  combustion  products.  The  dispersal  of  these 
combustion  products  in  such  a  way  that  they  have  the  least  pos- 
sible Contact  with  the  burner  structure,  has  always  been  a  prob- 
lem in  connection  with  the  inverted  burner,  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  a  completely  successful  solution  has  resulted  in  tar- 
nished metal  and  in  pilot  by-pass  troubles,  which  have  been 
arguments  in  favor  of  an  improved  form  of  upright  burner. 

The  inverted  mantle,  R,  Figure  253,  is  about  If  inches  long 
and  la  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  mounted  on  a  clay-magnesia 
ring,  S,  with  extending  legs  that  drop  into  slots  in  the  burner 
tip,  JN.  With  the  mantle  in  position  on  the  burner  tip,  there  is 
an  annular  opening,  T,  between  the  tip  and  ring  for  the  escape  of 
the  products  of  combustion.  Mantles  of  this  type  are  com- 
monly designated  as  "open  top,"  to  distinguish  them  from 
mantles  which  have  no  annular  opening,  and  the  only  exit  for 
the  products  is  through  the  meshes  of  the  mantle. 


DESIGN 


821 


Figure  255 — Junior  Incandescent  Gas 
Light  Burner— Vertical 
Section,  page  822. 


822  APPLIANCE  WORK 

The  inverted  mantle  presents  no  problem  of  support  and  is 
largely  independent  of  fixture  position.  Like  the  upright 
mantle,  however,  it  requires  a  chimney,  and  as  a  result  mantle 
troubles  often  cause  chimney  troubles,  and  vice  versa.  Its 
horizontal  candlepower  is  100  and  the  hourly  gas  consumption 
44  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

The  inverted  burner  needs  two  pieces  of  glassware.  One  is 
the  chimney,  or  inner  glass  cylinder,  seen  in  Figure  -254,  by  the 
breaking  away  for  this  purpose,  of  a  portion  of  the  outer  globe. 
This  cylinder  is  provided  with  three  nibs  on  the  top  edge,  which 
are  supported  by  an  inner  rim  of  the  burner  structure.  Air 
holes  around  the  base  of  this  inner  cylinder  admit  and  direct 
secondary  air  to  the  mantle  surface. 

The  second  piece  of  glassware  is  the  outer  globe,  and  it  is 
available  in  many  varieties  of  shapes  and  materials.  One 
common  type  is  constructed  of  diffusing  glassware,  spherical  in 
shape,  through  which  the  mantle  itself  is  not  visible,  the  lamp 
taking  on  the  appearance  of  a  uniformly  incandescent  sphere  of 
light.  Other  shades  are  of  various  shapes  designed  to  reflect  or 
diffuse  the  light  as  may  be  desired  for  specific  purposes. 

JUNIOR  LIGHT 
BURNER 

The  "Junior"  light  is  a  very  simple  and  successful  modifica- 
tion of  the  upright  light.  It  was  the  first  attempt  to  design  an 
incandescent  burner  which  could  be  substituted  for  a  flat-flame 
burner  without  changing  the  existing  glassware,  and  it  still  has  a 
proper  field  of  use  in  bathrooms  or  other  rooms  containing  small 
floor  space.  Referring  to  Figure  255,  gas  passes  through  the  two 
openings,  A,  into  the  space,  B,  beneath  the  milled  cap,  C.  The 
gas  flow  through  the  opening,  D,  into  the  bunsen  tube,  E,  is 
conveniently  and  satisfactorily  regulated  by  the  position  of  the 
cap,  C.  As  this  is  screwed  down,  the  conical  projection,  F, 
enters  the  opening,  D,  and  the  motion  may  be  continued  until 
the  flow  is  entirely  shut  off.  The  primary  air  reaches  the  bunsen 
tube,  E,  which  serves  as  the  first  mixing  chamber  through  two 
openings,  G,  cut  into  the  side  of  the  tube.  These  are  very 
clearly  shown  in  Figure  256.  The  mixture  of  gas  and  air  rises 
m  the  tube,  E,  is  more  intimately  mixed  by  passing  through  the 
coarse  gauze,  H,  and  then  expands  into  the  enlarged  top,  J.  A 
further  aid  towards  a  perfect  mixture  is  given  by  the  finer 


DESIGN 


823 


Figure  256.— Junior  Incandescent  Gas  Light,  page  822. 


824  APPLIANCE  WORK 

.gauze,  K,  forming  part  of  the  mantle  support  and  provided  with 
a  small  circular  plate,  L,  to  deflect  the  flame  to  the  surface  of  the 
mantle,  M. 

MANTLE 

As  sold  and  used,  the  mantle  is  assembled  with  a  mica  chim- 
ney, N,  provided  with  a  metal  base,  O,  which  fits  over  the 
enlarged  top,  J,  of  the  bunsen  tube.  The  mantle  itself  is  about 
2|  inches  long  and  f-inch  diameter.  It  is  suspended  by  a  loop 
from  a  wire  mounted  in  the  top  frame  of  the  chimney,  N.  The 
latter  is  3^  inches  long  and  l£  inches  in  diameter,  with  holes  at 
the  base  for  secondary  air.  It  is  apparent  that  the  substitution 
of  a  new  "Junior"  mantle  for  an  old  one  is  a  very  simple  opera- 
tion and  more  easily  done  than  in  the  case  of  the  upright  or 
inverted  mantle.  This  is  another  reason  why  the  "Junior" 
light  has  been  very  successful  in  the  hands  of  the  gas  user.  The 
horizontal  candlepower  is  50  and  the  hourly  gas  consumption 
2.5  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

As  previously  stated,  the  "Junior"  light  has  no  distinctive 
glassware,  but  is  designed  so  as  to  be  usable  with  many  existing 
types  of  globes  or  shades. 

C.E-Z  LIGHT 
BURNER 

The  "C.E-Z"  light,  developed  in  1913  and  sold  in  quantity 
since  1916,  marks  the  latest  development  in  the  small  unit 
incandescent  light.  It  is  the  result  of  an  unwearying  endeavor  to 
obtain  a  mantle  light  small  in  size  and  one  which  would  not 
require  the  use  of  a  chimney  of  any  kind.  It  was  known  that 
success  depended  on  the  design  and  dimension  of  the  bunsen  tube 
in  order  to  obtain  the  requisite  entrainment  of  air  volume  for  a 
given  gas  flow.  The  burner  has  the  added  advantage  of  adapta- 
bility to  a  variety  of  glassware,  and  because  of  its  relatively  high 
illuminating  power  is  adequate  for  the  ordinary  room  space.  In 
a  remarkable  degree  the  burner  adapts  itself  automatically  to 
variation  in  gas  pressure  and  quality,  and  this  results,  among 
other  things,  in  a  minimum  of  carbonized  mantles.  Its  oper- 
ation is  noiseless. 

Figure  257  shows  the  burner  in  vertical  section.  The  devices 
lor  the  regulation  of  the  gas  and  primary  air  supply  are  similar  to 
those  already  described  for  the  inverted  light.  The  constriction 
m  the  burner  tube  at  A  is  followed  by  the  upwardly  expanding 


DESIGN 


825 


V 


GAS' 


Figure  257. — C.  E-Z  Incandescent  Gas  Light  Burner — Vertical 
Section,  page  824. 


826  APPLIANCE  WORK 

mixing  chamber,  B.  The  lower  end,  C,  of  the  manifold  dis- 
tributor, D,  fits  over  B.  The  mixture  of  air  and  gas,  ascending 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  distributor,  passes  through  the 
cylindrical  gauze,  E,  into  the  three  arms  leading  to  the  burner 
nozzles,  F,  only  two  of  which  are  shown  in  the  figure.  The  gauze 
serves  the  usual  dual  function  of  forming  a  more  perfect  mixture 
and  of  preventing  back  firing.  G  is  one  of  three  openings,  each 
opposite  a  mantle  and  supplying  a  jet  of  flame  found  necessary 
to  insure  satisfactory  ignition.  A  shade  holder,  H,  may  be  incor- 
porated as  part  of  the  burner  base,  and  is  shown  in  dotted  outline. 

MANTLE 

The  "C.E-Z"  mantle  is  one  of  the  great  factors  contributing 
to  the  commercial  success  of  the  light.  It  has  a  "closed  top," 
which  hitherto  it  was  possible  to  use  only  on  pressure  lamps. 
Its  dimensions  in  use  are  about  f-inch  long  and  f-inch  in  diam- 
eter, but  before  being  "burned  off"  the  mantle  is  about  twice  as 
long.  It  is  what  is  known  as  a  rag  mantle,  and  possesses  the 
very  desirable  property,  not  true  of  the  other  mantles  previously 
described,  of  immunity  from  injury  by  handling  before  burning 
off.  It  has  all  the  support  advantages  inherent  to  the  inverted 
mantle,  and,  in  addition,  is  free  from  troubles  incident  to  the 
use  of  chimneys.  Because  of  its  small  size,  it  is  inexpensive  to 
replace.  _  The  total  horizontal  candlepower  from  the  three 
mantles  is  about  80,  with  an  hourly  gas  consumption  of  3  cubic 
feet. 

GLASSWARE 

As  already  mentioned,  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  "C.E-Z" 
light  is  that  its  small  size  permits  its  use  and  concealment  within 
the  dimensions  of  globes  commonly  found  on  old  type  fixtures, 
and  its  low  first  cost  and  high  illuminating  efficiency  makes  such 
use  very  widespread.  For  complete  installations,  modern  fix- 
tures and  globes  of  attractive  designs  are  available.  Figure  258 
shows  a  modern  globe  partly  broken  away  to  give  a  view  of  the 
burner  and  mantles. 

PILOT  LIGHT 

Figure  257  shows  the  recently  invented  "fabric"  tip  pilot 
light.  K  is  a  metal  tubing  (clay  is  used  for  an  inverted  burner) 
forming  the  jet  outlet.  The  mantle  fabric  is  formed  into  a 
roll  about  this  jet  tube,  and  when  gas  is  delivered  to  it  and 
lighted,  the  fabric  burns  away,  leaving  a  hardened  but  porous 
ash,  like  the  fabric  of  a  mantle.  Gas  courses  through  the  pilot 


DESIGN  827 

tube  and  escapes  through  this  porous  roll  of  mantle  ash.  When 
the  gas  is  lighted,  it  burns  at  the  surface  of  the  ash,  producing  a 
glow,  but  no  visible  flame.  The  pilot  will  remain  lighted  even 
in  considerable  wind  and  the  gas  consumption  can  be  as  low  as 


Figure  258.— C.  E-Z  Incandescent  Gas  Light,  page  826. 

one-twentieth  of  a  cubic  foot  per  hour.  The  gas  supply  to  J  is 
provided  from  below  the  cock,  L,  through  an  opening  in  the  cock 
body,  and  is  thus  independent  of  the  position  of  L.  It  can  be 
regulated  or  entirely  shut  off  by  the  screw,  M. 

A  pilot  light  is  a  great  convenience  wherever  there  is  much 
intermittent  use  of  a  light,  and  it  is  a  necessity  where  the  light  is 
not  of  easy  access,  as  is  true  of  the  arc  types  yet  to  be  described. 
Pilots  of  suitable  design  are  available  for  every  incandescent 


828 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  259.— Single-Mantle  Arc  Lamp  Burner,  page  829. 


DESIGN  829 

light,  but  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  have  not  been  shown  in  the 
illustrations,  as  in  the  case  of  the  small  units  the  pilot  is  essen- 
tially an  accessory  and  not  an  integral  part. 

LARGE  UNITS 

SINGLE-MANTLE  ARC  LAMP 

BURNER 

The  lights  under  consideration  so  far  have  been  those  whose 
main  field  of  usefulness  is  in  dwellings,  rather  than  stores  or 
factories.  When  the  incandescent  mantle  brought  a  new  lease 
of  life  to  illumination  by  gas,  one  of  the  fields  rapidly  being 
occupied  by  electricity  was  the  lighting  of  large  spaces.  As  the 
first  electric  lamps  used  for  this  purpose  were  called  "arcs,"  it 
was  thought  good  business  to  apply  the  same  name  to  the 
competing  incandescent  gas  burners.  Figure  259  and  260  show 
two  views  of  a  single-mantle  arc  lamp.  The  burner  proper  con- 
sists of  the  same  elements  as  the  inverted  light  previously 
described,  though  throughout  it  is  sturdier  and  of  larger  dimen- 
sions. Because  of  this  similarity  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to 
describe  it  in  detail  or  show  a  vertical  section,  and  only  its 
peculiar  features  will  be  described. 

In  Figure  259,  the  gas  supply  comes  down  the  overhead  pipe 
and  passing  through  the  cock,  A,  enters  the  bent  arm,  B.  A 
screw  tapped  into  the  elbow  of  this  arm  allows  easy  access  to  the 
lower  portion.  At  the  bottom  of  the  arm  the  needle  valve  is 
located.  Its  point  is  shown  at  C.  The  position  of  the  needle  in 
the  gas  orifice,  and  therefore  the  extent  of  gas  flow,  is  regulated 
by  turning  the  screw  head,  D.  The  needle  valve  is  readily 
removable  for  cleaning  by  the  entire  withdrawal  of  the  screw. 
For  convenience  of  regulation,  the  present  type  has  a  wire  handle 
projecting  beyond  the  stack,  S,  Figure  260,  and  this  handle  moves 
screw  D  by  engaging  with  its  slotted  head. 

The  primary  air  ports,  E,  are  shown  full  open,  but  they  may  be 
partly  closed  by  the  forward  rotation  of  the  brass  thimble,  whose 
edge  may  be  seen  in  the  right  of  the  opening,  E. 

Figure  260  shows  that  the  main  gas  cock  is  above  the  lamp. 
It  is  conveniently  controlled  from  below  by  the  pull  chain,  F, 
Figure  259,  attached  through  the  handle,  G,  to  a  ratchet  mechan- 
ism. With  the  cock  shut,  one  pull  opens  and  the  next  pull 
closes.  The  position  at  any  time  is  known  from  below  by 
observation  of  an  indicator  arrow,  one  of  whose  ends,  H,  in  the 
shut-off  position  is  shown  in  Figure  259.  The  cock  is  also  out  of 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  260.— Single-Mantle  Arc  Lamp,  page  829. 


DESIGN  831 

the  path  of  the  hot  combustion  products.  These  are  diverted  to 
opposite  sides  of  the  stack  by  a  metal  partition,  shaped  like  the 
inverted  frustrum  of  a  pyramid,  the  top  (lower  surface)  of  which 
is  at  the  level  of  the  projections,  J,  and  whose  outward  flaring 
sides  extend  upward  surrounding  the  air  ports,  E,  and  end  in  the 
plane  of  the  stack  top.  This  partition  thus,  besides  serving  to 
keep  the  gas  cock  cool  and  therefore  in  good  working  order,  also 
keeps  the  combustion  products  from  entering  the  air  ports. 
Furthermore,  the  dispersion  and  the  outward  direction  from  the 
center  given  to  the  escaping  products  greatly  decreases  any  dis- 
coloration of  piping  or  ceiling. 

The  stack,  S,  Figure  260,  is  finished  in  white  enamel  and  is 
about  6|  inches  long  and  5|  inches  in  diameter.  Its  primary 
function  is  to  obtain  the  increased  draft  required  to  furnish  the 
secondary  air  needed  for  the  large  mantle. 

MANTLE 

The  mantle  used  is  similar  to  that  described  for  the  inverted 
light,  but  is  larger,  its  length  being  1\  inches  and  its  diameter  If 
inches.  The  ability  to  obtain  sufficient  illumination  from  one 
mantle,  and  the  resultant  simplicity  and  low  maintenance  cost 
of  the  lamp,  is  the  novelty  of  this  single  mantle  arc,  and  makes  it 
very  desirable  for  all  situations  adopted  to  its  illumination  range. 
Its  horizontal  candlepower  is  200,  with  an  hourly  gas  consump- 
tion of  9  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

The  inner  cylinder  is  6  inches  long  and  3  inches  in  diameter. 
Outer  shades  are  available  in  materials  and  shapes  sufficient  to 
meet  every  need. 

THREE-BURNER  TNDOOR  ARC  LAMP 
BURNER 

The  lighting  requirements  of  many  interior  spaces  exceed  the 
possibilities  of  the  single-mantle  arc.  To  obtain  the  necessary 
increase  in  light,  a  number  of  mantles  are  grouped  in  one  lamp, 
and  it  was  this  use  of  mantles  in  multiple  that  characterized  the 
first  arc  lamp.  Three  mantles  have  proved  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory number  for  indoor  arcs,  and  the  particular  type  selected 
for  description  has  no  superior  in  this  field.  Figure  261  is  a 
vertical  section.  Gas  passes  from  the  pipe,  A,  through  the 
passage,  B,  into  the  hollow  plug,  C.  Openings,  D,  in  this  com- 
municate with  the  arm,  K,  containing  the  gas  cock,  F.  From 
the  cock  the  gas  passes  into  the  plug,  G,  through  openings,  H. 


832 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  261.-Three-Burner  Indoor  Arc  Lamp^Vertical 
Section,  page  831. 


DESIGN  833 

From  here  the  orifice,  J,  leads  to  the  mixing  chamber,  K,  where 
the  gas  mixes  with  the  air  entering  through  fixed  orifices,  L. 
The  gas  flow  is  regulated  by  the  needle  valve,  M.  The  gas  and 
air  mixture  passing  out  of  K,  turns  downward  and  enters  the 
chamber,  O.  This  has  as  an  inner  lining  the  removable  cylin- 
drical gauze,  P,  through  which  the  mixture  must  pass  through 
openings,  R,  into  three  passages,  each  leading  to  a  burner  tip,  S. 

The  three  castings,  containing  the  gas  and  air  passages,  are 
readily  separated  or  removed,  and  at  all  important  points  remov- 
able plugs  afford  ease  of  inspection.  The  castings  with  their 
parts  are  located  in  a  vertical  chamber,  extending  across  the 
Btack  and  occupying  the  central  segment  of  its  circular  section. 
The  outer  space  on  each  side  is  filled  with  a  metal  vent,  which 
conveys  the  hot  products  of  combustion  to  the  stack  top,  T,  and 
keeps  them  from  undesirable  contact  with  any  working  parts. 
The  inner  vertical  plane  face,  U,  of  one  vent  is  shown  behind  the 
vertical  section. 

The  stack  casing,  V,  is  usually  finished  with  white  enamel, 
ornamented  with  horizontal  gilt  stripes,  as  shown  in  Figure  262. 
To  this  casing  is  fastened  the  nickel-plated  globe  band,  W, 
Figure  261,  also  seen  in  Figure  262.  The  latter  figure  shows  the 
vertical  slots  for  the  admission  of  secondary  air  through  the 
bottom  of  the  casing.  On  the  left  is  seen  the  pull  chain  which 
operates  the  gas  cock  through  a  ratchet  mechanism — one  pull 
on,  one  pull  off.  The  on  and  off  positions  are  clearly  indicated 
by  the  indicator  arrow  there  shown  in  the  off  position. 

MANTLE 

The  mantles  used  in  this  lamp  are  the  same  size  as  those  in 
the  inverted  light.  Its  horizontal  candlepower  is  330,  with  an 
hourly  gas  consumption  of  12  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

Figure  262  shows  a  globe  whose  upper  hemisphere  is  largely  of 
diffusing  glass.  Probably  the  globe  of  most  frequent  use  is  one 
with  an  alabaster  finish.  Its  inner  surface  is  of  opal  glass  and  its 
outer  is  of  clear  glass.  It  sends  out  a  very  soft  diffused  light. 

FIVE-BURNER  OUTDOOR  ARC  LAMP 

BURNER 

The  lamps  hitherto  considered  have  been  for  indoor  use.  In 
the  outdoor  lamp,  dependability  of  operation  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  Such  a  lamp  is  often  the  only  lighting  unit  em- 
ployed, and  its  outage  is,  therefore,  a  more  serious  matter  than 


834 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  262.— Three-Burner  Indoor  Arc  Lamp,  page  833. 


DESIGN  835 

that  of  an  indoor  light,  usually  forming  one  of  several  lights 
available  for  the  same  enclosure.  We  will  now  describe  a  type 
of  outdoor  arc  lamp  whose  parts  are  so  proportioned  and  related 
as  to  make  it  practically  proof  against  serious  disturbance  from 
wind,  rain  or  snow  storms,  and  which,  therefore,  has  had  many 
years  of  successful  use  under  these  trying  conditions  inseparable 
from  exposure  to  the  weather.  Its  design  also  provides  ease  of 
access  and  simplicity  of  inspection  or  attention  for  those  parts 
whose  proper  functioning  is  necessary  to  a  standard  volume  of 
uninterrupted  light.  This  is  the  more  important  because  of  the 
awkward  locations  in  which  these  lamps  are  often  placed. 

Figures  263  and  264  are  vertical  sections,  the  former  showing 
the  complete  lamp,  and  the  latter  the  detail  of  the  gas  supply  to 
one  mantle.  (A  magnifying  glass  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
studying  Figure  263.)  The  gas  coming  from  the  piping  system 
must  pass  into  the  drip  cup  before  it  enters  the  feed  pipe.  This 
cup  performs  a  very  important  function,  intercepting  condensa- 
tion that  otherwise  would  pass  down  the  feed  pipe  and  create 
trouble.  The  removal  of  any  condensation  is  effected  through 
the  opening  shown  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 

Below  the  drip  cup  is  a  ball  and  socket  joint,  which  takes  up 
any  impact  or  wTind  pressure  strains  transmitted  from  the  lamp. 
These,  in  the  absence  of  a  flexible  connection,  might  often  result 
in  broken  piping. 

The  gas,  entering  under  the  umbrella-like  head  of  the  tube 
projecting  into  the  drip  cup,  passes  down  through  the  ball  and 
socket  joint  and  the  by-pass  cock,  and  enters  the  main  feed  pipe. 
At  its  base,  A,  Figure  264,  there  are  five  openings,  each  leading 
to  a  burner  tip.  The  five  burners  are  mounted  in  a  circle  upon 
radial  arms,  B,  running  from  the  feed  pipe.  At  the  end  of  each 
arm  is  a  separate  bunsen  base,  C,  carrying  the  orifice  and  the 
gas  adjusting  needle.  This  needle  projects  above  a  ledge  of  the 
outer  shell  or  case,  D,  and  is,  therefore,  very  easy  of  access  for 
adjustment  or  removal. 

From  the  bunsen  base,  a  removable  bunsen  tube,  E,  extends 
obliquely  downward  to  the  deck  plate,  F,  and  sockets  in  a  cast- 
ing, G,  which  projects  through  the  deck  plate  and  provides  a 
threaded  end  for  the  attachment  of  the  burner  tip,  H.  In  the 
tube,  E,  may  be  seen  a  thermostat,  J,  in  its  closed  position. 

Primary  air  enters  through  three  fixed  orifices,  K.  This,  as 
well  as  the  secondary  air,  is  supplied  to  all  the  burners  from  a 
common  reservoir  embracing  all  of  the  central  portion  of  the 


836 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


Figure  263.— Five-Burner  Outdoor  Arc  Lamp — Vertical  Section, 
page  835. 


DESIGN 


83; 


Figure  264. — Five-Burner  Outdoor  Arc  Lamp — Details  of  Burner, 
page  835. 


838  APPLIANCE   WORK 

lamp  not  occupied  by  the  stack  tubes.  The  provision  of  sucn  a 
common  and  relatively  large  air  supply  chamber  is  exceedingly 
important  for  successful  functioning  in  wind.  Figure  263  shows 
the  air  chamber  extending  as  far  up  as  the  "brass  deck."  Outer 
air  enters  beneath  and  within  the  entire  circumference  of  the 
"overskirt"  casing,  passing  through  the  ring  of  "lower  brass 
gauze." 

The  same  figure  shows  the  stack  tubes,  one  centered  between 
each  burner  tip.  They  convey  the  products  of  combustion  to 
the  space  at  the  upper  part  of  the  lamp.  This  is  surrounded  by 
brass  gauze  and  further  protected  by  a  weather  band  from  direct 
attack  of  wind  or  rain.  Passing  through  the  gauze,  the  products 
emerge  from  under  the  umbrella-like  top  of  the  housing  structure. 

The  pilot  light  is  wind-proof,  and  the  by-pass  cock  is  conven- 
iently operated  from  the  ground  by  a  pull  chain. 

In  this  lamp  appearance  has  to  be  somewhat  subordinated  to 
necessary  volume  of  light  and  dependability  of  operation.  The 
length  from  the  bottom  of  the  globe  to  the  top  of  the  housing 
structure  is  24  inches  and  the  diameter  of  the  enameled  reflector 
is  20  inches. 

MANTLES 

The  mantles  used  in  this  lamp  are  the  same  size  as  those  in  the 
inverted  light,  but  are  more  strongly  made  to  be  adequate  for  the 
more  difficult  conditions  of  outdoor  use.  The  lower  hemi- 
spherical candlepower  is  515,  with  an  hourly  gas  consumption  of 
18  cubic  feet. 

GLASSWARE 

The  globe  is  an  11-inch  bowl,  readily  removable  for  cleaning, 
but  which  can  be  cleaned  fairly  well  in  place  as  supported  by  the 
reflector  band.  By  reason  of  its  size,  the  heat  it  receives  from 
the  lighted  mantles  is  not  sufficient  to  raise  its  temperature  to  a 
point  rendering  it  liable  to  fracture  from  drops  of  water.  When 
the  globe  is  lowered,  a  metal  skirt  drops  down  around  the  burners 
and  protects  the  mantles  from  the  wind.  Either  clear  or  diffus- 
ing glass  is  obtainable,  but  the  latter  is  ordinarily  preferred. 


CHAPTER  LXXIV 

CONNECTION  PRACTICE 

LOCATION  OF  APPLIANCE 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

When  the  first  representative  of  the  distribution  department 
arrives  on  the  premises,  whether  a  preinspector  or  a  fitter,  he 
should  interview  the  consumer  and  decide  on  the  exact  location 
of  the  appliance.  The  "box"  system,  explained  in  Chapter 
LXIII,  is  seldom  used  in  the  connection  of  illuminating  appli- 
ances, for  the  reason  that  none  of  the  work  lends  itself  as  satis- 
factorily to  that  method  as  do  some  portions  of  fuel  appli- 
ance work. 

When  the  location  is  not  determined  by  the  existence  of  an 
outlet  or  of  a  fixture,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  desired  installation 
involves  running  piping  and  placing  outlets  or  fixtures  at  definite 
points  or  for  definite  purposes,  care  and  thought  must  be  used  in 
deciding  on  the  best  location.  In  large  installations,  or  even  on 
smaller  ones  of  importance,  an  illuminating  expert  has  previously 
made  plans  for  all  the  details  (see  Figure  186,  page  628),  and  so 
the  fitter,  or  the  preinspector,  is  guided  by  a  sketch  showing  the 
various  locations  of  units  and  sometimes  of  the  piping  itself 
(see  Figure  187).  In  small  installations,  the  experience  of  the 
representative,  combined  with  the  wishes  of  the  consumer, 
suffice  for  the  determination  of  a  satisfactory  location.  In  any 
case  the  decision  is  made  in  accordance  with  the  following 
principles.  In  listing  them,  no  attempt  is  made  to  touch  on  the 
questions  of  distribution  or  intensity  of  illumination. 

The  contact  of  combustion  products  with  inflam- 
mable material  above  the  lamp  is  the  most  common 
fire  hazard  to  be  avoided.  In  a  horizontal  plane  the 
danger  is  from  draperies  or  window  curtains.  A 
mantle  light  having  glass  shades  and  chimneys,  if 
used  over  easily  burning  goods,  involves  a  slight  risk 

(839) 


840  APPLIANCE   WORK 

from  the  falling  of  mantle  pieces  while  still  incan- 
descent. This  can  be  eliminated  by  the  substitution 
of  other  materials  for  glass.  The  careless  dressing  of 
a  show  window  might  involve  a  hazard  in  any  direc- 
tion. 

Lamps  should  be  kept  far  enough  from  the  sprinkler 
heads  of  fire  extinguishing  systems  to  eliminate  the 
possibility  of  melting  the  head  control. 

When  installing  a  lamp  on  a  fixture,  be  sure  that 
the  latter  is  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  the 
strains  imposed  by  the  added  weight  and  the  frequent 
pull  on  any  pilot  by-pass  chains.  Weakness  is  fre- 
quently evident  in  swing  brackets. 

Avoid  accident  hazard  incident  to  lamps  or 
fixtures  hung  too  low  in  a  passageway  or  projecting 
from  a  wall  in  any  undesirable  location. 

Usually,  greater  care  on  the  score  of  sightliness  than 
is  necessary  in  the  case  of  fuel  appliance  connections, 
should  be  used  in  determining   the  location  of  any 
piping  for  illuminating  appliances.     Such  piping  often 
must  be  exposed  to  view  on  the  side  wall  or  ceiling,  and 
the  choice  of  location  may  considerably  affect  the 
degree  of  satisfaction  with  the  installation. 
The   preceding   considerations   not   interfering,    the   location 
needing  the  smallest  amount  of  connection  labor  and  material 
should  be  chosen. 

EXPOSURE 

The  various  types  of  lamps  are  carefully  designed  with  ref- 
erence to  their  expected  exposure  to  draughts  and  weather 
extremes.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  use  any  type 
under  conditions  for  which  it  was  not  intended.  However, 
although  an  indoor  lamp  never  should  be  placed  outside,  yet  an 
outdoor  lamp  sometimes  may  be  used  inside.  Locations  for 
indoor  lamps  should  be  chosen,  so  far  as  possible,  to  avoid 
draughts  which  may  blow  out  the  pilot  flame. 

SUFFICIENCY  OF  SUPPLY 

SERVICE  AND  METER 

The  usual  illuminating  appliance  installation  adds  such  a 
relatively  small  consumption  to  the  existing  demand  that  no 
change  in  service  size  nor,  especially  in  dwellings,  in  meter  size 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  841 

is  required.  Large  installations,  often  involving  new  piping  and 
additional  outlets,  require  the  procedure  for  service  and  meter 
described  in  Chapter  LXIII. 

PIPING 

When  the  proposed  installation  involves  only  the  connection 
of  a  single  fixture  or  appliance  to  an  existing  outlet,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  consider  the  question  of  the  size  of  the  line  supplying  that 
outlet,  because  if  the  system  of  piping  has  been  installed  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  in  Chapter  LI  1 1,,  the  size  of  that  line 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  any  ordinary  fixture  or 
single  or  multi-mantle  lamp.  When  the  installation  involves 
the  connection  of  more  than  one  fixture  or  lamp,  or  the  extending 
of  pipe  from  the  outlet,  careful  consideration  should  be  given  to 
the  conditions  affecting  the  supply  available  for  the  proposed 
additional  load.  The  size  and  length  of  such  an  extension,  the 
advisability  of  using  more  than  one  outlet  for  the  purpose  of 
supply,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  a  booster  line  from  some 
other  section  of  the  existing  system,  are  features  which  enter  into 
this  problem..  W7hen  the  installation  involves  a  complete  system 
of  piping,  it  should  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  rules  in 
Chapter  LIII. 

CONNECTION 
SHUTTING  OFF  GAS 

Before  starting  the  connection  work,  gas  must  be  shut  off  at 
the  nearest  control  cock,  except  when  the  piping  involved  is 
f-inch  or  less,  and  when  the  making  up  of  not  more  than  two  or 
three  threads  is  involved.  Even  in  such  cases,  gas  must  be 
shut  off  if  there  is  involved  any  hazard  to  person  or  property. 
The  precautions  to  be  observed  if  gas  need  not  be  shut  off  are 
given  in  Chapter  XLIX. 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

At  this  point  it  is  best  to  insert  the  rules  which,  in  a  general 
way,  govern  the  features  that  always  apply  to  installation  and 
sometimes  to  maintenance  work. 

Before  starting  an  installation,  be  sure  that  the  gas 
pressure  at  the  outlet  nozzle  is  sufficient. 

Every  lamp  should  be  controlled  by  a  cock  con- 
veniently near  and  always  in  sight  of  the  lamp. 

Use  jointing  material  as  follows:     Iron  to  iron  or 
brass  to  iron,  usual  pipe  jointing;  brass  to  brass,  none 


842  APPLIANCE  WORK 

if  threads  can  be  made  up  tight,  otherwise  brown  soap 
or  grease. 

If  a  burner  screws  too  loosely  on  the  fixture  nozzle, 
use  washers  to  £11  space  between  burner  and  shoulder 
of  nozzle. 

If  a  canopy  or  box  back  is  part  of  the  installation, 
make  it  fit  snugly  against  the  wall  or  ceiling,  using  a 
spacing  piece  if  necessary. 

In  every  case  it  is  assumed  that  a  by-pass  (a  cock 
with  pilot  connection)  is  to  be  installed.  In  general, 
no  specific  mention  is  made  of  just  when  to  install  globe 
or  shade  ring.  It  is  assumed  that  this  is  self-evident. 

After  adjusting  pilot,  and  before  putting  mantles  in 
place,  blow  out  the  pilot  flame. 

Direct  pilot  flame  so  that  it  will  not  touch  glassware. 

When  installing  glassware,  use  extreme  care  to  pre- 
vent it  from  touching  mantle. 

Leave  by-pass  or  cock  chains  so  that  they  are 
within  easy  reach  of  a  person  of  ordinary  height. 

When,  because  of  peculiar  conditions,  the.  heights 
that  may  be  suggested  or  advised  in  the  discussion  of 
certain  types  of  appliance  are  not  applicable,  the 
question  must  be  determined  in  accordance  with 
general  conditions. 

It  is  not  advisable  for  the  workman  to  remove  an 
electric  arc  lamp,  if  this  will  interfere  with  the  proposed 
work,  unless  special  permission  has  been  obtained 
from  his  foreman,  who  should  give  this  permission 
only  after  he  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  con- 
ditions of  electric  supply  and  knows  that  no  hazard 
will  be  created .  I  f  the  workman  removes  the  lamp,  he 
should  receive  special  instructions  about  the  treatment 
of  the  electric  wiring  that  he  has  disconnected.  Dif- 
ference in  practice  involving  "series"  or  "parallel" 
wiring  make  this  an  important  feature. 

When  an  electric  fixture  (as  distinguished  from  an 
electric  arc)  has  been  disconnected,  and  the  wiring 
from  the  outlet  is  not  to  be  used  again,  the  ends  should 
be  carefully  taped  and  left  separated. 

When  a  combination  gas  and  electric  fixture  has 
been  removed,  before  it  is  rehung,  the  gas  outlet  pipe 
through  wall  or  ceiling  should  be  covered  as  far  as  the 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  843 

insulating  joint  with  fibre  insulating  material  at  least 
^-inch  thick.  When  a  fitting,  such  as  a  tee  or  cross, 
has  been  installed  on  the  gas  outlet  above  the  insulat- 
ing joint  to  provide  for  a  branch  gas  line,  the  branch 
line  should  be  covered  with  this  insulating  material 
from  the  fitting  to  a  point  |-inch  outside  the  canopy. 
To  make  a  joint  in  electric  wiring,  twist  wires  at 
least  four  times,  solder,  wrap  with  approved  insulating 
material,  and  then  cover  with  friction  tape. 

ADJUSTMENTS 

A  lamp  may  be  said  to  be  best  adjusted  when,  for  the  longest 
time  without  readjustment  or  mantle  renewal,  it  gives  the 
proper  amount  of  light.  Before  endeavoring  to  adjust  any  lamp, 
be  sure  that  pipes,  cocks,  orifices,  gauzes,  and  other  gas  passages 
are  clear  and  clean. 

A  lamp  with  upright  mantle  should  be  adjusted,  after  in- 
stalling and  burning  off  the  mantle,  by  turning  the  gas  adjusting 
screw  to  the  point  where  the  mantle  shows  the  maximum  brill- 
iancy, at  the  same  time  avoiding  the  cone  of  flame  that  may  ap- 
pear at  top  of  mantle.  This  cone  may  be  most  easily  seen  by 
placing  the  hand  between  the  eye  and  the  lamp,  the  upper  edge 
of  hand  being  on  the  line  between  eye  and  top  of  chimney. 

A  lamp  with  an  inverted  mantle,  or  mantles,  depends  for  its 
satisfactory  service  on  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  flame  within 
the  mantle.  When  a  mantle  is  in  position,  the  flame  within  it 
cannot  be  seen,  and  as  the  mantle  brilliancy  is  not  an  indication 
of  proper  adjustment,  there  can  be  no  certainty  of  an  adjustment 
made  with  the  mantle  in  place.  In  other  words,  the  most  brill- 
iant mantle  is  very  often  wrongly  adjusted.  The  knot  at  the 
bottom  of  an  inverted  mantle  will  appear  dark  with  any  adjust- 
ment, and  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  make  it  white.  The 
only  proper  method  is  to  adjust  the  bunsen  flame  to  the  desired 
point  before  installing,  or  after  removing,  the  mantle.  It  is 
possible  to  so  remove  any  inverted  mantle  except  the  "C.  E-Z". 
This  adjustment  on  an  ordinary  inverted  burner  should  be  made 
as  follows:  When  the  gas  pressure  is  between  2  inches  and 
3.5  inches,  open  air  shutter  wide;  if  higher  than  3.5  inches,  close 
it  the  amount  that  experience  shows  necessary.  Regulate  gas 
adjusting  screw  until  the  inner  green  cone  of  flame  is  sharp, 
strong,  and  of  the  length  specified  in  the  instructions  for  installing 
the  various  types  of  lamp.  Then  install  the  mantle  and  the 
glassware. 


844  APPLIANCE  WORK 

If  the  bunsen  flame  has  been  adjusted  as  explained  above, 
there  will  be  no  necessity  of  making  any  adjustment  after  the 
mantle  has  been  installed. 

After  making  sure  that  pilot  adjusting  screw,  rod  and  tip  are 
clean  and  clear,  regulate  pilot  flame  of  a  lamp  used  indoor  to 
a  length  of  i^-inch  (excepting  "Junior"  light),  and  of  a  lamp 
used  outdoor  to  f-inch  or  slightly  longer. 

MANTLES 

Mantles  are  of  two  types,  the  first,  where  the  mantle  is 
burned  off  in  the  factory,  and  then  is  coated  with  collodion  to 
prevent  damage  in  shipment;  and  the  second,  which  is  shipped 
as  made,  known  as  the  "rag"  type.  The  collodion-coated 
mantle  should  be  removed  from  its  carrier  and  installed  on  the 
light  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  absolutely,  before  burning 
off,  any  contact  with  box,  fingers  or  other  object.  The  slightest 
touch  will  damage  it  and  shorten  its  service.  There  are  certain 
"tricks"  in  removing  mantles  from  their  carriers  which  min- 
imize this  danger,  and  these  should  be  familiar  to  every  workman. 

Before  installing,  adjust  burner  as  explained  under  "Adjust- 
ments." Remove  the  collodion  coated  mantle  from  the  carrier 
in  the  position  corresponding  to  that  after  installation  and  keep 
in  that  position  until  installed.  Hold  an  inverted  mantle  by  one 
of  the  nibs  on  the  ring,  and  an  upright  mantle  by  the  metal  base. 
Rag  mantles  are  not  injured  by  handling  before  burning  off. 

Ignite  the  upright  mantle  at  top,  and  the  inverted  mantle  at 
bottom,  holding  mantle  box  below  latter  to  catch  any  excess 
coating  that  may  drop. 

Gas  should  not  be  turned  on  during  this  process,  and  the  glow 
in  the  mantle  fabric  should  be  allowed  to  disappear  entirely  be- 
fore turning  gas  on.  After  a  rag  mantle  has  been  installed  it 
should  be  allowed  to  burn  for  15  minutes,  to  harden  the  fabric 
where  it  is  tied  to  the  mantle  ring.  This  is  a  very  important 
requirement.  It  is  not  necessary  to  allow  the  collodion  coated 
mantle  to  burn  after  installation,  because  it  has  been  hardened 
during  manufacture;  however,  burning  1  or  2  minutes  will  prove 
beneficial.  > 

UPRIGHT  LIGHT 

The  clearance  between  the  ceiling  and  the  chimney  top  of  the 
burner  should  be  not  less  than  24  inches,  unless  a  mica  canopy  or 
some  other  approved  protection  is  used,  in  which  case  it  may  be 
not  less  than  15  inches. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  845 

Make  installations  as  follows:  Screw  burner  to  by-pass. 
Screw  this  combination  to  fixture.  Place  burner  and  pilot  rod 
in  position.  Put  on  mantle  and  burn  off.  Adjust  pilot  flame. 
Put  on  chimney.  Light  mantle  with  gas  adjustment  open  full. 
Adjust  to  greatest. brilliancy,  avoiding  the  cone  of  flame  that 
may  appear  at  top  of  chimney.  This  cone  is  most  easily  seen  by 
placing  the  hand  between  eyes  and  lamp,  upper  edge  of  hand 
being  on  the  line  between  eye  and  top  of  chimney.  Put  on 
glassware. 

INVERTED  LIGHT 

The  clearance  between  the  ceiling  and  the  globe  ring  of  the 
burner  should  be  at  least  18  inches,  unless  a  metal  shield,  8  inches 
in  diameter,  is  placed  directly  above  the  by-pass,  in  which  case 
the  clearance  may  be  not  less  than  9  inches. 

Screw  burner  to  by-pass  and  place  pilot  rod  in  position. 
Screw  this  combination  to  fixture  nozzle  or  gooseneck.  Open 
air  shutter  full.  Turn  on  gas  and  adjust  to  a  sharp  green  cone 
about  1  j  inches  long.  Adjust  pilot  flame.  Shut  gas  off  at  both 
by-pass  and  fixture  key.  Put  on  mantle.  Turn  on  fixture  key. 
Burn  mantle  off.  Turn  on  by-pass  key  and  light  mantle.  Put 
on  glassware. 

JUNIOR  LIGHT 

Make  installation  as  follows :  Screw  burner  to  by-pass,  insert- 
ing globe  ring  between  the  two  when  the  glassware  requires  it. 
Now  proceed  as  explained  under  "Upright  Light."  In  general, 
the  top  of  the  chimney  should  be  not  less  than  f-inch  below  top 
of  globe.  If  secondary  air  supply  is  insufficient,  use  intensifier 
(short  extension  of  chimney). 

C.E-Z  LIGHT 

Make  installation  as  follows :  Screw  burner  to  by-pass.  Screw 
this  combination  to  fixture.  Open  air  shutter  full.  Turn  on  gas 
and  adjust  to  a  sharp  green  cone  about  f  inch  long — never  less. 
Adjust  pilot  flame.  Turn  off  gas  at  fixture  cock.  Take  off 
burner  head  and  screw  on  mantles.  If  the  diameter  of  the  globe 
ring  is  less  than  4£  inches,  which  will  indicate  the  use  of  smaller 
than  standard  glassware,  and  will  cause  consequent  proximity  of 
mantles  to  glass,  slip  the  protecting  gauze  into  place.  Replace 
burner  head.  Burn  off  mantles  without  turning  on  gas,  and  wait 
until  the  glow  in  the  mantle  fabric  has  entirely  disappeared.  Put 
on  glassware,  turn  gas  on  full,  and  instruct  consumer  to  allow 


846  APPLIANCE   WORK 

light  to  burn  for  15  minutes  to  harden  mantles.     This  is  very 
important. 

DOMES 

The  height  of  a  dome  above  a  dining-room  table  should  be  such 
that  an  imaginary  line  between  the  lower  edge  of  the  dome  shade 
and  the  eye  of  a  person  seated  at  the  table  will  pass  just  below  the 
mantle  of  the  lamp.  If  the  table  is  rectangular  or  oblong,  the 
person  should  be  assumed  to  be  sitting  at  the  middle  of  the  long 
side.  If  the  dome  is  not  used  to  light  a  table  in  the  dining-room, 
the  height  may  be  decided  on  in  accordance  with  the  rules  for  the 
height  of  fixtures. 

The  dome  should  be  installed  as  follows:  If  necessary,  the 
pipe  drop  to  which  the  stem  is  to  be  hung  should  be  shortened  to 
permit  the  canopy  to  rest  snugly  against  the  ceiling.  Then  the 
stem  should  be  screwed  to  the  outlet  and  made  plumb,  the  spider 
fastened  to  dome,  and  the  whole  screwed  on  the  stem.  Then  the 
lamp  should  be  installed. 

FIXTURES 

In  residences,  the  following  clearances  between  floor  and 
lowest  part  of  fixture — or  lamp,  if  this  projects  below  fixture — 
are  desirable. 

Over  Table         Not  Over  Table 

Hallway 7'  0" 

Rooms 5'  10"  6'  3" 

In  stores  or  factories,  the  fixtures  used  for  general  illumina- 
tion, and  hung  above  a  passageway,  should  afford  a  clearance  of 
not  less  than  6  feet  6  inches,  and  preferably  a  clearance  of  7  feet 
for  upright  and  7  feet  6  inches  for  inverted  lamps. 

The  height  of  lamps  hung  to  light  special  operations,  machines, 
etc.,  should  be  determined  by  the  conditions  governing  the 
individual  case. 

The  least  permissible  clearance  between  the  ceiling  and  the  top 
of  an  open-flame  burner  is  24  inches,  unless  a  smoke  bell  or  other 
protecting  shield  is  used,  in  which  case  the  minimum  distance  is 
18  inches. 

The  position  of  a  lamp  intended  to  light  the  operation  of  a 
cooking  appliance  should  be  to  one  side  of  the  appliance,  so  that 
the  products  of  combustion  and  the  vapor  from  cooking  will  not 
interfere  with  the  cleanliness  and  efficiency  of  the  lamp. 

Fixtures  and  brackets  should  be  handled  with  care  to  avoid 
tarnishing,  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  iron  pipe  or  cast 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


847 


Figure  265. — Antivibrators,  page  848. 


848  APPLIANCE  WORK 

brass,  should  not  be  touched  with  the  bare  hands,  clean  gloves 
or  cloths  being  used  during  the  operations  of  installing. 

ANTIVIBRATORS 

When  a  lamp  will  be  subjected  to  the  vibration  caused  perhaps 
by  machinery  er  by  moving  objects  on  the  floor  above,  an 
antivibrator,  two  types  of  which  are  shown  in  Figure  265,  should 
be  installed  above  the  lamp. 

INDOOR  ARC  LAMPS 

Most  of  the  details  to  be  observed  when  installing  indoor  arc 
lamps  have  already  been  given  in  the  preceding  general  instruc- 
tions. The  ceiling  fire  hazard  sometimes  entails  the  use  of  an 
8-inch  baffle  plate  or  a  16-inch  ceiling  shield  to  deflect  the  hot 
products  of  combustion.  For  an  inverted  arc,  the  ceiling  shield 
should  be  used  in  preference  to  the  baffle  plate,  and  it  always 
should  be  used  when  the  distance  between  the  top  of  the  stack 
and  the  ceiling  is  less  than  6  feet.  A  space  of  at  least  4  inches 
should  be  left  between  the  shield  and  ceiling.  The  best  position 
for  the  shield  is  from  12  to  18  inches  above  the  top  of  the  stack. 

The  following  heights  are  recommended,  the  figures  shown 
being  the  distance  between  floor  and  lowest  part  of  lamp. 

Type  Height 

Upright 8'  0"     to     9'  0" 

Inverted,  3-burner 8'  0"      "      9'  0" 

4-  8'  6"      "      9'  6" 

5-  9'  0"      "    12'  0" 

After  the  lamp  has  been  hung  on  the  connections,  the  gas 
should  be  turned  on  and  the  piping  and  appliance  carefully 
examined  for  any  leak.  After  this  has  been  found  satisfactory, 
or  made  so,  the  gas  flow  should  be  adjusted  (for  inverted  lamps 
with  mantles  of  ordinary  size)  to  a  bunsen  flame  with  a  sharp 
green  cone  about  1^  inches  long.  Then  the  pilot  flame  should 
be  adjusted,  the  mantles  installed  and  burned  off,  the  globe 
placed,  and  the  consumer  instructed  in  the  proper  methods  of 
operation. 

OUTDOOR  ARC  LAMPS 

Figure  266  shows  the  most  simple  type  of  outdoor  arc  con- 
nection. The  supply  is  obtained  from  an  inside  outlet,  perhaps 
in  the  front  room  or  bulk  window,  and  the  piping  is  extended 
through  the  outside  wall ;  in  this  case,  through  the  window  frame. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


849 


The  outdoor  piping  is  enlarged  to  prevent  freezing;  this  enlarge- 
ment being  made,  whenever  possible,  inside  the  wall.  The  ell 
placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  vertical  run,  just  above  the  lamp, 
is  tapped  on  its  top  and  a  |-inch  brass  plug  inserted.  If  frost 


Figure  266 — Outdoor  Arc  Lamp  Connection, 
page  848. 

accumulates  at  that  point,  alcohol  may  be  injected  and  the 
liquid  drained  off  through  the  set  screw  of  the  drip,  which  is 
always  placed  just  above  the  lamp.  The  details  of  this  drip 
are  shown  in  Figure  267. 

Figure  268  shows  the  type  of  connection  used  when  the  point 
of  exit  of  the  pipe  through  the  building  wall  is  not  sufficiently 


850 


APPLIANCE   WORK 


RIVET  TO  BE 
SWEATED  IN 


-3/»€>  HOLES 
STAGGERED 


PIPE 


SPE1CIAL, 
SOCKET 


BRASS 
5ET  SCREW 


SPECIAL    SPUD 


OUTDOOR  ARC  LAMP  DPI  P 

Figure  267— Outdoor  Arc  Lamp  Drip,  page  849. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE 


851 


high  to  give  head  room  to  the  lamp  if  installed  as  in  Figure  266. 
In  this  case  45°  ells  are  used  as  shown,  the  lower  one  being 
tapped  and  plugged. 

The  method  of  ignition  ordinarily  used  with  an  outdoor  arc 
lamp  is  the  pilot  flame,  the  main  cock  being  operated  by  pull 
chains.  This  method  sometimes  is  inconvenient  to  the  con- 


Figure  268. — Outdoor  Arc  Lamp  Connection, 
page  849. 

sumer,  especially  in  inclement  weather;  also,  there  exists  the 
chance  that  the  lamp  may  be  lighted  or  extinguished  by  unauth- 
orized or  mischievous  persons.  To  overcome  these  difficulties, 
the  connections  are  installed  as  shown  in  Figure  269.  Here  the 


852 


APPLIANCE  WORK 


main  supply  cock  is  placed  at  some  convenient  point  inside  the 
building,  and  the  pilot  flame  is  supplied  through  a  separate  line, 
taken  from  a  branch  outlet  on  the  meter  side  of  the  main  cock. 
This  pilot  line  is  of  finch  pipe  and  is  installed  for  some  distance 
within  the  main  l|-inch  feed  pipe,  to  make  the  installation  more 
sightly.  Figure  269  shows  also  the  method  used  to  enable  the 
automatic  extinguishing  of  the  lamp  at  some  predetermined 
time.  This  is  used  principally  in  connection  with  show-window 
lighting  when  the  store  is  closed,  but  where  it  is  desired  that  the 
lamp  will  burn  until  the  time  when  the  number  of  evening 
passers-by  is  not  worth  attracting.  To  do  this,  the  main  supply 


OUTDOOR  ARC  LIGHT   CONNECTIONS 
WITH  CLOCK    ATTACHMENT 

i'plL.OT  TUBE  n-^3~—  a"&< 

PILOT  TUBEX          m A"  BRASS  PI 


Figure  269.— Outdoor  Arc  Lamp  Connection — Inside  Supply  Cock, 
page  851. 

cock  is  equipped  with  a  lever  handle,  so  weighted  that  it  will 
close  if  released.  This  handle  is  connected  to  the  "alarm  wind " 
stem  of  an  ordinary  alarm  clock,  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the 
alarm  starts  and  the  stem  revolves,  the  weight  is  released  and  the 
lamp  extinguished. 

The  outdoor  piping  shown  in  Figures  266  and  268  is  l|-inch, 
because  this  size  presents  the  best  appearance  with  lamps  con- 
taining three  or  more  mantles  of  the  ordinary  type.  There  are 
other  lamps  with  fewer  or  with  smaller  mantles,  for  which 
smaller  piping  is  more  suitable.  In  such  cases  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  connection  should  be  applied,  but  the  piping  may  be 
1-inch  or  sometimes  f-inch. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  853 

The  following  principles  apply  generally  to  the  installation  of 
all  outdoor  lamps. 

The  height  of  an  outdoor  lamp  should  be  not  less 
than  8  feet. 

The  outdoor  piping  should  not  be  graded  toward  an 
indoor  fixture  without  providing  a  drip  to  prevent 
condensation  running  into  the  fixture.  When  all  out- 
door piping  cannot  be  drained  into  the  drip  above  the 
lamp,  and  if  it  is  not  desirable  to  install  a  sufficiently 
large  drip  inside,  an  additional  one  may  be  placed 
in  the  line  just  outside  the  wall.  However,  an  inside 
drip  is  desirable  under  all  conditions. 

If  the  reducing  fitting  is  outside  of  the  last  point  of 
support  of  the  horizontal  line,  or  if  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance between  the  lamp  and  this  last  point  of  support 
is  greater  than  three  "feet,  the  pipe  braces  should  be 
used,  otherwise  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary. 
These  braces  should  be  fastened  to  the  building, 
and  not  to  any  structure  subjected  to  vibration,  such 
as  an  awning  frame. 

The  connections  should  be  given  a  priming  coat  of 
red  lead,  and  a  finishing  coat  of  some  dark  color,  pref- 
erably black. 

Lamps  hung  at  a  great  height  should  be  equipped 
with  rings,  at  least  two  inches  in  diameter,  on  the  end 
of  the  pull  chains,  for  ease  of  engagement  with  the 
hook  of  the  lighting  stick. 

The  most  common  fire  hazard  is  that  imposed  by 
movable  canvas  awnings.     In  this  case  a  distance  of 
20  inches  between  top  of  stack  of  lamp  and  canvas  is 
advisable.     If  less,  a  shield  should  be  used. 
After  the  lamp  has  been  hung  on  the  connections,  the  gas 
should  be  turned  on  and  the  piping  and  appliance  carefully 
examined  for  any  leak.     After  this  has  been  found  satisfactory, 
or  made  so,  the  gas  flow  should  be  adjusted  (for  inverted  lamps 
with  mantles  of  ordinary  size)  to  a  bunsen  flame  with  a  sharp 
green  cone  about  1 1  inches  long.     Then  the  pilot  flame  should  be 
adjusted,  the  mantles  installed  and  burned  off,  the  globe  placed, 
and  the  consumer  instructed  in  the  proper  methods  of  operation. 
Each  of  the  several  types  of  lamp  posts  specially  designed  for 
the  use  of  outdoor  gas  arc  lamps  requires  that  the  lamps  be 


854  APPLIANCE  WORK 

attached  to  the  post  in  accordance  with  the  design.     The  post 
should  be  installed  as  explained  in  Chapter  XLIII. 

INSPECTION 

After  the  installation  has  been  completed,  the  workman 
should  carefully  inspect  each  section  of  the  installation  and 
should  correct  any  faults  found. 

INSTRUCTION 

After  everything  is  satisfactory,  the  workman  should  request 
the  consumer  to  examine  the  installation  to  be  sure  it  is  in 
accordance  with  his  wishes,  and  that  the  appliances,  especially 
the  glassware  and  mantles,  are  in  good  condition.  Then  the 
consumer  should  be  instructed  in  the  details  of  operation. 
According  to  the  type  of  burner  or  lamp,  some  or  all  of  the 
following  principles  will  apply: 

The  by-pass  chains  should  be  pulled  all  the  way 
down. 

The  lamp  should  never  be  turned  low. 
If  the  pilot  goes  out,  it  should  not  be  relighted 
through  holes  in  glassware,  but  always  from  above. 

Consumer  should  understand  how  to  adjust  pilot 
flame. 

The  glassware  should  be  kept  clean,  and  the  con- 
sumer should  understand  how  to  remove  it  from  lamp 
and  replace  it. 

If  lamp  cock  is  equipped  with  an  indicator  to  show 
its  position,  the  consumer  should  understand  its  use. 

OTHER  WORK 

The  making  of  records  and  the  cleaning  up  of  dirt  should  be 
made  by  the  workman  in  the  same  manner  as  explained  in 
Chapter  LXIII. 

SUBINSPECTION 

Since  the  fitter  who  makes  the  installation  of  any  illuminating 
appliance  must  be  competent  to  make  the  final  adjustment,  it 
seldom  is  necessary  to  make  a  subinspection  visit  for  such  adjust- 
ment, unless  for  some  reason  it  is  thought  wise  to  check  up 
within  a  day  or  so  the  adjustment  of  a  type  of  lamp  which  some- 
times gives  trouble  in  the  beginning,  or  when,  for  any  other 
reason,  perhaps  in  the  case  of  a  large  installation,  or  a  new  user  of 
gas  il  ummation,  or  both,  it  is  likely  that  such  a  visit  will  serve  a 
useful  purpose. 


CONNECTION  PRACTICE  855 

Sufficient  inspections  of  every  man's  work  are  advisable,  to 
insure  a  high  standard  in  the  quality  of  work  and  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  consumer.  The  seemingly  minor  features  involved 
in  an  illuminating  appliance  installation  are  relatively  much 
more  effective  in  creating  a  good  or  bad  impression  on  the 
consumer  than  are  those  involved  with  a  fuel  appliance. 


CHAPTER  LXXV 

MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 

METHODS  EMPLOYED 

It  is  apparent  irom  the  two  preceding  chapters  how  much 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  design  and  installation  of  illumi- 
nating appliances.  The  result  desired  is  furnishing  to  the  user 
the  appliance  best  adapted  to  his  needs  and  so  installed  as  to 
give  the  maximum  of  efficiency  with  the  minimum  of  main- 
tenance care.  Chapter  LXI  discussed,  in  a  general  way, 
"request"  and  "free"  maintenance  as  applied  to  both  fuel  and 
illuminating  appliances.  In  this  chapter  the  reference  is  to 
illuminating  appliances  exclusively. 

The  average  gas  consumer  has  not  sufficient  inclination  and, 
even  if  supplied  with  illustrated  instruction  charts  containing 
clear  and  detailed  directions,  does  not  possess  the  knowledge  to 
give  proper  attention  to  his  lights,  especially  if  they  are  of  the 
multi-mantle  type.  Cleaning  glassware  may  be  considered  as 
the  extent  of  his  care.  Therefore,  to  retain  for  gas  anything  like 
its  proper  proportion  of  the  lighting  field,  the  gas  company  must 
furnish  a  maintenance  service.  The  simplest  and  cheapest 
method  is  to  make  visits  only  in  response  to  the  consumer's 
request  for  attention.  As  the  reduced  efficiency  of  a  light  is 
apparent  to  the  eye,  it  might  be  supposed  that  lighting  troubles 
would  be  reported  more  promptly  than  defects  in  fuel  appliances. 
This  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  At  least  with  such  "request" 
maintenance  there  are  innumerable  cases  of  unsatisfactory  lights 
of  which  no  complaints  are  ever  made,  even  though  there  would 
be  no  charge  for  such  attention.  One  explanation  of  this 
unfortunate  failure  of  the  consumer  to  notify  the  company  of 
bad  lighting  conditions  has  been  given  in  the  second  paragraph 
of  Chapter  LIII. 

A  second  method  is  a  combination  of  "request"  and  "periodic" 
maintenance,  the  latter  at  ten-day  intervals,  the  consumer 
paying  a  fixed  monthly  amount  for  the  service.  These  con- 

(856) 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE  857 

sumers  are  usually  users  of  gas  in  stores  and  factories.  A  third 
method  involves  free  periodic  maintenance  by  visits  three  or  four 
times  yearly  to  all  consumers  not  willing  to  pay  for  the  more 
frequent  service  given  under  the  second  method.  Although  a 
considerable  revenue  is  made  from  material  sold  to  the  consumer, 
this  all-embracing  maintenance  service  is  apt  to  involve  a  large 
expense.  It  does,  however,  result  in  greatly  increased  lighting 
efficiency  and  must  be  credited  with  an  unknown  but  probably 
large  increase  in  gas  consumption  by  the  retention  of  gas  lighting 
in  places  wrhere,  in  the  absence  of  the  maintenance  service, 
another  illuminant  would  be  substituted. 

A  maintenance  man,  besides  having  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
all  lighting  units,  should  be  experienced  in  the  finding  and  rem- 
edying of  all  troubles  incident  to  services,  meters  and  piping. 

ADJUSTMENT  AND  REPAIRS 

Even  with  satisfactory  conditions  of  gas  supply  and  a  lamp 
properly  adjusted  on  installation,  the  gradual  changes  that  often 
alter  these  original  conditions  very  considerably  are :  Changes  in 
the  gas  pressure  due  to  piping,  fixtures  or  cocks  becoming 
obstructed ;  deposits  of  dust  or  other  particles  within  the  lamp 
mechanism  and  on  the  glassware ;  unavoidable  wear  and  deterio- 
ration of  the  lamp  parts.  In  general,  while  a  temporary  improve- 
ment in  a  condition  resulting  from  any  or  all  of  these  causes  may 
often  be  effected  by  merely  adjusting  the  gas  and  air  mixture, 
yet  it  is  the  duty  of  the  maintenance  man  to  remove  the  first 
cause  of  the  trouble,  and  this  cause  may  be  deep  seated  and 
remote  from  the  lamp  itself. 

Deposits  of  carbon  on  mantles,  burners,  and  glassware  is  one 
of  the  most  common  causes  of  complaint,  because  they  greatly 
diminish  the  amount  of  light  and  present  a  very  unsightly 
appearance.  The  one  cause  at  the  bottom  of  every  carbon 
trouble  is  the  fact  that  the  mixture  at  the  burner  tip  contains  too 
much  gas  or  too  little  air.  This  condition  may  result,  first, 
from  an  improper  adjustment  of  the  gas  and  air  regulators; 
second,  from  gas  pressure  insufficient  to  draw  the  necessary  air 
into  the  mixing  tube;  and  third,  from  various  local  conditions 
of  dirt  and  wear  in  the  lamp  mechanism. 

The  remedy  for  improper  adjustment  is  easy  when  it  concerns 
only  a  regulation  of  the  air  or  gas,  and  this  should  be  done  as 
explained  when  discussing  installation.  It  often  is  possible  by 
a  change  in  adjustment  to  remove  a  carbon  deposit  from  a 


858  APPLIANCE  WORK 

mantle,  but  this  remedy  is  never  permanent  when  the  trouble  is 
due  either  to  the  second  or  third  condition  previously  mentioned, 
and  should  not  be  applied  until  the  absence  of  these  conditions 
has  been  proved . 

If  necessary  to  remove  such  a  deposit,  proceed  as  follows: 
Close  the  gas  adjusting  screw  until  the  mantle  becomes  dim, 
open  air  shutter  wide,  and  allow  mantle  to  burn  until  the  carbon 
has  disappeared.  Never  try  to  burn  off  carbon  by  partly  turn- 
ing off  fixture  key.  This  will  reduce  pressure  at  lamp  orifice  and 
will  increase  the  carbon. 

The  second  condition — lack  of  pressure — is  the  one  which 
affects  all  lamps  alike.  If  a  carbon  deposit  appears  at  several 
points  in  the  building,  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  low  pressure 
is  the  cause.  When  suspicion  is  thus  directed  to  the  system  of 
supply,  investigation  should  be  made  for  stoppage  in  piping,  for 
wrongly  adjusted  house  governor,  for  meter  defective  or  too 
small,  and  for  obstructed  service.  The  details  of  such  investi- 
gations are  covered  in  Chapter  LVII.  If  this  investigation  does 
not  prove  conclusively  that  the  pressure  is  poor,  a  careful  meas- 
urement of  pressure  should  be  made  with  all  the  appliances  in  use. 
The  existence  of  less  than  2  inches  water  column  at  any  point  is 
proof  that  low  pressure  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  The  relation 
of  the  pressure  measurements  will  indicate  the  location  of  the 
cause,  and  the  remedy  should  be  applied  as  previously  explained. 

When  the  carbon  deposit  is  confined  to  one  lamp  only,  or  if  to 
several  lamps  widely  separated,  the  cause  usually  will  be  found 
to  be  local.  When  due  to  dirt  or  dust  in  the  lamp  mechanism,' 
it  may  be  necessary  to  take  the  lamp  apart  to  remove  it,  or 
perhaps  only  to  clear  out  the  orifice  and  gauzes  with  an  air 
blower,  which  is  a  specially  designed  hand  bulb  with  a  long  thin 
nozzle.  When  the  cause  is  worn  or  burned  out  lamp  parts,  they 
should  be  removed.  When  the  cause  is  the  consumer  turning 
light  low,  or  of  attempting  to  adjust  the  lamp  himself,  he  should 
be  warned  against  this  practice. 

Other  local  causes  of,  and  remedies  for,  the  "carboning"  of 
mantles  are  as  follows,  listed  under  the  various  types  of  lamp  to 
which  they  are  peculiar. 

UPRIGHT  LIGHT 

1.     Cause:       Dust  or  dirt  in  bunsen  tube  and  on  gauze. 
Remedy:   Clean  out. 


MAINTENANCE  ROUTINE 


859 


2.  Cause:      Lack  of  or  too  small  holes  in  chimney. 
Remedy:   Remove  deck  plate  if  any.    In  the  "Junior" 

light  ventilate  globe  ring  or  use  intensifier 
(extension  of  chimney). 

3.  Cause:      Stoppage  in  fixture  or  by-pass  cock. 
Remedy:   Remove  stoppage. 

INVERTED  LIGHT 

1.  Cause:      Wrong  adjustment. 

Remedy:    Re-adjust,  first  removing  mantle. 

2.  Cause:      Air  shutter  too  far  closed. 

Remedy:  Open  shutter  full  and  if  lamp  roars,  increase  size 
of  distributor. 

3.  Cause:  Flash-back,  burning  thermostat  fingers  together. 
Remedy:  Renew  thermostat. 

4.  Cause:  Distributor  misplaced. 
Remedy:  Replace  distributor. 

5.  Cause:  Dust   in   mixing  chamber,   on   distributor   and 

thermostat. 

Remedy:  Clean  out. 

6.  Cause:  Bunsen  base  defective. 
Remedy:  Renew  base. 

7.  Cause:  Dust  on  gauze  in  top  of  bunsen  base. 
Remedy:  Renew  gauze. 

8.  Cause:  Stoppage  in  by-pass  or  fixture  key  or  swing  joints, 

due  to  grease;  or  at  either  end  of  fixture,  due 
to  jointing  material. 
Remedy:    Remove  stoppage. 

ARC  LAMP 

1.  See  No.  1  under  "Inverted  Light." 

2.  Cause:       Flash-back,  coating  gauzes  with  carbon, 

and  gauzes  dirty  from  other  causes. 
Remedy:   Clean  gauzes. 

3.  Cause:      Adjusting  screw   bent, — gas  shot   toward 

side  of  raceway. 
Remedy:   Renew  screw. 

4.  Cause:      Orifice    reamed    or    stretched    by    closing 

adjusting  screw  with  unnecessary  force. 
Remedy:   Renew  orifice. 

The  most  common  cause  of  pilot  outages  is  a  stoppage  at  the 
adjusting  screw.     This  stoppage  may  be  due  to  moisture  or  scale, 


860  APPLIANCE  WORK 

or  to  invisible  particles  which  are  deposited  by  the  gas.  The 
workman  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  he 
never  will  be  able  to  see  the  cause  of  the  stoppage,  and  should 
make  sure  that  all  gasways  through  which  gas  passes  on  its  way 
to  the  pilot  tip,  are  clean,  clear,  and  dry.  The  pilot  tip  and 
rod  should  be  in  good  condition.  He  should  make  sure  that  no 
cock  grease  or  jointing  material  is,  or  can  be,  deposited  on  the 
adjusting  screw  or  its  seat,  and  should  clean  and  dry  these  parts 
thoroughly.  Pilot  outages  may  easily  be  caused  by  pressure 
fluctuations  due  to  obstructions  in  service,  meter,  or  supply 
piping. 

The  troubles  previously  mentioned  include  all  those  most  fre- 
quently encountered  in  illuminating  appliance  maintenance. 
Local  troubles  may  be  due  to  some  feature  in  lamp  design  which 
is  peculiar  to  that  make  of  lamp  and  which  therefore  is  not 
treated  here.  The  proper  method  of  installing  mantles  has  been 
touched  on  in  Chapter  LXXIV,  as  have  also  the  general  details 
of  how  to  secure  proper  burner  adjustment.  Replacement  of 
glassware  should  be  made  with  the  care  indicated  when  dis- 
cussing its  installation. 


PART  X 

THE  STOREROOM 

Under  this  heading  will  be  described  the  organization  and 
operation  of  a  storeroom.  A  stock  of  materials  is  essential  to  the 
work  of  a  distribution  department  and  such  a  stock  involves 
many  details  of  accounting  and  of  physical  care.  These  details 
are  fully  brought  out  in  the  following  pages,  the  aim  of  which 
has  been  to  show  forth  the  fundamental  principles  of  storeroom 
operation  and  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  proper  organiza- 
tion in  such  a  way  that  each  reader  could  apply  the  information 
to  his  own  particular  situation. 


SECTION  I 

ORGANIZATION 


CHAPTER  LXXVI 

ACCOUNTS 
"STOREROOM"  ACCOUNT 

There  are  probably  some  gas  engineers,  and  also  accountants, 
who  do  not  believe  that  the  practice  of  charging  material,  when 
bought,  to  "Storeroom"  and  when  used,  to  the  proper  account, 
is  worth  the  bookkeeping  involved.  They  charge  their  cast  iron 
as  bought  to,  say,  "main  extension,"  crediting  to  this  account 
and  charging  to  an  operating  account  what  little  cast-iron  mate- 
rial may  be  used  on  repair  work.  Their  pipe  and  other  material 
for  service  work  are  treated  the  same  way,  being  all  charged  to 
"new  services,"  and  a  credit  given  for  material  used  on  renewing 
existing  services.  The  material  for  inside  work  is  all  charged  to, 
say,  "distribution  supplies  "  accoun't.  The  above  is  not  intended 
as  an  exact  description  of  such  a  system,  but  merely  as  a  general 
outline  of  its  features. 

As  a  result  of  this  method,  what  is  saved  as  compared  with  the 
maintenance  of  a  "Storeroom"  account?  None  of  the  expenses 
incidental  to  the  physical  care  of  the  material,  or  to  the  record  of 
the  amount  on  hand,  but  only  the  relatively  insignificant  clerical 
labor  of  charging  up  against  various  accounts  the  material  used. 
It  is  true  that  the  sheets  containing  the  information  for  charg- 
ing out  the  material  must  be  made  out  by  the  employees  using 
the  material,  or  inspecting  the  finished  work,  but  experience  has 
shown  that  the  amount  of  other  work  accomplished  is  not  ap- 
preciably lessened  thereby. 

On  the  other  hand,  what  is  lost  by  not  keeping  a  "Storeroom  " 
account?  First,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  material  cost  of  the 
various  classes  of  work  done.  When  material  is  charged  out  as 

(863) 


864  THE  STOREROOM 

bought,  the  only  way  to  obtain  some  idea  of  the  material  cost  of 
any  particular  job,  such  as  setting  a  meter,  or  connecting  a  gas 
appliance,  is  to  keep  a  record  of  the  material  actually  used  on 
several  hundred  jobs,  and  get  therefrom  an  average  cost.  By 
repeating  this  process  at  intervals,  a  figure  will  be  obtained  for 
each  class  of  work,  which,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  jobs,  will 
give  the  total  material  cost  for  this  work  for  the  period  covered 
by  the  jobs  used  as  a  multiplier.  Again,  there  are  classes  of 
work,  such  as  main  and  service  laying,  where  the  material  used 
follows  as  a  matter  of  course  from  the  length  of  main  or  the 
length  and  number  of  services.  Right  here,  however,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  expense  of  charging  out  service  or  main  material  is 
much  less  than  for  a  corresponding  value  of  material  used  on 
fitting  jobs,  so  that  while  the  need  of  a  "Storeroom"  account  to 
distribute  correctly  material  costs  is  least  in  the  case  of  main  and 
service  work,  the  expense  entailed  by  charging  out  this  material 
is  also  least. 

From  what  has  just  been  said,  it  follows  that  if  the  "Storeroom" 
account  only  enabled  the  correct  charging  of  material,  this 
information  might  be  sufficiently  well  obtained  by  a  cheaper 
method.  A  "Storeroom"  account  has,  however,  a  second  and 
more  valuable  advantage  in  that  it  shows  on  the  books  at  all 
times  the  amount  of  money  invested  in  unused  material.  Any 
undue  accumulation  of  material  swells  the  storeroom  figure,  and 
this  accumulation  cannot  progress  far,  unless  there  is  gross 
neglect  on  the  part  of  the  management,  without  being  noticed 
and  an  explanation  demanded.  The  book  value  of  storeroom 
stock  replaces  for  the  manager  of  a  large  company,  the  intimate 
acquaintance  of  his  stock  possessed  by  the  superintendent  of  the 
small  company,  who  is  in  and  out  of  his  storeroom  and  storeyard 
every  day.  The  larger  the  company,  the  harder  it  is  for  the 
manager,  or  superintendent,  to  see  all  his  stock,  the  easier  undue 
accumulation  takes  place,  and  the  greater  the  necessity  for  the 
"Storeroom"  account.  The  use  of  the  latter  as  a  regulator  of 
material  will  now  be  discussed. 

Let  us  consider,  as  typical  of  a  large  company,  that  there  is  a 
general  manager,  an  engineer  of  distribution,  a  superintendent  of 
stores,  a"d  several  district  superintendents  with  their  store- 
keepers. _  The  general  manager  should,  from  the  best  informa- 
tion at  his  command,  preferably  by  asking  the  opinion  of  subordi- 
nate officials,  determine  upon  a  figure  beyond  which  the  stock 
must  not  be  allowed  to  go  until  the  matter  is  brought  to  his 


ACCOUNTS  •  865 

attention  with  a  reason  for  the  increase  and  his  consent  obtained. 
This  figure  will  naturally  increase  with  the  growth  of  the  com- 
pany, and,  therefore,  should  be  expressed  in  terms  of  that  growth. 
A  very  simple,  and,  at  the  same  time,  quite  accurate  way  is  to 
limit  the  stock  to  a  definite  amount  per  consumer  supplied,  or, 
what  is  generally  the  same  thing,  per  meter  in  service.  Possibly 
in  a  year  when  there  is  a  great  amount  of  new  construction,  or 
in  a  company  which  does  a  large  and  varying  business  in  piping 
houses  and  selling  fixtures  and  incandescent  burner  supplies,  it 
may  be  found  advisable  to  consider  certain  classes  of  material, 
the  required  stocks  of  which  depend  upon  the  sales  being  made, 
in  terms  of  these  sales,  but  these  will  be  exceptional  cases.  Also, 
as  it  is  usually  necessary  to  accumulate  material  for  seasonable 
work,  the  figure  settled  on  by  the  general  manager  should  refer 
to  the  stock  as  carried  at  the  beginning  and  ending  of  each 
season,  and  more  or  less  discretion  should  be  allowed  the  store- 
keeper, or  whoever  is  responsible  for  keeping  up  stock,  as  to  the 
amount  of  the  accumulation,  it  being  clearly  understood,  how- 
ever, that  an  explanation  must  be  forthcoming  if  any  errors  in 
judgment  result  in  an  excess  stock  at  the  year  end. 

What  the  figure  should  be  for  each  plant,  will  be  settled  by 
local  conditions,  and  be  greatly  affected  by  the  nearness  to 
sources  of  supply  and  promptness  of  freight  delivery,  and  by  the 
character  of  the  curve  representing  the  monthly  requirements  of 
material  throughout  the  year.  There  will  probably  be  reasons 
to  change  it  from  time  to  time,  but  once  settled,  it  saves  the 
manager  from  the  time-wasting  practice  of -scrutinizing  each 
requisition  for  material,  and  by  thus  removing  one  source  of 
frequent  delay  in  the  prompt  placing  of  orders,  has  a  tendency 
to  decrease  the  amount  of  stock  necessary. 

The  engineer  of  distribution,  if  he  has  the  right  kind  of  a 
superintendent  of  stores,  will  not  be  justified  in  seeing  every 
order  for  material,  but  should  have  personal  knowledge  of  the 
large  orders  for  such  material,  the  demand  for  which  will  depend 
upon  new  construction,  such  as  cast-iron  pipe  and  specials  and 
steel  pipe,  or  be  affected  by  impending  changes  in  the  policy  of 
the  company,  such  as  brass  cocks  for  service  or  stove  lines. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  superintendent  of  stores  to 
prevent  overstocking  and  at  the  same  time  run  small  risk  of 
running  out,  will  be  described  when  telling  of  the  operation  of 
the  storeroom. 


866  THE  STOREROOM 

A  system  as  above  outlined  renders  entirely  unnecessary  a 
useless  and  time-consuming,  though  often  perfunctory,  initialling 
of  material  requisitions  by  a  lot  of  officials,  and  yet  it  absolutely 
limits  the  accumulation  of  material.  Such  a  system,  coupled 
with  proper  rewards  for  those  men  who  show  their  ability  to 
furnish  prompt  service  to  the  customer  and  yet  maintain  a  low 
material  stock,  will  produce  results  obtainable  in  no  other  way. 

"EXPENSE  STOREROOM"  ACCOUNT 

When  no  "Storeroom"  account  is  maintained,  the  cost  of 
caring  for  and  issuing  materials  must  be  classified  as  well  as  may 
be,  presumably  to  the  same  accounts  and  in  the  same  proportions 
as  is  the  material  itself.  When,  however,  there  is  a  "Storeroom  " 
account,  as  there  should  be  except  in  the  smaller  situations,  the 
opening  of  "  Expense  Storeroom  "  enables  a  very  accurate  appor- 
tionment of  the  cost  of  handling  material. 

To  this  account  should  be  charged  every  expense  not  directly 
caused  by  specific  material,  such  as  rent,  office  supplies,  inven- 
torying, and  handling  and  hauling  mixed  loads.  The  expense  of 
handling  large  shipments  of  one  article  should  be  charged  to 
"Storeroom,"  being  added  to  the  price  of  the  article,  as  also 
rent,  tools,  labor,  material,  etc.,  incidental  to  making  pipe 
coating,  coating  pipe,  assembling  fixtures,  etc. 

If  the  storeroom  is  often  called  upon  to  do  special  work  and 
to  care  for  material  riot  carried  in  "Storeroom"  account,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  expense  of  handling,  together  with  the  amount 
of  necessary  supervision  and  space  occupied,  should  be  charged 
to  the  proper  accounts  and  not  to  "Expense  Storeroom."  The 
volume  of  these  special  duties  may  be  great  in  a  large  city, 
especially  where  the  stores  division  cares  for  a  carpenter  shop, 
an  appliance  laboratory,  the  storage  of  old  records,  the  transfer 
of  miscellaneous  items  from  one  office  to  another,  the  sale  of 
material  to  other  plants  and  the  issuing  of  orders  and  approving 
bills  for  items  not  charged  to  "Storeroom."  These  should  be  as 
few  as  possible,  being  limited  to  automobiles,  motor  cycles,  large 
machinery  and  all  large  and  expensive  material  not  actually 
handled  by  the  storeroom  force. 

If  in  any  large  situation  care  is  not  taken,  as  indicated  above, 
to  separate  correctly  the  costs  that  belong  to  specific  material 
from  those  that  apply  equally  to  all  classes  of  material  and, 
therefore,  are  properly  chargeable  to  "Expense  Storeroom,"  the 
tendency  will  be  to  overload  the  latter  account,  show  an  erro- 


ACCOUNTS  867 

neous  cost  of  handling  material  and  unjustly  penalize  the 
accounts  using  this  material. 

In  the  years  prior  to  the  present  new  business  activities  of  gas 
companies,  the  accurate  segregation  of  items  properly  chargeable 
to  "Expense  Storeroom"  from  other  expenses,  as  above  de- 
scribed, was  all  that  was  requisite,  even  in  the  largest  situations, 
to  obtain  the  correct  cost  of  handling  material.  In  those  days 
the  materials  in  a  distribution  department  storeroom  were  fairly 
homogenous;  therefore,  each  dollar's  worth  of  one  class  cost  as 
much  as  a  dollar's  worth  of  another  class,  and  it  was  entirely 
proper  to  apportion  each  month  the  "Expense  Storeroom" 
charges  against  the  accounts  using  "Storeroom"  material  in  the 
direct  ratio  of  such  use.  As  soon,  however,  as  a  company  enters 
the  merchandising  field,  and  places  in  stock  and  sells  to  its  con- 
sumers many  varieties  of  fuel  and  illuminating  appliances, 
the  storeroom  situation  is  radically  changed.  "Storeroom" 
now  includes,  besides  the  former  distribution  material  required  to 
carry  out  franchise  obligations,  a  heterogeneous  assortment  of 
what  may  be  termed  new  business  articles,  placed  in  stock  in 
order  that  by  their  sale  not  only  shall  output  be  increased,  but 
also  a  merchandising  profit  result.  This  being  the  case,  the  cost 
of  handling  the  new  business  material  is  essential  for  correct 
profit  or  loss  merchandising  data.  Experience  indicates  that,  as 
compared  with  distribution  material,  the  handling  cost  of  new 
business  articles  is  always  a  greater  per  cent  of  the  issue  value. 
In  the  case  of  illuminating  appliances  and  accessories,  and  of 
especial  fragile  material,  such  as  domes,  fixtures,  mantles  and 
glassware,  there  are  items  of  insurance,  supervision,  indoor 
storage  space,  inspection  upon  receipt  and  issue,  and  careful 
packing,  that  do  not  apply  at  all  to  cast-iron  material,  or  only 
in  a  very  small  degree.  Therefore,  a  continuance  of  former 
methods  of  apportioning  "Expense  Storeroom"  will  result  in  a 
lower  than  true  cost  of  handling  this  merchandising  material, 
and  unduly  increase  the  cost  of  straight  distribution  work,  the 
result  being,  on  the  one  hand,  a  fictitious  merchandising  profit, 
and  on  the  other,  inflated  extension  or  repair  costs. 

A  further  reason  in  a  large  situation  for  a  subdivision  of 
"Expense  Storeroom"  between  various  classes  of  materials,  is 
that  such  subdivision  tends  to  economy  of  operation  by  showing 
clearly  the  amount  of  work  done  each  day  by  the  different 
elements  of  the  storeroom  force.  The  following  subdivision  has 
been  used : 


868  THE  STOREROOM 

Incandescent  material. 

Cocks,  fittings,  steel  pipe,  etc. 

Fuel  appliance  repair  parts. 

Cast-iron  pipe  and  special  castings. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  proper  classification  of  the  daily  labor, 
it  is  very  essential  that  the  order  men  and  helpers  record  the 
various  divisions  of  their  daily  work,  and  at  the  close  of  each  day 
report  to  their  foreman  the  total  time  properly  subdivided. 
Except  in  the  case  of  a  specific  activity,  such  as  a  carpenter  shop, 
the  classification  of  the  executive  and  clerical  force  is  more 
difficult,  but  a  fair  approximation  may  be  made. 

There  will  be  certain  charges  to  "Expense  Storeroom,"  such 
as  office  and  shop  supplies,  rental  of  space  used  for  general  store- 
room purposes,  cleaning,  loading  and  handling  miscellaneous 
lots  of  material,  and  general  supervision,  which  are  in  the  nature 
of  general  expense  charges  and  must  be  pro-rated  between  the 
subdivisions  of  "Expense  Storeroom"  in  the  ratio  of  productive 
labor  charged  against  each  subdivision. 

By  following  the  system  above  outlined,  the  proper  data  will 
be  obtained  each  month  for  charging  out  "Expense  Storeroom" 
against  the  various  issues,  with  percentages  varying  according  to 
classes  of  material. 


CHAPTER  LXXVII 

ORGANIZATION 
MAIN  STOREROOM 

In  Chapter  II  will  be  found  the  argument  for  a  superintend- 
ent of  stores  as  the  head  of  the  storeroom  or  stores  division.  In 
a  city  of  over  200,000  meters,  an  assistant  superintendent  is  also 
justified. 

The  superintendent  is  responsible  for  the  operation  of  his 
division,  and,  subject  to  general  rules  of  policy  and  limiting 
figures  for  the  stocks  of  various  classes  of  material,  should  be 
given  a  free  hand  and  then  judged  by  the  results  attained  in 
lowering  handling  costs,  in  decreasing  the  ratio  of  stocks  to 
issues,  and  in  perfecting  an  efficient  storeroom  force. 

At  the  main  storeroom,  in  addition  to  an  assistant  superin- 
tendent or  chief  clerk,  there  should  be  a  storekeeper,  assistant 
storekeeper,  head  bookkeeper,  head  stenographer,  inspector, 
receiving  and  shipping  clerk,  stationery  clerk,  senior  and  junior 
clerks,  order  men  and  helpers. 

The  storekeeper  should  see  that  all  material  is  properly  cared 
for  and  correctly  accounted  for  when  used.  He  should  be  in 
direct  charge  of  the  following: 

Supervision  of  the  storeroom  and  yard,  appliance  repair  and 
machine  shops,  tinsmith,  carpenter,  janitor  and  watchman. 

Taking  inventories. 

Loading  and  unloading  wagons. 

Routing  delivery  wagons. 

Determining  material  to  be  ordered  by  requisition. 

Shipping,  receiving  and  receipting  for  material. 

Inspecting  the  counting  of  material  and  personally  signing  the 

shipping  receipt. 
He  should  give  especial  attention  to: 

Ordering  supplies  of  all  kinds. 

Economical  handling  and  checking  material  as  received. 

Issuing  material  to  the  workmen. 

(869) 


870  THE  STOREROOM 

Quantity  carried  in  stock  and  by  workmen. 

Accounting  for  material  used. 
The  head  bookkeeper  should  supervise: 

Recording  of  material  received  and  issued. 

Making  monthly  reports  of  journal  entries  to  the  comptroller's 
office. 

Compilation  of  stock  ledger  balances  by  classes  of  material. 

Districting  charges. 

Preparing  insurance  data. 

Passing  invoices  and  freight  bills. 

Checking  lists  of  inactive  material. 

Where  this  work  is  not  done  directly  under  the  eye  of  the  assistant 
superintendent  or  chief  clerk,  the  head  bookkeeper  should  be 
held  responsible  for  the  discipline  of  and  results  obtained  from 
the  clerks  under  him. 

The  head  stenographer  should  have  charge  of  all  stenographic 
work,  filing,  ordering  material  not  regularly  carried  in  stock,  and 
dispatching  reports,  statements,  inventories,  etc.,  on  schedule 
time. 

The  superintendent  of  stores  should  keep  in  close  touch  with 
the  district  organization  by  personally  visiting  each  storeroom 
from  time  to  time,  and,  in  addition,  should  have  the  assistance  of 
an  inspector,  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  inspect  the  work  in  the 
district  storerooms  to  see  that  instructions  are  being  followed, 
and  that  all  material  is  being  properly  accounted  for.  He  should 
be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  entire  storeroom  practice, 
and  be  competent  to  recommend  changes  in  practice. 

The  inspector  should  report  the  result  of  his  investigation  to 
the  district  superintendent,  or  his  chief  clerk,  and  make  a  detailed 
report  to  the  superintendent  of  stores  of  any  feature  of  interest 
to  the  latter. 

The  bookkeeper  should  keep  a  composite  record,  by  districts, 
of  all  material  expensive  or  marketable,  and,  therefore,  likely  to 
be  stolen.  He  should  notify  the  superintendent  of  stores  when- 
ever the  records  indicate  that  there  is  too  great  a  discrepancy 
between  the  actual  and  the  recorded  stock.  He  also  keeps  a 
complete  record  of  the  important  tools,  whether  in  the  district 
storeroom  or  on  the  street. 

The  stationery  clerk  should  be  responsible  for  ordering,  receiv- 
ing, inspecting,  storing  and  shipping  forms  and  stationery. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  sufficient  senior  and  junior  clerks 
should  be  employed  to  take  care  of  routine  work. 


ORGA  NIZA  TION  871 

Order  men  and  helpers  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  store- 
keepers, and  are  regularly  employed  in  receiving  and  checking 
the  receipt  of  material,  preparing  material  on  orders,  etc.  The 
order  man,  by  reason  of  his  knowledge  of  material  location  in  the 
storeroom  and  his  proper  observance  of  low  stock  condition,  is 
exceptionally  valuable  to  the  organization,  and  should  be 
encouraged  with  good  wages  and  the  chance  of  promotion. 

DISTRICT  STOREROOMS 

In  addition  to  the  main  storeroom,  a  district  storeroom  will  be 
needed  at  every  district  shop.  The  employees  required  may  be: 
Storekeeper,  assistant  storekeeper,  storeroom  clerk,  and  helper. 
The  volume  of  work  will  determine  the  necessity  for  an  assistant 
storekeeper,  or  clerk,  and  the  number  of  helpers  needed.  The 
duties  of  the  storekeeper  are  similar  to  those  of  the  same  position 
at  the  main  storeroom. 


CHAPTER  LXXVIII 

SIZE  AND  SITE 

SIZE 

In  determining  the  size  of  storeroom  facilities,  if  conditions  as 
between  two  companies  are  assumed  to  be  comparable,  the 
required  square  feet  in  floor  and  yard  space  should  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  the  maximum  stock  on  hand  or  possibly  to 
the  number  of  meters  in  service,  but  a  great  deal  depends  upon 
the  size  and  kind  of  material  to  be  stored.  Some  Philadelphia 
data  on  this  subject  is  as  follows: 

Value  of  stock $300,000 

Number  of  meters 42.0,000 

Indoor  space  at  main  storeroom      .      .      .        60,000  sq.  ft. 
Outdoor  "  ...        45,000    ' 

In  any  situation  the  division  of  the  material  into  classes  and  the 
determination  of  the  area  required  for  each  class  will  be  of  assist- 
ance. Such  classes  are  stationery  and  tools;  street  main  mate- 
rials; steel  pipe;  fittings,  cocks,  etc. ;  fuel  appliances  and  parts, 
and  illuminating  appliances  and  parts.  Besides  this  active 
material,  space  will  be  needed  for  the  storage  of  old  records,  scrap 
material,  excess  stock  purchased  in  advance  because  of  price, 
derricks  and  other  large  tools  and  possibly  construction  depart- 
ment ^outfits,  an  appliance  laboratory,  a  carpenter  shop  and 
material  for  sale  to  outside  plants.  Sufficient  space  must  be 
provided  for  ample  receiving  and  shipping  facilities,  such  as  ade- 
quate platforms  adjacent  to  a  railway  siding  and  to  a  roadway, 
to  be  used  as  free  space  for  both  loading  and  unloading.  Also, 
space  should  be  provided  for  mechanical  devices  used  to  ex- 
pedite the  movement  of  material. 

The  floor  area  required  will  vary  according  to  the  headroom 
available  on  each  floor,  to  the  floor  carrying  capacity,  and  to  the 
size  and  character  of  appliances  or  material  to  be  carried  in 
stock.  For  example,  when  storing  gas  ranges  (crated  or  knocked 
down)  in  a  building  with  floors  12  feet  high,  with  a  floor  carrying 

(872) 


SIZE  AND  SITE  873 

capacity  of  100  pounds  to  the  square  foot,  the  single-oven  type 
of  range  may  be  piled  four  high;  the  double-oven  type,  three 
high;  the  cabinet  type,  two  to  four  high,  and  the  special  cabinet 
cannot  be  piled  at  all,  although  the  latter  class  may  be  con- 
veniently stored  under  platforms  or  racks.  The  storekeeper 
should  make  a  careful  survey  of  the  space  available  and  allot  it 
according  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the  materials  to  be  stored. 
In  general,  more  space  in  proportion  to  the  issues  made  will  be 
needed  when  the  area  of  operations  require  a  main  storeroom 
and  one  or  more  district  storerooms.  A  very  important  factor  in 
its  influence  on  area  is  what  proportion  of  any  of  the  fuel  appli- 
ances sold  by  the  company  is  made  locally,  and  therefore  may  be 
delivered  directly  from  the  factory  to  the  consumer.  Such  local 
deliveries  are  possible  in  every  city  making  good  fuel  appliances, 
and  result  in  great  economy  as  compared  with  the  expense  of 
handling  appliances  from  out  of  town. 

SITE 

Considerations  of  real  estate  owned  by  the  company  often 
determine  the  location  of  the  storeroom,  especially  when  there  is 
but  one,  and  in  that  case  it  is  generally  found  at  the  gas  works. 
The  larger  the  situation,  the  more  does  final  economy  require 
that  each  storeroom  be  so  located  that  operating  costs  are  a 
minimum. 

The  main  storeroom  should,  if  large  enough  to  require  many 
carload  shipments,  have  its  own  siding  from  one  or  more  rail- 
roads, or  its  dock  if  water  transportation  plays  an  important 
part,  or  perhaps  both  facilities. 

Any  district  storeroom  should  be  located  at  the  distribution 
shop.  At  times  a  suitable  shop  location  is  too  restricted  in  area 
to  accommodate  more  than  the  shop  and  storeroom,  so  that  the 
storeyard  and  the  stable  must  be  located  elsewhere.  Before 
such  a  separation  is  decided  on,  careful  figuring  should  be  done, 
as  it  will  be  often  found  that  two  sites  increase  the  cost  of  opera- 
tion far  more  than  would  be  casually  supposed.  This  is  especially 
true  where  the  stable  (or  garage)  is  removed  from  the  shop,  owing 
to  the  cost  of  transportation  over  this  unproductive  distance. 

A  storeyard  isolated  from  the  shop  will  usually  contain  only 
street  main  materials  and  large  tools.  Often  holder  stations  are 
available  for  the  former,  but  here  again  transportation  costs  are 
apt  to  govern  and  make  the  cheapest  location  that  nearest  the 
stable. 


874  THE  STOREROOM 

All  storeroom  buildings  should  have  adequate  ventilation, 
heat,  light,  elevator  capacity,  and  covered  loading  and  unloading 
facilities,  with  sufficient  roadway  approach  to  afford  quick  ingress 
and  egress  to  all  transportation  equipment. 


SECTION  II 

OPERATION 


CHAPTER  LXXIX 

ORDERING 
RELATIONS  WITH  PURCHASING  DEPARTMENT 

As  a  purchasing  department  affords  the  most  efficient  means  of 
obtaining  the  best  material  at  the  lowest  price,  it's  permission 
should  be  obtained  before  an  order  is  placed  directly  with  a 
dealer.  The  purchasing  department  should  accept  verbal 
or  written  orders  from  only  those  employees  authorized  to 
make  such  requisitions.  This  rule  will  not  only  prevent  unauth- 
orized persons  from  obtaining  material  in  the  company's  name, 
but  will  also  avoid  the  difficulty  of  tracing  the  origin  of  an  order 
which  had  not  been  numbered  in  the  storeroom  series. 

Specified  classes  of  articles,  such  as  rubber  stamps,  hardware, 
housefurnishing  materials,  lumber  (up  to  a  limited  value)  and 
similar  material  may  with  advantage  be  purchased  without  first 
sending  each  order  through  the  purchasing  department,  if  the 
latter  has  previously  consented  to  this  plan  and  possibly  fur- 
nished a  list  of  dealers  from  whom  purchases  should  be  made. 

When  it  is  desired  to  write  a  dealer  regarding  a  credit,  replace- 
ment, cancellation,  or  other  reasons,  the  letter  should  go  via  the 
purchasing  department,  mentioning  order  number,  or  should  it 
be  necessary  to  write  directly  to  the  dealer,  the  purchasing 
department  should  receive  a  copy. 

In  hurrying  forward  material  due  on  order,  it  is  advisable  to 
do  so  through  the  purchasing  department,  which,  having  placed 
the  order  and  arranged  details  as  to  price  and  time  of  delivery, 
is  in  close  personal  touch  with  the  dealer  and  will  probably 
obtain  better  results. 

(875) 


876  THE  STOREROOM 

ORDERING  ROUTINE 
WHEN  TO  ORDER 

As  a  gas  company  uses  hundreds  of  articles  of  which  it  is 
essential  that  a  working  supply  be  kept  constantly  available  at 
the  storeroom,  or  at  the  makers  ready  for  delivery,  it  is  of 
supreme  importance  that  the  responsibility  for  ordering  material 
be  placed  with  competent  men  supervised  by  others  higher  in 
authority. 

Over-  and  under-ordering  may  be  guarded  against,  and  when  to 
order,  readily  determined  by  the  adoption  of  a  minimum  stock  rec- 
ord. This  minimizes  the  chance  of  exhausted  stock, — a  costly  and, 
from  a  storeroom  standpoint,  unpardonable  occurrence.  All  bin 
cards,  Figure  2 70,  should  show  the  minimum  quantity  of  material 
to  be  carried  in  stock  for  the  respective  bins.  When  the  stock  has 
reached  its  minimum,  the  order  man  should  refer  to  his  stock 
record  cards,  Figure  271,  take  out  the  cards  for  such  material, 
mark  thereon  the  stock  on  hand  and  the  date,  and  turn  the  cards 
over  to  the  storekeeper,  who  should  in  turn  consult  the  ledger 
for  the  quantity  used,  taking  into  consideration  the  probable 
activity  of  each  item,  and  place  an  order  to  replenish  the  stock. 
The  stock  record  is  then  returned  to  the  order  man  with  a  nota- 
tion as  to  how  much  was  ordered,  and  this  record  serves  as  a 
notice  to  the  order  man  of  material  due  on  order,  and  is  checked 
off  when  the  material  is  received. 

Valuable  as  is  the  minimum  stock  record  in  general,  it  need  not 
be  followed  in  the  above  detail  for  large  stocks  of  material  ordered 
at  stated  periods  of  the  year,  such  as  cast-iron  pipe  and  special 
castings,  steel  pipe,  nipples,  brass  cocks,  fittings,  etc. 

Cast-iron  pipe  and  specials  should  be  ordered  by  the  distribu- 
tion^head,  because,  except  for  certain  bends  and  branches,  past 
use  is  no  sure  index  of  future  requirements,  and  of  these  latter, 
he  is  in  the  best  position  to  know.  In  a  large  company,  the  pipe 
is  usually  bought  by  yearly  contract  with  specified  deliveries 
each  month.  Two  weeks'  supply  should  always  be  in  stock  to 
care  for  emergency  needs  or  delay  by  railroad  or  foundry. 

In  Chapter  XII  under  "Stock  of  Specials,"  the  use  of  an 
inventory  form  was  mentioned.  Such  a  form  enables  the  dis- 
tribution head  to  order  all  the  specials  needed  in  Philadelphia  by 
devoting  less  than  an  hour's  time,  at  quarterly  intervals  during 
the  year,  and  results  in  an  adequate  supply  without  an  unduly 
large  stock.  A  specimen  page  is  shown  in  Figure  272. 


ORDERING 


877 


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Figure  270.— Bin  Card,  page  876. 

(Actual  size,  3"  x  5*) 


878 


THE  STOREROOM 


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D 

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C 

0 

S 

t 

_1 

Figure  271.— Stock  Record  Card, 

(Actual  size,  3"  x  S") 


876. 


ORDERING 


879 


CAST  IRON  SPECIALS  STOCK   REPORT 
DATE:  ia  

STORE  YARDS 

TOTAL 
STOCK 

Inventors 
Jan.  1st. 

Received 

Tola! 

USED 

Due  on 

MATE  H  1  AL_ 

A 

B 

c 

0 

BxNi>a9Cftt)>-| 

3" 

4" 

6" 

ETC 

60°  CIRCLED 

3" 

4" 

6" 

ETC. 

45°  <*)    -\ 

4" 

6" 

ETC. 

45°  <-*-)    >"\ 

4" 

•6" 

ETC. 

Figure  272.— Stock  Report  of  Cast-Iron  Specials,  page  876. 

(Actual  size.  SJxll — 10  pages) 

Before  ordering  steel  pipe,  cocks,  fittings,  etc.,  it  is  also 
important  to  know  what  amount  of  material  will  be  required  in 
the  year,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  during  each  month  of  the  year. 

At  times,  the  purchasing  department  decides  that  to  take 
advantage  of  low  prices,  needs  should  be  anticipated  for  possibly 
a  year,  and  calls  on  the  storeroom  for  the  requisite  orders. 


880  THE  STOREROOM 

Here,  in  the  main,  past  requirements  must  be  the  guide,  and  to 
be  equipped  with  the  necessary  data,  the  information  called  for 
as  below  should  be  prepared  after  inventory  taking  each  year: 

Inventory  Due  Used  Used  Ordered 

Size  Kind  12-31-18  on  Order  1917  1918  1919 

The  quantity  used  is  filled  in  by  the  bookkeeper  from  the  ledger 
account  of  issues.  Another  method  of  determining  the  move- 
ment of  stock  is  to  have  a  separate  history  card  for  each  item, 
showing  each  monthly  issue  in  a  continuing  record  from  year  to 
year.  This  is  exceptionally  valuable  in  showing  the  curve  of 
materials  used  in  large  quantities.  The  record  of  issues  should 
be  studied  before  an  order  is  drawn,  investigating  any  appre- 
ciable difference  in  the  issues  for  the  different  years,  with  the 
bearing  this  may  have  on  the  current  year. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  business  conditions  are  unfavorable, 
to  avoid  all  chance  of  overstocking,  it  often  is  wise  to  order  a  few 
months'  supply  instead  of  one  year. 

All  material  should  be  specified  to  come  forward  as  of  certain 
dates,  paying  special  attention  to  convenience  of  handling  and 
storage  facilities,  taking  every  precaution  to  insure  as  low  a 
stock  investment  as  is  consistent  with  efficiency,  yet  allowing  a 
safe  margin  for  errors  in  filling  orders,  and  delay  in  transit.  If 
material  has  been  ordered  with  due  allowance  for  manufacturing 
operations,  delivery  on  time  is  the  rule,  but  occasionally  there  is 
delay  and  only  partial  deliveries  will  be  made,  so  that  in  the  case 
of  special  material  furnished  by  only  one  dealer,  it  is  necessary 
to  set  a  time  for  delivery  much  further  in  advance  of  actual  need 
than  is  required  for  staple  material  that  can  be  had  from  more 
than  one  dealer. 

The  storekeeper  will  have  full  play  for  the  exercise  of  all  his 
judgment  in  deciding  on  necessary  changes  in  dates  of  delivery, 
especially  when  material  is  being  used  up  faster  than  anticipated. 

Material  such  as  cement,  lumber,  oils  and  sundry  items  which 
may  be  had  promptly  from  local  dealers,  need  not  be  carried  in 
large  quantities,  but  delivered  as  required. 

The  materials  so  far  considered  are  those  entirely  within  the 
control  of  the  distribution  department  and  comprised  the  entire 
storeroom  stock  until  the  advent  of  the  merchandizing  operations 
of  recent  _  years.  Now  the  average  storeroom  contains  many 
fuel  and  illuminating  appliances  and  their  parts.  Permanent 
overstocking  and  temporary  under  and  overstocking  of  this  new 
business  material  is  harder  to  prevent  than  for  distribution  ma- 


ORDERING  381 

terial,  especially  if  the  new  business  department  believes  that 
every  type  of  appliance  must  be  stocked,  and  has  not  learned  how 
to  conduct  the  remnant  sales  by  which  department  stores  get  rid 
of  odds  and  ends.  Under  these  conditions,  each  year  is  apt  to 
show  a  larger  amount  of  money  invested  in  a  miscellaneous 
assortment  of  appliances  for  which  there  is  no  current  demand. 
However,  if  the  rule  of  a  maximum  stock  figure  is  enforced, 
drastic  measures  for  stock  reduction  will  finally  bring  the  cure. 

So  much  for  permanent  overstocking.  The  maintenance  of 
appliance  stocks  in  quantities  varying  with  seasonal  demands, 
so  that  the  stock  on  hand  shall  always  bear  a  safe  proportion  to 
the  week's  issue,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  involve  an  excessive 
carry-over  to  the  next  season,  is  a  problem  requiring  the  best 
thought  of  both  storeroom  and  new  business  departments,  if,  as 
is  often  the  case,  these  two  agencies  are  jointly  responsible. 
Staple  articles  used  in  large  quantities,  such  as  standard  lamps 
and  mantles,  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  distribution  mate- 
rial, but  water  heaters  and  room  heaters  are  examples  of  special 
types  which,  if  offered  to  the  public  in  great  variety  and  ordered 
in  quantities  and  for  deliveries  not  carefully  considered,  will  result 
in  stocks  often  half  of  the  yearly  sales,  a  condition  that  would  ruin 
a  purely  merchandising  business. 

A  fairly  broad  experience  would  indicate  that  the  new  business 
department  should  decide  as  early  as  possible  upon  the  various 
appliances  to  be  sold  each  season,  of  course  changing  designs  as 
little  as  may  be,  and  offering  no  excessive  variety  of  choice,  and 
then  after  informing  the  storeroom  of  any  conditions  tending  to 
make  sales  differ  from  former  years,  give  the  latter  full  authority 
as  to  quantities  and  times  of  delivery.  This  places  the  responsi- 
bility where  it  belongs,  and  puts  into  expert  hands  the  mainte- 
nance of  stock,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  depend  on  the  less  accu- 
rate judgment  and  possibly  hurried  consideration  of  the  new 
business  department. 

Whatever  the  system  followed,  statements  of  appliance  stock 
on  hand  should  be  furnished  the  new  business  department 
monthly. 

How  TO  ORDER 

Where  one  or  more  district  storerooms  are  operated  in  con- 
junction with  a  main  storeroom,  the  former  should  always  have 
in  stock  a  working  supply  of  such  material  regularly  carried  by 
the  main  storeroom,  but  not  including  a  complete  line  of  domes, 
fixtures  and  large  fuel  appliances,  and  this  because  of  space 


882  THE  STOREROOM 

limitations  and  storage  details.  This  working  stock  at  the 
district  storeroom  decreases  the  number  of  requisitions  on  the 
main  storeroom  and  enables  quicker  service  to  the  consumer. 
Where  quick  service  is  required  for  material  not  at  the  district 
storeroom,  the  telephone  is  used  and  the  time  of  necessary 
d el i very  stated. 

The  requisitions  from  the  district  storeroom  should  be  sent  in 
separate  series,  according  to  classes  of  material,  as,  for  instance, 
forms  and  stationery;  incandescent  material  and  fixtures; 
appliance  parts;  steel  pipe,  fittings,  cocks  and  all  other  material. 
By  this  means,  the  main  storeroom  will  be  enabled  to  fill  the 
orders  more  advantageously  and  economically. 

On  the  arrival  of  a  requisition,  the  date  is  stamped,  and  also 
after  each  item  not  carried  in  stock  by  the  main  storeroom,  the 
words  "Order  Purchasing  Department."  After  each  item  calling 
for  material  that  requires  certain  specifications  should  be 
stamped  "Special  Order,"  to  guide  the  order  clerk  in  referring 
to  the  special  order  file,  as  explained  under  "Specifications." 

The  original  requisition  should  then  be  passed  to  the  order 
clerk,  and  after  all  items  of  material  that  are  to  be  ordered 
through  the  purchasing  department  are  crossed  off  the  duplicate 
copy,  it  should  then  be  forwarded  to  the  order  man  so  that  the 
"open  "  items  may  be  filled  from  stock  and  prepared  for  delivery 
to  the  district.  By  this  means,  the  duplicate  copy  of  the 
requisition  from  the  district  is  used  as  a  work  order  at  the  main 
storeroom,  thereby  saving  the  labor  of  transcribing. 

In  order  that  as  far  as  possible  the  shipping  work  of  the  main 
storeroom  should  be  uniform  throughout  the  week  or  month, 
each  district  storeroom  should  be  assigned  definite  days  on 
which  to  order  stock  material. 

The  storeroom  order  on  the  purchasing  agent  is  made  out  in 
duplicate,  calling  for  shipment  to  be  made  to  the  main  storeroom 
or  to  a  district  storeroom,  according  to  the  kind  of  material.  In 
the  latter  case,  a  copy  of  the  storeroom  order  should  be  sent  by 
the  main  storeroom  to  the  district  storeroom,  to  be  held  awaiting 
the  receipt  of  the  material. 

The  long  train  of  evils  possible  from  duplicate  orders,  such  as 

ncelhng  one  order,  request  for  credit,  double  payment  for  one 

shipment,  double  delivery,  afford  ample  justification  for  rigid 

adherence  to  the  routine  laid  down  to  prevent  a  duplicate  order. 


ORDERING  883 

MATERIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 

The  storeroom  should  have  a  file  for  material  of  a  special 
nature,  in  which  should  be  found  cards,  Figure  273,  alphabeti- 
cally arranged,  showing  all  the  specifications  to  be  given  when 
placing  an  order  for  any  special  material  such  as  the  following : 

Appliances  Fittings 

Blocks  and  wedges  Oils 

Boxes,  service  Pipe,  cast,  steel  and 

Castings,  special  wrought  iron 

Cement  Posts,  lamp 

Clamps,  leak  Vehicles  and  parts 

Dies  and  chasers  Yarn 

These  cards  should  show  the  size,  weight,  price,  grade,  catalog 
number,  blueprint  number,  shipping  directions,  name  of  concern 
from  whom  to  purchase,  and  all  requisite  information  that  would 
enable  the  dealer  to  promptly  furnish  correct  material  without 
being  compelled  to  inquire  for  more  details  or  specifications. 

When  giving  specifications  for  material  of  a  special  nature, 
such  as  patented  articles,  etc.,  specify  the  name  of  the  concern 
from  whom  you  are  accustomed  to  receive  the  goods.  In  general 
it  is  not  good  practice  to  specify  "Same  as  last  lot,"  or  "Same 
as  usual,"  unless  you  add  the  previous  order  number  or  a  descrip- 
tion that  will  lead  to  getting  the  correct  article.  If  it  should  be 
necessary  to  submit  a  sample  with  the  order,  place  the  sample 
if  small  in  a  sealed  clasp  envelope,  pinned  to  the  order  (avoid 
clips),  stating  "as  per  the  attached  sample."  If  the  sample  be 
large  or  bulky,  state  on  the  order:  "As  per  sample  which  we 
will  forward  direct  to  dealer,"  etc.  Then  tag  the  sample  and 
hold  pending  receipt  of  copy  of  purchasing  agent's  order,  after 
which  the  sample  should  be  forwarded  to  the  dealer  with  a  ship- 
ping memorandum,  reference  being  made  to  the  number  of 
the  order  to  which  it  refers. 

SHIPPING  INSTRUCTIONS 

In  ordering  material,  explicit  shipping  instructions  are  import- 
ant, and  the  following  schedule  should  be  observed : 

//  ordered  in  town:  Specify  name  and  address  of  consignee. 
/Freight.  Name  company  and  freight 
\  station. 

//  ordered   out  o/\  Express.     Give  the  company's  name. 
town:  I  Parcel  Post.     State  "  If  within  weight." 

\ Steamship.     Specify  name  of  line. 


884 


THE  STOREROOM 


* 


Figure  273.— Material  Ordered  Record,  page  883. 

(Actual  size,  5"  x  8"  card) 


ORDERING  885 

Shipments  should  be  directed  to  the  freight  station  nearest  the 
point  of  delivery.  When  an  order  calls  for  part  or  whole  carload 
shipment,  the  order  clerk  should  notify  the  transportation  division 
that  the  order  has  been  placed,  giving  the  quantity  ordered,  time 
shipment  was  requested,  station  to  which  it  should  be  con- 
signed, where  to  haul  upon  arrival,  and  any  other  information 
that  would  enable  the  adjustment  of  hauling  schedules  accord- 
ingly. 


CHAPTER  LXXX 

RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING 
GENERAL 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  obtaining  an  accurate 
record  of  material  received.  This  should  include  the  weight, 
count  and  measurement  of  the  material,  the  character  of  packing 
(as  barrels,  boxes  and  crates  are  charged  for  and  must  be  checked 
with  the  invoice),  the  mode  of  transportation,  the  amount  of 
transportation  charges,  and  whether  collect  or  prepaid. 

All  material  received  should  be  immediately  turned  over  to 
the  receiving  clerk,  as  when  material  in  small  lots  is  delivered 
directly  to  the  person  for  whom  it  was  ordered,  it  is  not  an 
infrequent  occurrence  that  it  is  used  without  having  its  receipt 
recorded,  and  when  the  invoice  is  received  later  on,  there  is 
doubt  as  to  the  receipt  of  the  material. 

In  a  large  situation,  receiving  and  shipping  should  be  done  at 
well  separated  respective  locations,  to  avoid  any  confusion  of 
incoming  and  outgoing  material.  Outside  and  inside  signs 
should  guide  to  these  locations.  The  regulations  for  receiving 
and  dispatching  should  be  well  understood  by  employees  and 
outsiders  alike. 

SHIPPING  MEMORANDUM 

When  material  is  shipped  by  the  main  storeroom  to  district 
storerooms,  or  vice  versa,  whether  by  team  or  otherwise,  it  is 
accompanied  by  a  shipping  memorandum,  which  is  made  out  in 
triplicate,  two  copies  being  sent  with  the  goods  and  the  third 
copy  retained.  The  material  upon  receipt  should  be  checked 
with  the  memorandum,  the  original  of  which  should  be  signed 
and  returned  at  once  to  the  storeroom,  and  the  duplicate  retained 
by  the  district  storeroom.  The  goods,  if  valuable  (such  as  brass 
and  lead)  or  few  in  number,  should  be  weighed  or  counted. 

When  checking,  if  any  discrepancy  is  found,  a  second  count 
should  be  made  and  the  storeroom  notified  at  once,  before  placing 
the  goods  in  stock. 

(886) 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING  887 

Provision  should  be  made  on  the  shipping  memorandum  for  a 
column  showing  classification,  as  it  is  feasible  to  use  it  as  a  notice 
to  the  accounting  department  to  charge  out  the  material,  as 
will  be  explained  under  "Accounting." 

RECEIPTING  FOR  MATERIAL 

\Yhen  material  is  received  by  teams  from  local  dealers  and  is 
accompanied  by  a  shipping  memorandum,  it  is  receipted  for  with 
a  rubber  stamp,  reading  as  follows:  "Received  subject  to  count, 

weight  and  inspection.  (Signed) " 

This  is  done  to  facilitate  getting  the  team  away,  but  if  the  dealer 
insists  upon  a  count  in  the  presence  of  his  driver,  and  there  should 
be  found  a  variation  between  the  quantity  actually  received  and 
that  called  for  on  the  memorandum,  the  original  shipping  mem- 
orandum is  changed  accordingly  before  signature. 

After  the  necessary  checking  of  the  received  material,  its 
receipt  should  be  posted  from  the  duplicate  of  the  shipping 
memorandum  to  a  daily  blotter  or  "receiving  record,"  which 
should  contain  name  of  shipper,  quantity  and  nature  of  material 
and  how  packed,  and  the  purchasing  agent's  order  number. 
Such  of  this  information  not  already  there  should  also  be  entered 
on  the  copy  of  the  purchasing  agent's  order,  which  then  is  used  to 
approve  the  bill.  One  copy  of  the  receiving  record  should  be 
sent  to  the  inspection  division  so  that  inspection  may  be  arranged 
for  before  the  goods  are  placed  in  stock,  or  sent  out. 

All  shipments  received  via  freight  should  be  recorded  in  chrono- 
logical order,  as  many  claims  arise  over  lost  and  mislaid  ship- 
ments. Enter  the  name  of  shipper,  date  received,  how  packed, 
the  contents,  station  from  which  received,  order  number,  weight 
and  car  number,  and  leave  room  opposite  each  item  for  the 
freight  bill  record,  showing  the  date  of  freight  bill,  waybill 
number,  amount  of  bill  and  classification. 

The  shipping  memorandum  is  an  important  factor  in  checking 
the  receipt  of  goods,  and  should  be  insisted  upon  wherever  pos- 
sible. In  the  case  of  carload  shipments  containing  many  sizes  of 
nipples,  fittings,etc.,  it  is  good  practice  to  make  arrangements 
with  the  consignor  whereby  a  shipping  memorandum  showing  the 
number  and  contents  of  each  barrel  or  case,  will,  in  addition  to  a 
copy  of  the  bill  of  lading,  be  made  out  and  forwarded  via  the 
purchasing  agent.  This  is  especially  valuable  in  locating  a 
definite  article  in  a  carload  shipment  of  hundreds  of  sizes  of 
fittings,  nipples,  etc. 


888  THE  STOREROOM 

In  receipting  for  material  received  at  a  district  storeroom,  a 
copy  of  the  storeroom  order  may  be  used.  This  copy  also  serves 
as  a  notification  to  the  district  storeroom  that  the  main  storeroom 
has  ordered  certain  material  for  delivery  to  it. 

When  the  material  is  received,  the  storekeeper  should  post  the 
date  received,  check  off  quantity  or  weight,  sign  his  name,  and 
forward  the  copy  to  the  main  storeroom.  If  the  material  is 
thought  to  be  defective,  the  supposed  defect  should  be  stated. 
If  delivery  has  been  refused  for  any  reason,  notice  of  and  reason 
for  refusal  should  be  noted.  When  the  order  is  again  placed,  the 
copy  should  be  forwarded  to  the  district  in  the  usual  manner. 

In  case  partial  delivery  only  is  made  of  the  material  listed  on 
the  copy  of  the  storeroom  order,  another  form  of  receipt,  showing 
from  whom  received,  etc.,  should  be  sent  to  the-main  storeroom, 
and  the  copy  of  the  storeroom  order,  containing  a  notation  that 
certain  items  had  already  been  receipted  for,  should  be  held 
awaiting  the  receipt  of  the  remainder  of  the  material. 

As  a  record  for  the  district  storeroom,  the  serial  number  of  the 
storeroom  order  is  inserted  on.  the  copy  of  the  requisition  on 
which  the  material  was  originally  ordered. 

BROKEN  AXD  DEFECTIVE  MATERIAL 

In  receipting  for  material  received  from  a  transportation  com- 
pany, if  there  is  a  shortage,  the  delivery  receipt  should  not  be 
signed  until  the  agent  notes  thereon  the  exact  shortage  or 
damage.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  for 
drivers  to  notice  breakage  or  damage.  Gas  ranges  are  frequently 
covered  with  paper  under  the  crating  and  a  very  close  inspection 
might  not  reveal  breakage  or  badly  rusted  sheet  metal.  Though 
breakage  of  incandescent  material  is  quite  common,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  notice  this  except  when  the  boxes  and  casks  are  badly 
broken.  However,  if  the  breakage  has  not  been  recorded  on  the 
copy  of  the  delivery  receipt  before  signing  for  the  material,  it 
should  be  called  to  the  attention  of  the  freight  agent,  who  will 
send  an  inspector  to  investigate.  By  being  able  to  point 
out  that  the  material  was  well  packed,  and  that  most  likely  the 
damage  was  due  to  handling  in  transit,  allowance  may  be  had  for 
much  breakage,  but  claims  should  not  be  made  for  small  units, 
such  as  cylinders,  mantles,  etc.,  packed  in  sealed  cartons,  unless 
the  carton  itself  shows  evidence  of  being  damaged. 

Material  for  replacement  should  be  ordered  on  the  regular 
form,  stating  that  it  is  needed  to  replace  damage  on  account  of  a 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING  889 

certain  shipment,  giving  full  particulars  as  to  the  car  number,  etc. 
In  case  the  goods  were  shipped  f.  o.  b.  destination,  claim  must 
be  made  by  the  shipper  paying  the  freight.  When  adjusting 
breakage  on  material  f.  o.  b.  point  of  shipment,  the  claim  on  the 
transportation  company  should  include  labor  and  material 
expended  on  the  replacing  shipment. 

RETURNING  MATERIAL  FOR  CREDIT 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  return  material  for  credit  or 
replacement,  entries  should  be  made  on  the  copy  of  the  purchas- 
ing agent's  order  in  red  ink  for  the  date  of  return  of  each  ship- 
ment, and  in  black  ink  for  the  date  of  receipt  of  each  replacement 
shipment.  A  letter  should  be  sent  to  the  purchasing  agent  out- 
lining the  reasons  for  the  return  of  the  material,  a  copy  being 
sent  to  the  bill  clerk  as  his  notice  to  stop  payment.  This  copy, 
together  with  all  future  correspondence  on  the  subject,  is  for- 
warded to  the  receiving  and  shipping  department,  where  the 
matter  is  carefully  followed  up. 

When  writing  for  replacements,  an  additional  copy  of  the  letter 
should  be  retained  by  the  receiving  and  shipping  clerk,  on  which 
should  be  noted  the  date  of  adjustment,  and  the  letter  then 
forwarded  to  the  purchasing  agent  as  a  notice  of  completion. 

HAULING  FROM  RAILROAD  STATION 

As  most  of  the  material  received  in  carload  lots  is  hauled  by 
team  or  truck,  it  follows  that  there  should  be  a  definite  under- 
standing between  the  transportation  division  and  the  storeroom. 
The  storeroom  should  advise  the  transportation  division  of  all 
carloads  ordered  forward,  giving  directions  as  to  the  disposition 
of  the  material  when  received.  Immediately  after  the  material 
is  hauled,  the  transportation  division  should  forward  to  the 
storeroom  a  report  snowing  the  quantity  and  kind  of  material, 
car  number  and  initials,  station  from  which  received,  and 
breakage,  if  any. 

THE  ORDER  MAN 

At  the  main  storeroom,  as  explained  in  Chapter  LXXIX,  the 
order  man  working  from  the  duplicate  copy  of  the  district  requisi- 
tion and  from  copies  of  telephone  orders,  assembles  material  for 
shipment.  He  gets  these  orders  from  the  shipping  clerk  at 
certain  times  during  the  day,  and  should  give  preference  to  those 
marked  for  immediate  attention.  He  should  indicate  on  the 
order,  by  certain  check  marks,  whether  the  material  was  made 
ready  for  shipment,  or  not  furnished  because  of  exhausted  stock. 


890  THE  STOREROOM 

ARTICLES  TEMPORARILY  OUT  OF  STOCK 

When  unable  to  fill  orders  for  appliances  regularly  carried  in 
stock,  the  main  storeroom  should  notify  the  district  storeroom 
and  salesman  by  telephone  (and  confirm  by  letter)  that  the 
article  is  temporarily  (or  permanently)  out  of  stock,  giving  the 
reason  and  any  information  as  to  the  probable  date  of  delivery. 
An  itemized  list  of  all  material  that  cannot  be  furnished  from 
stock  should  be  kept  constantly  before  the  storekeeper  and 
studied  from  time  to  time  in  search  of  a  way  out. 

CARRIERS  AND  TRUCKS 

Mechanical  devices  are  essential  for  the  expeditious  and  careful 
handling  of  material.  There  are  numerous  kinds  of  power  and 
hand  carriers  and  trucks,  but  those  described  below  are  of  especial 
value  on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  time  and  labor  saved 
by  their  use. 

COWAN  TRANSVEYOR 

This  device,  Figure  274,  will  be  found  indispensable  for  moving 
material  from  place  to  place  in  the  storeroom,  also  for  saving  time 
when  conveying  material  to  be  loaded  on  wagons.  It  is  an  ele- 
vating truck  which  is  used  in  conjunction  with  movable  wooden 
platforms  on  which  a  number  of  boxes  or  cases  may  be  piled. 
The  platforms  may  be  constructed  of  1-inch  lumber,  7  inches  high 
over  all,  30  inches  wide  and  44  inches  long,  with  an  aperture 
underneath  6  inches  high  'and  20  inches  wide,  into  which  the 
transveyor  is  pushed. 

After  the  platform  has  been  loaded  and  the  transveyor  is 
pushed  beneath  it,  by  lowering  the  handle,  which  serves  as  a 
lever,  the  entire  load  may  be  elevated  to  If  inches  from  the 
floor,  which  clearance  is  sufficient  over  rough  and  uneven  floors 
and  down  inclines.  To  release  the  platform,  the  operator  presses 
his  foot  against  a  pedal  on  the  transveyor,  which  lowers  the  plat- 
form to  the  floor  ready  for  delivery  or  storage.  These  platforms 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  permanent  storage,  as  the 
transveyor  can  be  pushed  beneath  the  platform  in  an  instant  and 
the  load  may  be  taken  away  without  handling  each  receptacle. 
Transveyors  of  larger  capacities  are  equipped  with  a  hydraulic 
ram,  which  enables  the  operator  to  raise  and  lower  the  load  with 
less  effort  and  no  jarring. 

The  capacity  and  the  number  of  transveyors  required  in  a 
storeroom  depends  on  the  weight  of  the  loads  to  be  handled  and 
the  volume  of  business,  but  a  type  designed  to  handle  a  load  of 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING  891 

3500  pounds,  and  a  transveyor  for  each  floor  of  the  building,  with 
sufficient  platforms,  would  answer  for  the  average  storeroom. 


Figure  274.— Cowan  Transveyor,  page  890. 

BARREL  TRUCKS 

The  single-handle  barrel  truck,  Figure  275,  has  an  adjustable 
steel  hook  about  two  feet  long,  fastened  to  the  upper  cross  bar  of 
the  truck,  and  is  designed  for  general  use,  such  as  handling  odd 
sizes  of  kegs  and  barrels.  There  are  many  other  types  of  barrel 
trucks  for  warehouse  handling,  but  the  chief  points  to  observe  in 
making  a  selection  are  the  size  of  the  nose  or  tongue  and  that  the 


892 


THE  STOREROOM 


side  standards  are  suitable  for  the  barrels  to  be  handled.  Trucks 
equipped  with  all  iron  slats  and  metal  covered  side  standards  are 
more  durable  than  the  uncovered  wood  construction. 


Figure  275.— Single  Barrel  Truck,  page  891. 

Box  TRUCKS 

,  is,  a  low  truck,  Figure  276,  strong  and  well  made  for 

handling  large  crated  appliances,  boxes  or  casks.  It  is  equipped 
with  spurs  to  prevent  material  from  slipping  off,  and,  therefore, 
should  not  be  used  for  any  material  that  might  be  damaged  in 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING  893 

contact  with  these  spurs.  It  is  generally  loaded  by  jacking  up 
the  material  or  by  raising  it  at  one  end  with  a  barrel  truck.  The 
box  truck  is  then  inserted  underneath  and  the  material  may  be 
hauled  away  with  little  or  no  difficulty. 


Figure  276.— Box  Truck,  page  892. 

WAGON  TRUCK 

This  is  a  popular  truck  or  platform  wagon,  Figure  277,  for 
storeroom  work.  It  is  made  in  several  sizes  and  is  designed  for 
general  work  in  transporting  boxes,  cartons  and  casks  of  uniform 
dimensions.  The  most  desirable  size  is  one  that  will  pass 
through  the  aisles  between  the  bins. 

GROCERY  TRUCK 

This  is  a  platform  truck,  Figure  278,  and  may  be  obtained  in 
several  sizes.  A  60  by  36-inch  platform  is  especially  adapted  for 
unloading  a  large  consignment  of  cartons  of  uniform  sizes.  The 
truck  may  be  taken  inside  the  railroad  car  on  the  siding  and  then 
wheeled  along  the  platform  into  the  storeroom  with  a  minimum 
of  physical  labor. 

FIBRE  WAREHOUSE  CAR 

This  is  made  of  tough  material  like  rawhide  and  is  light  and 
strong.  A  car  of  this  type,  Figure  279,  the  body  of  which  is  48 
inches  long,  30  inches  wide  and  30  inches  high,  that  may  be 


894  THE  STOREROOM 

conveyed  through  the  storeroom,  will  be  found  very  useful  in 
collecting  loose  paper  and  sweepings. 


Figure  277.— Wagon  Truck,  page  893. 

HAND  CART 

For  quickly  assembling  material  on  orders  specifying  a  mis- 
cellaneous lot  of  small  units,  where  it  is  necessary  to  go  from  bin 
to  bin  and  then  transport  the  material  to  the  wrapping  table,  a 
two-wheel  hand  cart  will  be  found  very  useful  and  almost  indis- 
pensable. The  cart  should  be  of  a  size  to  pass  through  the  aisles 
and  the  rectangular  body  proportioned  to  the  desirable  load  also. 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING 


895 


Figure  278.— Grocery  Truck,  page  893. 


896  THE  STOREROOM 

An  ordinary  clothes  basket  is  useful  for  collecting  small  units 
from  several  different  bins. 

SCALES 

The  storeroom  and  storeyard  should  be  equipped  with  enough 
scales,  of  modern  design,  to  do  all  necessary  weighing  promptly. 
Some  useful  scales  are  here  described. 
WAGON  SCALE 

This  scale  is  designed  for  outdoor  weighing  and  is  fur- 
nished in  a  great  variety  of  capacities  and  platform  sizes,  but 
when  making  a  selection,  care  should  be  exercised  to  specify  a 
capacity  and  size  that  would  answer  your  requirements  as  to  the 
character  of  material  to  be  weighed  and  both  your  own  and 
outside  parties'  transportation  equipment.  For  example,  you 
may  have  a  platform  which  would  accommodate  all  your  vehicles 
but  not  large  enough  for  that  of  a  dealer  who  regularly  delivers 
or  takes  away  large  consignments  of  material. 

DORMANT  WAREHOUSE  PLATFORM  SCALE 

This  scale  is  designed  for  setting  directly  into  any  wood,  dirt  or 
concrete  floor.  It  is  adapted  for  heavy  service,  such  as  weighing 
barrels  of  malleable  fittings,  castings,  etc.,  and  its  platform  being 
level  with  the  floor,  material  may  be  trucked  directly  thereon. 
This  results,  not  only  in  a  saving  of  labor,  but  of  the  scale  itself. 

PORTABLE  PLATFORM  SCALE 

This  scale  is  equipped  with  a  floating  platform  and  can  be 
wheeled  to  any  part  of  the  storeroom  alongside  the  material  to 
be  weighed.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  subject  it  to  shock 
or  vibration  by  placing  thereon  or  taking  off  extra  heavy  material. 
For  weighing  packages  under  100  pounds  each,  this  scale  is  very 
efficient. 

PARCEL  POST  SCALE 

This  scale  is  designed  to  facilitate  ascertaining  the  weight  and 
cost  of  parcel  post  packages.  It  is.equipped  with  both  an  ounce 
and  a  pound  balance  bar,  and  the  latter  has  a  table  on  it  showing 
the  rate  of  postage  by  weight  and  zone. 

STRAIGHT  SPRING  BALANCE  SCALE 


i-nxmAWtij.     tjjr.iu.nu     JJALAJM-.C,     Ol_A.LJi 

A  scale  of  this  type,  with  a  hook  for  weighing  ice  or  small 
quantities  of  material  up  to  25  pounds,  will  be  found  very  useful. 

COMPUTING  SCALE 

This  is  a  portable  platform  combination  weighing  and  counting 
machine.     It  can  do  the  work  of  weighing  material  precisely  as 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING 


897 


Figure  279.— Fibre  Warehouse  Truck,  page  893. 


898  THE  STOREROOM 

any  standard  portable  platform  scale,  and,,  in  addition,  it  is 
equipped  with  computing  balance  and  weight  bars,  which  can  be 
adjusted  to  furnish  the  weight  and  count  of  small  units  which 
must,  however,  be  very  uniform  in  size  and  shape  to  obtain 
satisfactory  results.  On  each  of  four  sides,  the  computing  bar  is 
notched,  showing  what  the  total  count  of  any  weight  should  be, 
based  upon  whether,  two,  ten,  twenty-five  or  fifty  pieces  are 
placed  in  a  pan  suspended  from  the  computing  bar.  Both  the 
weight  and  computing  bars  operate  in  unison. 

PACKING  AND  WRAPPING  FRAGILE  MATERIAL 

To  reduce  breakage  and  damage,  great  care  should  be  taken  in 
packing  fragile  material,  such  as  domes,  fixtures,  glassware,  port- 
ables and  shades.  A  small  article  should  be  wrapped  and 
attached  with  twine  to  a  large  unit  so  that  it  will  not  be  over- 
looked when  unpacking.  Packing  should  be  used  liberally 
(either  hay  or  excelsior).  The  compression  in  a  baling  press  of 
the  packing  material  taken  from  incoming  cases  will  provide  an 
ample  quantity  for  shipping  purposes  and  often  an  excess  stock 
for  sale.  The  press  will  also  serve  to  reduce  fire  risks  by 
enabling  the  baling  of  waste  paper. 

Barrels,  cases  and  cartons  in  which  goods  are  originally  deliv- 
ered, may  be  utilized  occasionally  when  issuing  barrel  lots  of 
fittings,  arcs  and  arc  globes,  box  lights,  mantles,  etc.,  thereby 
avoiding  extra  handling  and  breakage.  In  most  cases,  however, 
it  is  advisable  to  provide  special  receptacles  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  certain  material. 

Antifluctuators  may  be  shipped  in  specially  constructed  boxes 
of  sizes  varying  with  the  antifluctuator,  made  of  1-inch  lumber, 
with  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  lid  for  the  projection  of  the  stem. 
This  stem  should  be  protected  by  placing  two  boards  at  a  right 
angle  over  its  end  and  fastened  to  opposite  sides  of  the  box.  To 
this  arch  the  stem  should  be  securely  fastened,  so  that  the  anti- 
fluctuator will  not  touch  the  bottom  of  the  box,  but  is  suspended 
by  the  stem.  It  has  been  found  necessary  to  pack  antifluctuators 
in  this  manner  so  that  during  transit  the  leather  diaphragm  will 
not  become  injured  by  the  unavoidable  vibration  that  ensues. 
Antifluctuators  in  storage  should  be  held  in  the  same  way. 

Domes  should  be  packed  in  a  special  case,  durably  constructed 
of  f-inch  lumber,  30  inches  square,  and  about  36  inches  deep, 
with  handles  on  two  sides.  A  case  built  of  these  dimensions  will 
contain  three  average  size  domes.  In  preparing  domes  for  ship- 


RECEIVING  AND  SHIPPING  899 

ment,  the  packing  is  placed  snugly  around  and  between  them, 
with  a  bedding  at  the  bottom  6  to  8  inches  in  depth,  and  at  the 
top  about  4  inches  above  the  crown.  No  other  material  should 
be  packed  in  the  same  case,  excepting  the  dome  rods,  which  may 
be  placed  in  a  corner  of  the  case  well  away  from  the  domes,  so  as 
to  prevent  breakage.  Mark  the  lid  ''This  side  up,"  to  guard 
against  any  possible  chance  of  the  domes  becoming  inverted, 
because  if  this  should  happen,  the  entire  weight  being  on  the 
crowns,  breakage  would  probably  result.  Dome  cases  should  be 
carried  (not  trucked)  to  the  delivery  wagon. 

Fittings,  nipples,  stationery  and  miscellaneous  small  articles 
may  be  conveniently  delivered  in  boxes  of  uniform  size,  known  as 
shipping  boxes.  These  are  built  of  1-inch  lumber,  30  inches 
long,  12  inches  wide  and  12  inches  high,  with  handles  or  cross 
pieces  on  the  ends  for  ease  in  handling.  For  cleanliness,  separate 
boxes,  marked  on  the  outside  "For  Stationery  Only,"  should  be 
used  solely  for  conveying  stationery. 

Fixtures  may  be  shipped  in  barrels.  The  arms  should  be 
placed  in  a  bed  of  suitable  packing  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel. 
Fixtures  should  not  be  packed  with  the  stem  at  the  bottom  and 
the  arms  protruding  from  the  top.  This  rule  appliesto  receptacles 
of  all  kinds,  but  especially  to  barrels,  because  there  is  a  tendency 
to  utilize  a  barrel  too  small  for  the  arms  of  fixtures,  with  the 
result  that  the  arms  become  broken  or  strained  either  in  handling 
or  by  the  shifting  of  material  against  them  while  in  transit. 


CHAPTER  LXXXI 

INSPECTION 

INTRODUCTORY 

Materials  ordered  in  accordance  with  certain  specifications 
should  have  a  careful  and  rigid  inspection  before  acceptance. 
However,  all  materials  received  should  be  inspected,  whether 
casually  or  thoroughly,  and  an  inspection  division  may  be  found 
advantageous.  A  great  many  miscellaneous  items  require  only 
a  rough  inspection  to  note  whether  the  goods  as  ordered  were 
actually  received,  or  to  pick  out  broken  and  defective  material, 
in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to  report  the  conditions  on  an 
inspection  report,  Figure  280,  the  original  being  sent  to  the  ship- 
ping clerk  and  a  copy  to  the  bill  clerk  as  a  check  on  the  approval 
of  the  bill,  so  that  either  a  credit  memorandum  or  a  replacement 
may  be  obtained.  It  is  very  necessary  to  inspect  fittings,  cocks, 
etc.,  removed  from  previous  connections  and  reclaimed,  before 
being  placed  in  stock,  and  also  such  illuminating  appliances  as 
domes,  portables,  fixtures,  etc.,  before  shipment  to  the  consumer. 
A  description  of  suitable  inspection  methods  for  these  materials 
will  now  be  given. 

FITTINGS,  NIPPLES  AND  STEEL  PIPE 

At  one  period  it  was  probably  common  practice  to  buy  from 
one  manufacturer  all  the  fittings  and  pipe^used  by  a  company,  as 
this  material  was  not  standardized  and  serious  jointing  trouble 
sometimes  resulted  from  the  use  of  several  makes.  In  time, 
however,  the  manufacturer  either  departed  from  his  past  stand- 
ard, or  raised  his  prices,  or  did  both,  so  that  for  both  reasons  the 
advantages  of  buying  from  more  than  one  firm  finally  outweighed 
the  disadvantages.  At  first,  in  changing  over,  material  was 
specified  to  be  "  the  same  in  every  respect"  as  previously  bought, 
but  experience  showed  that  definite  specifications  were  needed  to 
obtain  articles  that  would  joint  with  existing  stock.  In  these 
specifications,  the  threading  requirements  are  the  most  important, 

(900) 


INSPECTION 


901 


1 

t- 

II 

I 

« 

ri 

i! 

il 

^ 

s 

i 

Figure  280.— Storeroom  Material  Inspection  Report,  page  900. 

(Actual  size.  S\*  x  8j"— loose  leaf) 


902  THE  STOREROOM 

as  poorly  made  threads  of  varying  diameters  are  the  cause  of 
great  expense  and  annoyance  if  they  reach  the  district  shop 
or  the  job. 

In  testing  for  thread  diameter  with  a  Briggs  standard  gauge, 
the  plug  should  enter  by  hand  3|  to  4|  threads,  and  the  ring 
should  engage  in  the  same  way  on  male  threads,  so  that  the  outer 
end  of  pipe  or  fitting  is  either  flush  or  not  more  than  1|  threads 
of  being  flush  with  the  outer  end  of  the  gauge.  When  one  lot 
does  not  quite  pass  this  test,  before  rejection,  samples  should  be 
jointed  with  material  that  has  passed,  and  if  they  joint  satisfac- 
torily, then  the  new  lot  can  be  accepted. 

For  inspection  purposes,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  pick  out  at 
random  only  a  portion  of  the  entire  lot,  and  carefully  inspect  for 
sand  holes,  rough  castings,  straightness,  splits,  condition  of  weld, 
burred  threads,  thickness  and  diameter  of  pipe,  and  gauge  of 
threads.  Should  this  portion  show  faults  to  warrant  its  rejection, 
the  entire  lot  should  be  returned  for  replacement. 

Inspection  tends  to  the  suggestion  of  certain  improvements. 
One  of  these  is  a  recess  on  the  female  end  of  certain  fittings 
extending  beyond  the  first  thread,  which  is  thus  protected  from 
injury  during  handling.  In  this  way  time  is  saved,  better  joint- 
ing secured,  and  threads  are  protected  from  corrosion.  (See 
page  375.) 

BRASS  COCKS 

A  factory  inspection  of  brass  service,  meter  and  appliance  cocks 
will  amply  repay  any  large  company.  What  was  said  on 
page  91,  in  discussing  service  cocks,  about  the  advantage  of 
special  metal  composition  and  design,  applies  equally  well  to 
meter  and  appliance  cocks.  Such  factory  inspection  insures 
quality  of  product,  and  this  spells  safety  as  well  as  economy  in 
distribution  work.  It  has  served  to  educate  the  manufacturer, 
who  no  longer  believes  that  any  cock  is  good  enough  for  gas 
work,  but  instead,  strives  for  the  best  possible  product.  The 
inspection  cost  per  cock  will  be  less  than  three  cents. 

Two  inspections  are  made.  The  first  starts  with  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  cock  before  assembling.  This  includes  a 
careful  inspection  of  both  key  and  body  for  uniformity  and 
smoothness  of  grinding,  and  for  walls,  solid  and  free  of  foundry 
defects,  and  of  the  key,  for  freedom  from  cuts  or  channels,  or 
light  spots  due  to  the  springing  of  the  body  during  machining. 


INSPECTION  903 

Walls  should  be  calipered  and  general  dimensions  taken,  care- 
fully noting  whether  the  key  has  been  ground  into  the  body  far 
enough  to  avoid  forming  a  shoulder  at  the  bottom.  Briggs' 
standard  pipe  thread  gauges  should  be  used  to  test  the  tapping. 
After  this  has  been  done,  the  inspector  should  place  his  stamp  on 
the  body  of  the  cock,  indicating  that  it  has  passed  first  inspection. 
The  cock  should  then  be  thoroughly  washed,  removing  all  traces 
of  grinding  sand  from  the  hex  ends,  threads,  etc.  After  this 
operation,  it  should  be  subjected  to  a  water  test  of  20  to  30 
pounds,  between  the  heads  of  a  suitable  press,  with  key  open, 
minus  spillnut  and  washer.  This  test  is  for  solidity  of  casting 
and  uniformity  of  grinding  at  top  and  bottom  lap  or  seal.  The 
cock  should  then  be  dried,  lubricated  and  assembled,  after  which 
it  should  receive  the  final  inspection,  which  covers  the  assembling 
and  finishing  up,  such  as  removing  all  fins,  burrs,  etc.,  and  the 
general  working  condition  of  the  cock.  If  this  is  satisfactory 
and  the  cock  meets  all  requirements,  the  inspector  should  place 
the  final  inspection  stamp  upon  it,  preferably  on  the  finished  face 
of  the  hex.  Records  of  the  rejected  cocks  should  be  kept  by  the 
inspector. 

Where  the  purchaser  specifies  a  standard  metal  mixture,  drill- 
ings for  analysis  should  from  time  to  time  be  taken  from  the 
keys  and  bodies. 

BRASS  VALVES 

Owing  to  the  number  of  good  standard  makes  of  brass  valves, 
the  general  inspection  of  a  submitted  sample  suffices  for  this 
class  of  material.  The  sample  should  be  very  carefully  inspected 
for  general  construction,  workmanship,  finish  and  adaptation  to 
the  work  for  which  valves  are  intended.  Notes  should  be 
recorded  by  the  inspector,  so  that  any  shipments  about  whose 
quality  doubt  exists,  can  be  checked  with  the  records  of  the 
sample  valve,  and  if  inferior  in  any  way  to  the  standard,  the 
entire  shipment  should  be  returned. 

ILLUMINATING  APPLIANCES 

GENERAL 

As  illuminating  appliances  and  their  parts  are  sold  to  con- 
sumers, it  is  essential  to  be  certain  that  the  material  is  in  good 
condition  and  just  as  represented  to  the  purchaser.  This  requires 
an  individual  inspection  of  fixtures,  domes,  portables  and  art 
glass  shades,  but  other  appliances  may  be  accepted  after  in- 
specting only  a  portion  of  each  invoice. 


904  THE  STOREROOM 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  reporting  material  that  is 
broken  when  received,  as  it  is  quite  possible  to  recover  for  the 
damage  to  certain  classes  during  transit. 

Owing  to  the  extensive  variety  of  lighting  material  that  is 
likely  to  be  handled  by  a  gas  company  in  a  large  city,  there  is  apt 
to  be  more  or  less  confusion  in  ordering  and  receiving  the  differ- 
ent kinds,  but  this  can  be  largely  obviated  by  distinguishing 
numbers  inserted  on  the  appliance,  after  inspection,  with  a 
sticker  or  tag.  A  china-marking  pencil  is  quite  generally  used 
on  smooth  glassware  where  a  sticker  will  not  adhere. 

FIXTURES 

A  great  many  fixtures  are  delivered  unassembled,  which  mate- 
rially aids  inspection,  and  also  prevents  excessive  breakage  and 
tends  to  decrease  transportation  costs.  However,  fixtures  from 
local  dealers  will  generally  be  received  completely  assembled,  as 
being  delivered  by  their  own  teams,  they  do  not  require  careful 
and  expensive  packing. 

Cock  construction  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  a 
gas  fixture,  and  all  cocks  should  be  purchased  under  the  standard 
specifications  of  the  American  Gas  Institute.  (See  page  608.) 
The  inspection  of  the  cock  should  be  considered  as  the  first  and 
most  important  part  of  the  fixture  inspection.  The  fixture  key 
gauge,  Figure  64,  page  195,  should  be  used  and  the  points  to  be 
covered  are  listed  in  the  report  form,  Figure  281. 

After  this  thorough  inspection  of  the  cock,  a  general  inspection 
of  the  workmanship  and  construction  of  the  fixture  should  be 
made,  with  a  report  of  any  defects  and  weak  points.  The  fixture 
should  then  be  placed  on  a  gas  line  and  subjected  to  a  pressure 
of  3.3  inches  of  water  column  to  test  for  obstructions  and  sufficient 
gasway.  This  is  followed  by  an  air  test  of  8  inches  of  water 
column  to  locate  any  defects  or  leaks,  and  the  cock  during  this 
test  should  not  contain  an  excessive  amount  of  grease,  and 
should  be  readily  turned  by  hand.  If  the  fixtures  pass  these 
tests,  they  may  be  approved  and  placed  in  stock. 

DOMES,  PORTABLES  AND  ART  GLASS  SHADES 

Owing  to  their  cost,  it  is  advisable  that  this  class  of  illuminating 
appliances  should  receive  a  careful  and  individual  inspection  for 
cracked  panels,  defective  solder  joints,  finish  of  brass  work,  and 
conformity  to  the  requirements  of  the  order.  The  inspection 
for  cracks  and  defects  in  joints  is  best  made  by  placing  the  glass- 
ware over  an  electric  light. 


INSPECTION 


905 


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M 

M 

11 

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h 
i^ 

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i 

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I§ 

I  1 

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si 


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V 


Figure  281.— Fixture  Inspection  Report, 

(Actual  size.  5"  x  8"— loose  leaf) 


f! 

904. 


906  THE  STOREROOM 

GLASSWARE 

Shades  and  globes  should  be  inspected  for  proper  position  of 
designs  and  to  insure  a  safe  and  perfect  fit  on  the  burner,  and 
a  collar  opening  large  enough  to  allow  a  cylinder  or  chimney  to 
slide  readily  through. 

A  portion  of  each  lot  of  cylinders  and  chimneys  received 
should  be  examined  to  check  the  style  received  and  for  fit  on 
burners. 

MANTLES 

A  casual  inspection  of  a  portion  of  a  mantle  shipment  should 
show  whether,  the  workmanship  was  standard,  whether  any 
changes  had  been  made  in  the  weave,  and  whether  they  hang 
straight  and,  if  of  the  inverted  type,  properly  fit  on  the  burner  tip. 

BURNERS,  LIGHTS  AND  ARCS 

The  constant  changes  in  construction  and  style  of  this  class  of 
appliances  necessitate  the  examination  of  a  part  of  each  lot 
received,  to  see  that  they  are  gas-tight,  will  pass  sufficient  gas  to 
properly  fill  the  mantles,  and  that  the  finish,  etc.,  is  in  good 
condition  and  as  ordered. 

FUEL  APPLIANCES 

Fuel  appliances  should  be  carefully  examined  for  breakage, 
general  condition,  and  missing  parts;  at  least  one  from  each 
lot  received  should  be  thoroughly  gone  over  point  by  point  to  see 
that  all  the  specifications  are  conformed  with,  as  it  has  been  fre- 
quently found  that  shipments  do  not  agree  in  many  essentials 
with  the  sample  submitted  for  test. 

A  more  ideal  system  would  be  to  have  inspectors  visit  the 
various  manufacturers  from  time  to  time  and  inspect  the  appli- 
ances before  shipment.  In  this  way,  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary 
trouble  and  work  could  be  prevented,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
manufacturer  knowing  such  inspection  would  be  made,  would 
take  greater  pains  to  conform  to  the  specifications. 

CAST-IRON  MATERIAL 
PIPE  AND  SPECIAL  CASTINGS 

The  advantages  of  foundry  inspection  of  pipe  and  special 
castings  have  been  described  on  page  56.  The  "Standard  Speci- 
fications for  Cast-iron  Pipe  and  Special  Castings  of  the  American 
Gas  Institute"  should  govern  this  work,  but  what  follows  should 
be  of  use  to  the  inspector  in  enforcing  this  standard. 


INSPECTION  907 

An  inspector  should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  foundry  prac- 
tice and  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  specifications  by  which 
he  is  to  be  guided;  in  addition,  he  should  have  a  fair  knowledge 
of  the  work  for  which  the  material  is  intended. 

The  inspector  should  be  at  the  foundry  before  the  first  cast  is 
made,  and  go  over  the  patterns  carefully  to  see  that  they  conform 
in  all  respects  to  the  drawings  and  specifications  under  which  the 
contract  is  let.  If  unsatisfactory,  the  purchaser  should  be 
advised  why,  in  the  inspector's  judgment,  the  patterns  are  unfit 
to  be  used. 

In  connection  with  the  first  cast  of  each  day,  it  is  advisable  to 
have  specimen  bars  cast  for  the  purpose  of  making  tensile 
strength  test. 

Upon  the  completion  of  all  necessary  cleaning  and  chipping, 
the  pipe  should  be  subjected  to  a  close  visual  inspection,  after 
which  the  sockets  and  spigots  should  be  tested  for  size  with 
standard  gauges,  and  the  pipe  calipered  at  four  opposite  points 
of  its  circumference,  at  both  bell  and  spigot  ends  for  about  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches,  to  determine  the  variation  of  metal  thickness. 
After  this,  the  hammer  test  should  be  applied  for  imperfections 
not  discernible  by  the  eye,  such  as  honey-combing  and  blowing. 

If  pipe  is  cast  heads  down,  the  hammer  test  should  be 
applied  at  the  spigot  ends.  If  cast  heads  up,  the  bell  end  should 
receive  similar  treatment;  in  addition,  the  face  and  socket  of 
all  bells  cast  head  up  should  be  well  picked  to  determine  whether 
any  great  amount  of  sand  has  floated  to  these  points.  Any  pipe 
found  to  be  defective  from  any  serious  cause  whatever,  should 
be  rejected,  the  serial  number  removed,  and  any  private  marks 
of  the  purchaser  also  erased  at  this  time.  The  inspector  should 
immediately  enter  the  number  and  the  cause  for  rejection  in  his 
record  book,  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  accepted  and  rejected 
pipe  becoming  mixed. 

After  this  inspection  has  been  completed,  the  pipe  is  ready  for 
weighing  and  marking.  The  number,  weight  and  inspector's 
initials  should  be  clearly  painted  in  white  lead  on  the  interior  of 
the  barrel  at  the  bell  end.  The  pipe  is  then  ready  for  the  hydro- 
static test,  before  which  the  inspector  should  satisfy  himself  that 
the  gauge  on  the  press  is  correct  and  working  properly. 

When  shipment  is  made,  the  inspector  should  check  off  all  pipe 
loaded  on  cars  to  prevent  any  rejected  pipe  being  accidentally 
placed  therein.  Schedules  for  shipment  should  be  made  out  for 
each  car  and  approved  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  work. 


908  THE  STOREROOM 

The  inspection  of  special  castings  should  be  the  same  as  that 
for  pipe,  omitting  the  hydrostatic  test. 

Notwithstanding  the  closest  inspection  at  the  foundry,  there 
are  times  when  defective  castings  are  liable  to  slip  by  the 
inspector,  or  it  may  be  that  in  loading  or  in  transportation  they 
receive  a  jar  or  strain  that  would  reveal  a  defect  impossible  to 
detect  by  the  foundry  inspection.  It  is  advisable  to  have 
castings  found  defective  after  shipment  inspected  by  an  experi- 
enced person,  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  the  true  cause  of  the  failure. 

LAMP  POST  MATERIAL 

The  foundry  inspection  of  cast-iron  lamp  posts,  ladder  bars 
and  panels  has  proved  of  great  advantage.  Formerly,  manu- 
facturers thought  that  standing  upright  was  the  sole  require- 
ment for  a  post  and  paid  insufficient  attention  to  strength  and 
vital  points  of  design.  Foundry  inspection  insures  the  complete 
removal  of  cores  and,  therefore,  an  unobstructed  passage  for  the 
lamp  riser;  'the  detection  of  variation  in  metal  thickness  causing 
weakness  at  critical  points;  the  fit  of  ladder  bars  on  post  tops, 
preventing  subsequent  ladder  turning  with  its  possible  serious 
results;  the  removal  of  fins  and  sharp  edges,  another  hazard  to 
distribution  workmen;  and  conformity  to  prescribed  weight. 

SERVICE  BOXES 

Experience  shows  that  service  boxes  may  be  ordered  from  a 
sample  without  foundry  inspection,  and  that  the  resulting  stock 
will  contain  few  defectives. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIAL 

It  is  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  order  quite  a  variety  of 
miscellaneous  material,  such  as  sheet-iron  pipe  and  fittings, 
leather  or  fibre  washers,  etc.,  and  the  advisability  of  having  a 
local  standard  and  of  ordering  in  accordance  with  specifications 
cannot  be  too  strongly  urged. 

Washers  for  unions,  as  an  example,  should  be  carefully 
inspected  for  thickness,  quality  of  material  and  all  dimensions, 
to  insure  their  perfect  fit  on  the  unions.  In  fibre  washers,  which 
have  been  used  to  advantage  for  unions  on  water  lines,  it  is 
necessary  to  allow  j^-inch  in  diameter  of  opening  for  shrinkage, 
as  these  washers  are  usually  cut  when  damp. 

Yarn  is  an  article  that  should  be  inspected  for  the  amount  of 
dryness  or  oil  content  desired,  as  the  case  may  be. 


INSPECTION  909 

The  value  of  specifications  for  oils  has  been  demonstrated,  and 
deliveries  should  be  checked  by  periodic  chemical  analyses. 

These  items  are  selected  from  a  long  list  to  demonstrate  the 
value  of  carefully  inspecting  material  that  may  be  classified  as 
"miscellaneous."  There  is,  however,  another  class  of  miscella- 
neous material  not  carried  in  stock,  but  specially  ordered  at  odd 
times,  and  this  also  should  receive  at  least  a  casual  inspection. 

RECLAIMED  MATERIAL 

GENERAL 

It  is  apparent  that  some  economical  disposition  should  be 
made  of  all  recovered  material.  A  great  deal  may  be  reclaimed 
and  the  expense  of  inspecting  the  old  material  and  reclaiming 
that  which  can  be  used  again  is  much  less  than  the  cost  of  the 
new  material  thus  saved. 

As  the  various  kinds  of  materials  require  different  methods  of 
inspection,  each  class  will  be  treated  individually. 

FITTINGS,  NIPPLES  AND  STEEL  PIPE 

Each  fitting  need  not  be  thoroughly  inspected,  but  stripped 
threads,  strained  fittings  and  extensive  corrosion  should  be 
watched  for.  Any  doubtful  inexpensive  fittings  should  be 
scrapped,  as  the  labor  necessary  for  a  thorough  inspection  and 
probable  cleaning  would  exceed  the  cost  of  new  fittings,  less  the 
scrap  value  of  the  old  ones. 

BRASS  COCKS 

By  reclaimed  cocks  are  meant  service  and  meter  cocks  that 
have  been  in  service  and  removed.  Unless  removed  for  evident 
worthlessness,  these  cocks  should  be  returned  to  the  storeroom 
to  determine  whether  or  not  they  are  in  safe  condition  to  be  used 
over  again.  To  begin  with,  they  are  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a 
wire  brush  to  remove  all  dirt  from  bodies  and  keys,  after  which 
they  should  be  treated  to  a  bath  of  boiling  soda  solution  to 
remove  all  grease  and  foreign  matter.  All  red  or  white  lead 
should  be  removed  from  the  thread  and  walls  of  hexes,  after 
which  the  cocks  are  taken  apart,  keys  and  bodies  wiped  dry  and 
lubricated.  Any  cocks  showing  signs  of  injury  in  grinding  or 
elsewhere,  either  from  use  or  a  blow,  are  scrapped;  those  that 
appear  to  be  in  good  condition  are  lubricated,  reassembled  and 
tested  as  a  new  cock  would  be.  Those  that  are  tight  are  placed 
in  stock,  and  the  others  are  scrapped.  This  reclaiming  process 
should  occur  about  once  a  year,  and  should  be  under  the  direction 


910  THE  STOREROOM 

of  a  cock  inspector  or  any  qualified  mechanic  familiar  with  the  use 
of  these  cocks.  By  this  means,  large  quantities  of  these  cocks 
can  be  saved  that  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

ILLUMINATING  APPLIANCES 

Reclaimed  illuminating  appliances  are  inspected  in  the  same 
way  as  are  new  appliances  of  the  same  type.  This  inspection 
ascertains  whether  by  a  nominal  expenditure  they  can  be  put 
in  shape  to  be  sold  as  new,  or  at  what  price  they  should  be  sold 
in  their  present  condition. 

FUEL  APPLIANCES 

In  inspecting  reclaimed  fuel  appliances,  each  appliance  must 
be  carefully  gone  over  to  ascertain  its  exact  condition.  When  the 
number  of  reclaimed  appliances  is  not  large,  their  sale  in  a  work- 
ing second-hand  condition  may  often  prove  advantageous  as 
compared  with  extensive  repairing  in  the  endeavor  to  convert 
them  into  new  appliances.  In  a  large  situation,  however,  there 
are  many  returned  appliances,  and  experience  shows  that  the 
trouble  and  delay  in  selling  them  as  second-hand  makes  more 
economical  the  policy  of  converting  them  into  new  goods,  either 
by  the  gas  company  or  by  the  manufacturers.  When  this 
repairing  is  done  by  the  gas  company  at  different  locations, 
standard  methods  of  treatment  are  needed  to  insure  a  uniform 
product. 

CAST  IRON*  MATERIAL 

Pipe  and  special  castings  taken  out  of  the  ground,  unless  of 
insufficient  she,  should  be  examined  to  determine  their  fitness 
for  further  use.  If  passed,  they  should  be  placed  in  the  storeyard 
and  used  at  the  first  opportunity.  If  condemned,  they  should 
be  sold  as  scrap. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIAL 

The  advisability  of  inspection  of  the  great  variety  of  reclaimed 
material  falling  in  this  class  becomes  a  matter  of  judgment,  where 
the  cost  of  inspection  compared  with  that  of  the  material  itself 
is  usually  the  determining  factor. 

SCRAP  MATERIAL 

Materials  under  this  heading  have  probably  been  inspected 
before,  but  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  price  for  scrap,  it  is  well  to 
separate  it  before  sale  into  the  following  classes: 


INSPECTION  911 

Brass : 

With  iron  pipe  attached 

With  lead  pipe  attached 
Copper: 

Boiler  tubes 
Iron: 

Cast 

Sheet 
Lead: 

Dross 

Pipe  and  joints 

Pipe  with  brass  and  iron  connections 
Rubber: 

Bicycle  tires 

Inner  tubes  and  trimmings 

Covered  gas  tubing 

It  can  be  readily  seen  from  these  divisions  that  some  inspection 
is  required  to  properly  sort  the  material.  In  the  case  of  brass 
goods,  it  is  essential  to  know  that  the  brass  is  not  merely  coating. 


CHAPTER  LXXXII 

STORAGE 
INTRODUCTORY 

As  the  design  and  layout  of  a  storeroom  depend  largely  upon 
the  size  and  accessibility  of  the  buildings  and  yard,  it  is  proposed 
here  merely  to  describe,  in  a  general  way,  effective  and  time-tried 
methods  of  storing  various  classes  of  material.  Throughout 
this  chapter,  floor  carrying  capacity  must  be  continually  kept 
in  mind. 

BINS,  CLOSETS  AND  RACKS 

CONSTRUCTION 

Bins  and  closets,  as  usually  constructed,  have  been  of  surfaced 
lumber  or  sheet  steel,  of  sizes  to  conform  to  the  height  of  ceiling 
and  the  kind  of  material  to  be  stored.  Occasionally  the  wooden 
construction  has  been  in  portable  sections,  requiring  more  mate- 
rial, but  allowing  ease  of  moving.  In  the  future,  sectional  steel 
bins,  racks  and  shelving  will  find  wider  and  wider  use  and 
ultimately  replace  wooden  structures  because  of  their  advantages 
of  adjustability,  fire  resistance,  strength,  convenience  and  oper- 
ating economy.  Some  of  what  follows,  however,  has  especial 
reference  to  wood. 

By  placing  a  partition  lengthwise  through  the  center,  a  row  of 
bins  or  closets  may  be  made  into  a  double  section,  back  to  back, 
as  it  were,  and  saving  considerable  storage  space  over  single  rows. 
If  feasible,  aisles  should  be  directly  opposite  windows,  to  admit 
light  and  ventilation,  and  should  be  ample  in  width  to  permit 
free  movement  of  a  workman  with  a  hand-truck.  Narrow  aisle 
space  not  only  causes  the  workman  to  carry  what  he  would  other- 
wise handle  by  truck  or  conveyor,  but  prevents  the  use  of  such 
labor-saving  devices  as  mechanical  computing  scales,  which,  to 
be  most  effective,  should  be  used  at  the  bin. 

The  subdivision  of  bins  and  closets  will  be  governed  largely  by 
the  character  of  material,  but  a  general  rule  to  follow  is  to  make 

(912) 


STORAGE  913 

• 

the  compartments  at  the  bottom  large  enough  to  accommodate 
heavy  or  bulky  material,  and  to  decrease  the  size  with  the  height. 
Assuming  that  the  bins  on  the  bottom  are  three  feet  square,  at 
the  top  of  the  first  tier  the  depth  would  be  reduced  by  one  board 
at  least  one  foot  wide.  This  would  afford  a  footway  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  first  tier,  thus  making  bins  at  a 
height  of  eight  or  nine  feet  accessible  without  the  use  of 
a  ladder.  This  point  is  of  interest  to  the  storekeeper  because 
of  the  objections  to  ladders  for  obtaining  material.  Light 
scaling  ladders,  placed  at  an  angle  against  the  bin,  are  more 
or  less  hazardous,  because  the  men,  to  save  moving  the  ladder, 
take  chances  by  leaning  far  to  one  side,  and  in  consequence,  the 
ladder  often  goes  with  them  to  what  sometimes  results  in  a 
serious  injury.  Another  objection  is  the  difficulty  of  finding  a 
safe  as  well  as  a  convenient  place  for  the  scaling  ladder  while  not 
in  use.  If  it  is  left  standing  in  an  aisle,  a  workman  engaged  in 
trucking  material  is  very  apt  in  turning  a  corner  to  strike  it, 
causing  it  to  fall  either  against  himself  or  another  workman. 
Step  ladders  are  more  or  less  cumbersome,  especially  in  view  of 
the  necessity  of  moving  them  from  place  to  place,  but  where 
ladders  are  required,  a  strong  type  of  lightweight  ladder  seems 
to  be  the  most  satisfactory  in  the  absence  of  ladders  on  trolleys. 

All  bins  should  have  a  board  or  strip  across  the  front,  not  less 
than  three  or  more  than  twelve  inches  wide,  to  hold  in  material 
and  to  provide  name  space. 

Racks  or  shelves  may  be  constructed  of  steel  pipe,  tied  in  at 
the  bottom  by  floor  plates  and  at  the  sides  and  top  by  fittings 
with  cross  pieces  of  planking,  on  which  may  be  stored  tools,  such 
as  shovels,  bars,  handles  and  other  large  tools.  By  the  use  of 
storage  racks  or  platforms  built  at  an  elevation  half  way  between 
the  floor  and  ceiling,  storage  space  for  that  area  may  be  doubled. 
These  racks  are  of  service  in  utilizing  space  directly  over  material 
which  cannot  be  piled  to  advantage. 

LABELING 

On  any  floor,  each  row  of  bins,  closets,  racks  and  shelves  should 
be  designated  as  a  section,  and  lettered  in  alphabetical  order 
beginning  with  the  letter  "A,"  and  each  bin  numbered  in 
numerical  order  beginning  with  number  1,  for  each  section. 
Attached  to  either  the  closet  door,  or  to  the  strip  across  the  front 
of  the  bin,  should  be  a  metal  card-holder  about  3  by  7  inches, 
containing  a  bin  card,  Figure  270.  The  section  letter  and  bin 


914  THE  STOREROOM 

• 

number  should  be  recorded  in  a  stock  ledger  so  that  anybody  in 
the  organization  can  locate  material  by  reference  to  this  record. 
This  will  avoid  the  confusion  incident  to  locating  stock  in  the 
absence  of  the  order  man. 

With  the  work  of  putting  away  and  getting  out  stock  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  men  who  have  been  allowed  to  do  it  in  their  own 
way,  however  conscientiously  and  reliably,  there  will  be  all 
manner  of  confusion  in  locating  stock  in  their  absence.  Where 
two  or  more  men  are  employed,  it  is  advisable  to  train  them  to 
be  interchangeable,  so  that  no  particular  branch  of  the  work  will 
l>e  dependent  upon  one  certain  workman. 

Storage  space  for  each  item  should  be  based  on  the  maximum 
stock,  as  it  is  better  to  have  a  few  bins  out  of  use  occasionally, 
than  to  so  use  space  as  to  result  in  much  changing  about  or  scat- 
tering the  stock  in  several  places. 

STEEL  PIPE,  FITTINGS  AND  NIPPLES 

For  accessibility,  all  pipe  should  be  stored,  by  size,  under  cover, 
in  suitably  designed  racks,  located  at  or  convenient  to  roadways. 
One  end  may  be  piled  even  for  good  appearance,  and  it  is  well  as  a 
timesaver  when  inventorying,  to  divide  large  lots  with  chain  into 
piles  of,  say,  2000  feet.  Skids  or  blocking  should  be  placed  under- 
neath the  pipe  to  keep  it  off  the  ground.  Coated  pipe  should  be 
kept  preferably  under  a  shed  with  one  or  both  ends  open  to  admit 
air  for  quicker  drying.  Lath  may  be  used  on  the  flooring  and 
between  each  layer  of  pipe,  as  it  must  be  kept  from  sticking 
together.  Threaded  ends  exposed  to  the  weather  should  be 
sprayed  with  oil  of  a  composition  recommended  by  the  pipe  mill. 
The  recommendation  to  provide  space  for  the  maximum  stock 
of  each  particular  article  is  not  feasible  or  economical  in  the  case 
of  large  stocks  of  fittings,  where  as  many  as  100,000  of  one  size 
are  used  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Therefore,  evolution  has  brought 
about  the  storage  and  handling  of  such  stocks  in  original  barrels 
and  cases.  This  refers  to  any  part  of  a  consignment  which 
includes  barrels  containing  only  one  size  of  fitting  or  nipple.  A 
proper  record  is  kept  of  all  barrels  with  such  contents,  and  little 
or  no  trouble  is  experienced  in  locating  or  handling  such  material. 
1  he  contents  of  all  barrel  lots  are  marked  plainly  on  the  head 
of  the  barrel. 

All  other  fittings  are  kept  in  bins  varying  in  size  according  to 
the  size  and  quantity  of  the  material.  Nipples  4  inches  and 
shorter,  with  the  exception  of  barrel  lots,  are  stored  loose  in  bins, 


STORAGE  915 

while  larger  nipples  are  piled  neatly  in  rows.  In  allotting  space 
for  piling  nipples,  guard  against  such  lost  space  as  would  result, 
for  instance,  in  piling  nipples  10  inches  long  in  a  bin  24  inches 
deep.  There  will,  of  course,  be  places  where  nipples  whose 
length  bears  an  even  relation  to  the  depth  of  bin  cannot  be  used. 

ILLUMINATING  APPLIANCES  AND  PARTS 

All  of  this  material  is  fragile  and  valuable,  and  needs  protection 
from  breakage,  deterioration  and  theft. 

ARCS  AND  GLOBES 

When  used  in  sufficient  quantity,  arcs  and  arc  globes  should  be 
purchased  in  cartons,  as  the  increased  cost  thus  caused  will  be 
more  than  offset  by  reduction  in  breakage.  Each  unit  is  packed 
in  individual  cartons,  a  convenience  in  handling  in  the  storeroom 
and  in  transit  to  the  consumer.  The  cartons  are  packed  one  to 
two  dozen  each  in  skeleton  wrooden  cases,  and  may  be  piled  and 
sent  out  in  the  original  package. 

DOMES 

The  history  of  storing  domes  is  replete  with  breakage,  and  it 
might  be  of  interest  to  repeat  the  various  methods  that  have 
been  used. 

Storing  in  casks  or  boxes,  completely  enveloped  with  hay  or 
excelsior,  affords  protection,  but  requires  much  space,  and 
affords  no  means  of  ready  recognition  for  stock  taking  and 
filling  orders.  Laying  the  domes  on  shelving,  accessible  and 
convenient  for  other  storeroom  purposes,  is  not  satisfactory, 
because  vibration  and  atmospheric  conditions  cause  breakage, 
partly  due  to  the  uneven  edges  of  the  bearing  surface  supporting 
the  full  weight  of  the  dome. 

The  problem,  therefore,  seems  to  be  to  devise  something  which 
will  withstand  vibration  and  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
glassware,  and  the  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  282  has  been 
very  satisfactory.  Attach  with  floor  flanges,  two  pieces  of  ^-inch 
steel  pipe,  one  to  the  floor  and  one  to  the  ceiling,  leaving  one  foot 
of  open  space  between  the  two  ends;  then,  over  the  lower  pipe, 
slip  a  ^-inch  nipple  long  enough  to  suspend  a  dome  3  inches  above 
the  floor.  The  dome  is  equipped  with  a  standard  spider  through 
the  opening  of  which  no  larger  than  ^-inch  pipe  will  pass,  so  that 
the  spider  and  dome  rests  securely  on  the  |-inch  nipple.  Insert 
another  ^-inch  nipple  to  support  dome  number  two,  and  so  on 
up  to  five  domes,  keeping  about  3  inches  play  between  each  dome. 


916 


THE  STOREROOM 


Figure  282.— Dome  Storage  Rack,  page  915. 


STORAGE  917 

The  rigidity  depends  upon  the  use  of  a  ^-inch  nipple  about  18 
inches  long  which  connects  the  two  ^-inch  pipes.  This  nipple 
rests  on  the  top  of  the  last  spider  and  should  be  long  enough  to 
engage  the  £-inch  pipe  attached  to  the  ceiling.  This  method 
requires  very  little  space. 

FIXTURES  AND  CASING 

All  polished  or  specially  finished  parts  should  be  wrapped  with 
tissue  paper  to  protect  the  finish,  and  then  tied  up  securely  with 
wrapping  paper.  Where  there  is  sufficient  headroom,  fixtures 
may  be  suspended  from  a  pipe  or  rod  attached  to  the  ceiling, 
using  a  chandelier  hook  in  attaching  the  fixture  to  the  support. 
Brackets  can  be  piled  to  advantage,  but  never  pile  fixtures 
having  arms. 

Box  LIGHTS  AND  MANTLES 

When  shipped  in  sealed  cartons  and  used  in  large  quantities, 
box  lights  and  mantles  can  be  stored  in  original  cases.  Broken 
lots,  however,  should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key.  Owing  to 
the  marketable  nature  of  this  material,  every  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  guard  against  theft. 

PORTABLES  AND  SHADES 

These  are  wrapped  up  to  protect  metal  finish  from  tarnishing 
and  scratching,  and  may  be  stored  in  bins  large  enough  to 
accommodate  the  portable  standing  on  its  base.  Companion 
shades  and  portables  are  kept  together. 

TUBING 

This  refers  to  so-called  rubber  tubing  for  appliance  connections, 
which,  if  not  cared  for  properly,  will  dry  out  and  deteriorate  very 
quickly.  It  should  be  freely  ventilated  and  never  stored  in 
closed  compartments.  Keep  it  laid  out  flat  on  low  shelving  of 
the  skeleton  type,  and  do  not  pile  in  too  many  layers.  Tubing 
may  be  stored  on  large  spools,  but  an  objection  to  this  is  that  the 
bottom  lengths  are  subjected  to  too  much  weight,  and  become 
pressed  out  of  shape. 

FUEL  APPLIANCES  AND  PARTS 

Up  to  the  limit  of  floor  carrying  capacity,  fuel  appliances  may 
be  piled  on  top  of  each  other,  either  crated  or  uncrated,  except 
such  cabinet  ranges  as  are  too  large  to  be  piled  safely.  In  piling 
uncrated  ranges,  use  at  least  two  strips  of  wood  about  1  inch  thick 
and  4  inches  wide  across  the  top  of  ranges,  one  at  front  and  one 


918  THE  STOREROOM 

at  back,  to  act  as  a  bearing  and  to  keep  the  ranges  piled  evenly. 
Automatic  water  heaters  may  be  kept  in  original  crates  and  piled, 
as  may  gas  heaters  received  in  cartons.  Water  heaters  may  be 
piled  in  rows  with  a  light  strip  of  wood  between  each  tier.  When 
unloading  a  carload  of  ranges,  save  all  wooden  strips  which  act  as 
supports  or  braces  in  the  car,  to  serve  in  piling  ranges  for  stock. 
Large  units,  such  as  hotel  ranges,  bakers'  ovens,  large  broilers, 
storage-type  water  heaters,  etc.,  which  cannot  be  piled  to 
advantage,  should  be  stored  underneath  open  racks,  already 
mentioned,  the  top  of  the  racks  to  be  used  for  high  shelves,  range 
bodies,  canopies,  and  for  bins  and  closets  in  which  provision  may 
be  made  for  small  appliances,  such  as  stovelighters,  toasters,  sad- 
iron heaters,  chafing  dishes,  percolators,  and  gas  irons.  ^  These 
small  appliances  should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key,  with  the 
responsibility  of  handling  them  limited  to  certain  men,  so  that 
any  discrepancies  may  be  traced. 

Fuel  appliance  parts  may  be  stored  in  bins  of  varying  sizes  to 
accommodate  the  different  parts.  Preservation  of  nickel  and 
sheet  metal  parts  is  effected  by  greasing  with  petrolatum  and 
painting  with  flexible  compound  or  any  antirust  solution.  This 
is  not  necessary  in  the  case  of  new  appliances,  because  the  manu- 
facturers have  been  educated  to  wrap  with  paper  all  nickel  parts, 
and  to  oil  the  sheet  metal  parts,  but  it  is  essential  to  go  over  stock 
which  may  be  carried  over  from  one  year  to  another. 

CAST-IRON  PIPE  AND  SPECIALS 

There  has  always  been  a  tendency  to  regard  the  sizes  of  special 
castings  as  being  readily  distinguishable  by  the  eye,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  wrong  size,  especially  in  large  castings,  is  frequently 
sent  out.  Therefore,  it  will  pay  to  mark  the  size  on  all  castings 
not  so  marked  in  manufacture.  This  is  particularly  important 
for  caps,  plugs,  split  sleeves  and  reducing  specials. 

This  material  is  usually  stored  out  of  doors,  and  often  with 
little  or  no  attention  paid  to  the  first  arrangement  or  subsequent 
placing.  This  results  in  disorder,  delay  in  filling  orders  and  loss 
of_  valuable  storage  space.  Cast-iron  specials  should  be  kept  in 
alignment  according  to  kind  and  size,  and  piled,  if  feasible.  In 
piling  pipe,  insert  boards  between  each  tier  and  tie  in  the  end 
pipe  with  wedges  to  prevent  slipping  off.  There  should  be 
sufficient  driveways  in  and  around  the  yard,  and  each  lot  of 
material  should  be  accessible  at  all  times. 


STORAGE  919 

COMBUSTIBLE  AND  INFLAMMABLE  MATERIAL 
This  class  includes  all  oils,  matches,  paints,  liquid  polish, 
excelsior  and  waste.  Observe  all  the  fire  underwriters'  rules 
concerning  them.  Gasoline  is  kept  in  a  galvanized  tank  placed 
outside  in  a  concrete  cradle  three  feet  underground,  and  is  pumped 
by  hand.  Coal  oil,  lard  oil,  alcohol,  linseed  oil  and  turpentine 
are  stored  in  outside  fireproof  vaults,  and  are  drawn  up  by  air 
pressure.  Excelsior,  hay,  matches,  clean  waste  and  yarn  may 
be  kept  inside  the  building  when  stored  in  wooden  boxes  lined 
completely  with  at  least  No.  20  gauge  sheet  metal.  All  loose 
hay,  excelsior  and  old  paper  is  baled  or  removed  from  the  build- 
ing. Cans  with  self-closing  lids  should  be  provided  for  greasy 
waste  used  inside. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIAL 
SUNDRY  MATERIAL 

Brass  cocks,  bicycle  sundries,  brushes,  chisels,  pliers,  wrenches, 
etc.,  are  usually  kept  under  lock  and  key  in  closets  to  which  only 
certain  men  have  access. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  keeping  this  stock  in  order, 
as  the  mixing,  in  one  bin,  of  parts  of  tools  and  various  sizes  of 
small  cocks  will  result  in  much  loss  of  time. 

The  closets  are  partitioned  off  according  to  the  size  and  stock 
of  article;  a  feature  of  this  work,  and  one  which  is  generally  used 
for  all  material  stored  indoors,  is  an  "in"  and  "out"  card,  which 
shows  the  inventory  as  of  the  close  of  the  year,  together  with  the 
quantities  put  in  and  taken  out  from  day  to  day.  By  balancing 
this  card,  the  quantity  on  hand  can  be  readily  determined. 
This,  however,  only  applies  to  main  storeroom  practice,  as  it 
would  not  be  practicable  where  material  is  issued  in  small 
quantities  direct  to  the  workmen. 

SHEET  METAL  FLUE  MATERIAL 

This  class  of  material  should  be  stored  under  cover,  free  from 
dampness,  and  coated  with  an  antirust  solution. 


CHAPTER  LXXXIII 

ACCOUNTING 
GENERAL 

In  this  chapter  will  be  described  approved  methods  of  store- 
room accounting,  these  including  cost  of  material,  stock  records 
and  reports,  stock  balances,  issuing  material,  compilation  of 
operating  costs,  distribution  of  handling  charges,  taking  inven- 
tories and  adjusting  discrepancies. 

It  is  a  general  truth  that  no  system  should  expend  more  in 
accounting  for  an  article  than  the  worth  of  the  latter;  therefore, 
stock  cards  and  account  sheets,  fully  justified  for  valuable  and 
marketable  material,  should  not  be  used  for  items  of  little  value, 
in  a  slavish  adherence  to  a  system.  Material  such  as  printed 
forms  and  stationery,  articles  purchased  for  specific  work,  and 
inexpensive  miscellaneous  things  which  cannot  be  easily  weighed 
or  counted,  should  be  charged  out  when  ordered  and  not  be 
accounted  for  as  used  in  small  quantities  from  time  to  timev 
This  is  further  discusssed  on  page  927  under  "Material  Ac- 
counted for  in  Bulk." 

Where  the  volume  of  work  justifies  the  expense,  the  largest 
situations  should  consider  the  use  of  tabulating  machines  for 
sorting  and  summarizing  orders,  thus  gaining  accuracy,  saving 
labor,  and  greatly  shortening  the  time  for  report  making. 
However,  as  each  such  system  must  be  especially  devised  to 
take  care  of  local  conditions,  it  is  thought  a  general  description 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  storeroom  accounting  by  hand 
work,  applicable  to  small  and  large  situations,  will  be  more 
serviceable. 

COST  OF  MATERIAL 
PASSING  INVOICES  FOR  PAYMENT 

The  purchasing  agent's  order  should  contain  an  explicit  notice 
where  to  forward  all  invoices.  These  are  usually  sent  in  dupli- 
cate to  the  purchasing  agent,  who  keeps  the  duplicate  and  for- 

(920) 


ACCOUNTING  921 

wards  the  original  to  the  main  storeroom  to  be  checked  with  the 
quantity  received,  and  finally  approved  and  passed  along  for 
payment.  The  purchasing  agent  certifies  on  each  invoice  that 
it  has  been  checked  as  to  price,  but  the  storeroom  bill  clerk  should 
also  see  that  the  price  is  in  line  with  previous  purchases  or 
present  market  values,  and  if  not,  call  attention  to  the  difference. 

All  invoices  should  be  stamped  by  the  bill  clerk  with  the  date 
of  arrival,  as  their  prompt  approval  is  advisable,  and  with  the 
time  of  receipt  unknown,  an  invoice  may  be  held  up  indefinitely 
with  little  chance  of  'placing  responsibility  for  delay.  This  is 
important  where  time  discounts  may  be  lost  through  negligence. 
For  ease  in  tracing  missing  papers,  invoices  should  not  be  for- 
warded from  one  office  to  another  except  through  designated 
channels.  In  all  cases  a  copy  of  the  purchasing  agent's  order 
should  be  forwarded  to  the  office  responsible  for  passing 
the  invoice. 

The  copy  of  the  purchasing  agent's  order  is  held  by  the 
receiving  clerk  until  receipt  of  material,  when  the  date  and 
quantity  received  are  posted  (see  page  887).  After  checking 
extensions,  the  invoice  is  then  compared  with  the  information 
furnished  by  the  receiving  clerk,  and  if  the  quantity  called  for 
on  the  bill  agrees  with  that  received,  the  invoice  is  classified  and 
passed  for  payment.  The  date,  amount,  classification  and  date 
of  approval  of  each  invoice  is  entered  on  the  copy  of  the  pur- 
chasing agent's  order,  as  this  information  is  very  essential  as  a 
matter  of  record,  especially  so  in  checking  duplicate  invoices. 

After  satisfying  himself  that  the  invoice  should  be  passed  for 
payment,  the  bill  clerk  classifies  it  to  the  proper  account,  as 
shown  by  the  receipt  or  the  copy  of  the  purchasing  agent's  order. 
In  case  the  invoice  is  classified  direct  to  an  operating  account,  it 
is  submitted  to  the  superintendent  for  approval  and  sent  to  the 
comptroller.  If  classified  to  "Storeroom,"  it  is  entered  in  the 
material  purchased  book  and  on  the  stock  ledger  before  being 
signed  and  forwarded  to  the  comptroller. 

t'pon  receipt  of  a  duplicate  or  triplicate  invoice,  the  copy  of 
the  purchasing  agent's  order  is  referred  to,  and  if  this  shows  a 
clear  record  of  passing  the  original,  stamp  the  duplicate  or 

triplicate  copy  "Storeroom  has  passed  bill  on (date) , 

same  date  and  same  amount,"  which  will  guide  the  comptroller 
in  locating  the  original.  In  case  the  original  has  not  been 
passed  for  payment  state  "Storeroom  has  not  passed  bill  before." 
A  record  of  the  duplicate  or  triplicate  should  be  made  alongside 


922 


THE  STOREROOM 


that  of  the  original,  as  by  such  recording  there  is  little  chance 
of  double  paying. 


SHOP  WORK   COST   RECORD 

DISTRICT 
DIVISION     REQ.  NO DATE. 


SHOP  ORDER  NO. 


PMICC  COST 


TOTAL  MATCRIAL  COST 


TOTAL  LABOR  COS! 


Figure  283.— Shop  Work  Cost  Record,  page  923. 


ACCOUNTING  923 

When  material  is  returned  for  credit  or  replacement,  the  bill 
clerk  should  exercise  as  much  care  in  checking  for  price  and 
quantity  as  he  does  for  material  received. 

Freight  bills  are  particularly  troublesome  to  pass,  because  it  is 
advisable  to  associate  each  consignment  with  its  purchasing 
agent's  order,  especially  when  the  freight  is  charged  back  to  the 
shipper.  The  freight  bill  usually  calls  for,  say,  two  cases  from  a 
certain  railroad  station,  with  no  other  guide  than  the  date,  so 
that  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  keep  the  accurate  record  of  all 
freight  consignment,  as  already  explained  on  page  887. 

The  terms  "F.  O.  B.  Point  of  Shipment"  or  "F.  O.  B.  Desti- 
nation" should  be  inserted  on  all  freight  bills  as  a  guide  to  the 
comptroller. 

MANUFACTURING  MATERIAL  FOR  STOCK 

In  making  bicycles,  meter  connections,  tools,  or  nipples,  or 
where  labor  is  required  to  complete  an  unfinished  article,  such 
as  assembling  fixtures,  a  shop  order,  Figure  283,  is  originated  to 
cover  each  lot  of  material.  This  system  can  also  be  applied  to 
the  operation  of  a  carpenter  shop,  by  which  all  shop  expense, 
such  as  labor,  power,  rent,  etc.,  should  be  charged  to  "Store- 
room" account  and  closed  into  various  accounts  for  which  work 
was  done,  or  charged  against  the  stock  material  created. 

The  shop  orders  should  be  numbered  serially  and  describe  the 
work  to  be  done.  The  number  affords  a  ready  means  for 
reporting  labor  and  discussing  details  about  any  order.  These 
orders  should  be  made  out  in  triplicate,  the  original  sent  to  the 
shop,  the  duplicate  kept  by  trie  stock  or  order  clerk,  and  the 
triplicate  sent  to  the  accounting  division.  All  material  and 
labor  is  reported  by  order  number.  When  the  work  is  completed, 
the  date  and  the  signature  of  the  foreman  is  entered  on  the 
original  order  and  returned  to  the  order  division.  At  the  close 
of  each  month,  a  final  statement  is  made  showing  the  total  cost  of 
labor  and  material  on  each  completed  order. 

APPRAISAL  OF  RECLAIMED  MATERIAL 

All  returned  appliances,  whether  in  need  of  repairs  or  not, 
should  be  debited  to  the  stock  account  at  their  full  value, 
charging  the  proper  sales  account  with  the  cost  of  repairs  or  the 
entire  value  beyond  repair.  The  alternative  method  of  fixing  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  original  cost  as  the  value  at  which 
returned  appliances  are  charged  into  stock,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, not  only  from  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  real  value 


924  THE  STOREROOM 

of  a  used  appliance,  but  also  because  of  the  fluctuation  made  in 
stock  unit  prices. 

Miscellaneous  material,  such  as  cocks,  fittings,  cast-iron  pipe, 
lamp  posts,  special  castings,  etc.,  that  have  been  accepted  as 
being  reclaimable,  and  of  the  need  for  which  there  is  a  reasonable 
certainty,  should  be  placed  in  stock  and  credited  at  the  prevailing 
unit  price,  less  the  expense  of  labor  and  material  that  may  be 
required  to  put  them  in  good  condition.  Based  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  returned  material  is  not  worth  as  much  as  new  stock, 
one  might  fix  an  arbitrary  credit  valuation  at  less  than  cost,  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  returned  appliances,  it  is  advisable  to  appraise 
at  somewhat  near  market  value,  thus  obtaining  uniform  stock 
prices  and  operating  costs. 

UNIT  COST 

The  unit  cost  is  used  as  a  basis  for  selling  prices,  appraisal  of 
stock,  and  for  compiling  operating  costs.  It  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  total  quantity  received  (of  one  or  more  lots)  into 
dividend  of  charges  which  may  include  any  one  or  more  of  the 
following  items:  net  invoice  of  dealer,  manufacturing  cost  of  a 
company-made  article,  freight  or  expressage,  labor  and  hauling, 
and  in  the  case  of  reclaimed  material,  appraisal  value.  There 
is  a  practice  of  closing  freight  or  expressage  and  cash  discount 
into  the  handling  accounts,  not  only  to  simplify  the  clerical 
work,  but  because  the  freight  charges  about  equal  the  cash 
discounts.  This  is  not  recommended  because  it  is  wrong  in 
principle  to  close  into  the  handling  account  any  item  not 
directly  related  to  the  handling  of  material,  and,  especially 
when  no  discount  is  allowed,  the  error  involved  may  be  con- 
siderable. 

ISSUING  MATERIAL 

GENERAL 

Success  in  this  work  requires  cooperation  between  the  store- 
keeper and  any  one  having  to  do  with  the  use  of  material,  to  the 
end  that  a  reliable  record  of  material  used  may  be  furnished  and 
loss  of  material  held  to  a  very  low  figure.  Too  much  stre-s 
cannot  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  having  a  definite  under- 
standing with  all  concerned  that  no  material  should  be  issued 
from  the  storeroom  unless  on  presentation  of  a  written  order, 
except  in  the  case  of  certain  material,  such  as  matches,  white 
lead,  solder,  twine,  etc.,  the  reporting  of  which  as  used  on  each 


ACCOUNTING  925 

job  would  be  not  only  impracticable,  but  too  costly.    The  orders 
that  will  be  described  are  those  in  use  in  Philadelphia. 

Orders  for  which  material  is  required  are  originated  either  by 
the  commercial  department  from  sales  orders  covering  sales  of 
specified  articles  to  consumers,  or  from  local  instructions  usually 
in  the  form  of  authorizations,  calling  for  the  extension  of  mains, 
services  and  meters,  or  the  enlargement  of  services  and  meters 
due  to  the  sale  of  fuel  appliances. 

SALES  ORDER 

This  order  (see  Figure  190,  page  664)  is  used  to  authorize  the 
installation  of  appliances  or  repair  parts  sold  to  a  consumer,  and 
is  sent  in  duplicate  by  the  commercial  department  to  the  shop. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  workman  from  making  any  change  in  the 
amount  of  material  shown,  the  original  order  is  sent  first  to  the 
storekeeper,  who  issues  the  material  and  then  hands  both  to  the 
workman.  As  each  article  is  taken  from  stock,  the  storekeeper 
stamps  the  order  "  Issued  (date)."  If  only  a  part  of  the  articles 
listed  on  an  order  are  issued,  the  stamp  may  be  placed  opposite 
each  such  article,  or  a  "not  issued  "  stamp  may  be  placed  opposite 
each  one  not  issued;  otherwise  the  stamping  on  the  back  of 
the  order  should  be  understood  to  indicate  a  complete  issue. 
Returns  are  indicated  in  a  similar  way. 

The  duplicate  orders  are  filed  in  the  shop  pending  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work.  When  the  original  has  been  finished  and  re- 
turned by  the  workman,  the  corresponding  duplicate  io  removed 
from  file  and  then  both  are  sent  to  the  storekeeper,  who  audits 
them  to  see  that  they  agree  exactly  as  to  work  done.  This  is 
important,  because  the  original  is  returned  to  the  commercial 
department  and  is  used  for  billing  the  consumer,  and  the  dupli- 
cate to  the  accounting  division  where  it  serves  as  a  notice  that 
the  articles  thereon  have  been  issued  from  stock.  This  dupli- 
cate, in  addition  to  the  issues,  should  show  the  address,  order 
number,  date  of  audit,  and  account  classification.  An  added 
precaution  to  prevent  loss  of  orders,  is  to  give  a  serial  number  to 
each  original  and  each  duplicate  order  as  it  is  sent  away  from  the 
shop. 

CREDIT  ORDER 

This  is  an  order  issued  by  the  commercial  department 
to  remove  an  appliance  from  consumer's  premises  after  it  has 
been  installed.  Its  principles  of  use  and  its  subsequent  audit  are 
the  same  as  those  for  the  Sales  Order. 


926 


THE  STOREROOM 


MATERIAL  ORDER 

This  order,  Figure  284,  is  used  to  report  material  as  apart  from 
appliances  or  their  parts.  A  separate  form  for  each  class  of  work 
requiring  distinctive  material  will  obviate  unnecessary  printing 

METER,  HOUSEPIPtNG,  AND  APPLIANCE  MATERIAL  USED 


SIZE  NO. 


•sa 


CITY 
Figure  284.— Material  Used  Record,  page  926. 

(Actual  size,  7M"x8^"— loose  leaf.) 

or  writing  on  any  one  form.  A  duplicate  copy  of  this  order  will 
serve  as  a  delivery  sheet  for  driver.  Each  order  is  classi- 
fied by  the  storekeeper,  or  the  account  is  checked  by  him  if 
classified  bv  a  workman. 


ACCOUNTING  927 

After  an  order  is  written,  no  alterations  should  be  made 
except  to  cross  out  an  item  entirely  or  to  reduce  the  number  of 
an  article.  This  should  be  done  by  making  a  pencil  mark 
through  the  original  figure  and  substituting  another  figure 
beside  it.  If  more  material  was  used  than  the  order  shows,  it 
may  be  added  to  its  face,  provided  there  is  a  vacant  space; 
otherwise,  an  additional  order  should  be  filled  in  fof  the  addi- 
tional material.  A  figure  should  never  be  increased  by  erasing 
it  or  making  a  pencil  mark  through  it.  Orders  showing  altera- 
tions should  receive  the  special  attention  of  the  storekeeper. 

All  orders  should  be  turned  in  to  the  office  for  numbering 
before  being  sent  to  the  storekeeper.  This  numbering  prevents 
the  loss  of  orders  and  shows  the  issuing  of  the  material  has  been 
approved  by  the  office,  and  except  in  specifically  authorized  cases, 
the  storekeeper  should  not  supply  the  material  until  the  order 
is  numbered. 

All  orders  should  be  examined  by  the  storekeeper  so  that  he 
may  know  the  material  has  been  properly  reported,  and  that  they 
contain  all  data  required  by  the  accounting  division. 

WORKMAN'S  STOCK 

Some  men  are  permitted  to  carry  a  supply  of  certain  material, 
a  list  of  which  is  kept  by  the  storekeeper.  When  a  workman 
uses  any  of  this  material,  he  lists  it  on  a  storeroom  order  and 
turns  in  the  completed  work  order  with  the  storeroom  order 
attached,  to  the  clerk,  who  numbers  both  orders,  after  which  the 
former  passes  through  the  office  in  the  regular  way,  and  the 
latter  is  sent  to  the  storekeeper,  who  reimburses  the  workman 
for  the  material  used  from  his  stock.  In  this  way  the  workman 
is  responsible  for  a  certain  quantity  of  material  which  should  be 
checked  by  the  storekeeper  at  odd  times.  An  alternative 
method  provides  for  giving  the  workman  a  freshly  filled  box  each 
day,  and  having  him  turn  in  his  depleted  stock  daily  to  the 
storekeeper  with  the  work  orders  on  which  the  material  was  used. 
The  storekeeper  checks  the  work  orders  against  the  missing 
material  to  see  that  all  has  been  accounted  for. 

MATERIAL  ACCOUNTED  FOR  IN  BULK 

On  page  920  certain  material  was  instanced  which  can  not 
be  charged  out  as  used  on  each  job.  This  class  may  be  charged 
out  when  ordered,  dividing  the  quantities  proportionately  among 
the  accounts  for  which  the  material  is  ordinarily  used.  This 
division  should  be  governed  by  a  table  showing  the  average 


928  THE  STOREROOM 

percentage  by  accounts  of  the  use  of  this  material,  the  table 
being  based  on  actual  use,  and  revised  quarterly. 
The  following  material  belongs  to  this  class : 

Acid  Nails 

Alcohol  Oil 

Ammonia  Paint 

Asphaltum  Plaster  of  Pans 

Bakelite  Putty 

Candles  Rosin 

Canvas  Sal  Ammoniac 

Cement  Sand 

Clay  Screws 

Cleaners  Skins,  chamois 

Cloth,  emery  Soap 

Cleats  Soda 

Coating,  pipe  Solder 

Coke  Tallow 

Enamel  Tar,  pipe  coating 

Gravel  Tin 

Grease  Tubing  _ 

Grit  Turpentine 

Lead,  red  and  white  Twine 

Lumber  Varnish 

Matches  Washers 

Mercury  Waste 

Muslin  Wire 

Parts    for   all    arc    lights,    excepting    globes, 

mantles,    ceiling    shields,    magnet    valves    and 

shades. 

Parts  for  box  lights,  excepting  mantles,  shades, 

globes,  cylinders  and  chimneys. 

RETURNING  UNUSED  MATERIAL  TO  STOCK 

When  a  workman  uses  less  material  than  has  been  delivered 
on  a  preinspection  order,  or  than  he  has  drawn  on  a  material 
order,  he  turns  it  in  to  the  storekeeper  with  a  credit  storeroom 
order.  Where  the  standard  box  system  is  in  operation,  or,  in 
fact,  wherever  there  is  a  likelihood  of  any  material  being  unused 
and  left  on  the  street  or  the  consumer's  premises,  the  storekeeper, 
to  insure  its  collection,  should  list  the  name  and  address  opposite 
the  number  of  each  box  delivered,  and  check  it  off  upon  the 


ACCOUNTING  929 

return  of  box  to  the  storeroom.     This  list  should  therefore  show 
at  all  times  the  number  of  boxes  outstanding. 
BREAKAGE 

All  breakage  of  mantles  and  glassware  on  consumer's  premises 
should  be  charged  out  to  the  account  on  which  the  workman  is 
engaged  at  the  time. 

Any  accidental  breakage  that  cannot  be  charged  out  to  a 
particular  job,  such  as  material  broken  when  received  from 
dealer  or  railroad  station,  for  which  no  claim  can  be  made, 
glassware  found  broken  in  case  lots,  and  that  broken  in  the 
storeroom  by  workmen  or  otherwise,  should  be  reported  to  the 
main  storeroom  at  the  close  of  each  month,  when  it  may  be  sum- 
marized by  units  and  value  according  to  the  unit  stock  ledger 
costs.  The  value  of  this  breakage  is  then  apportioned  to  the 
accounts  to  wrhich  material  of  the  class  broken  would  ordinarily 
be  charged.  The  object  of  determining  the  total  cost  of  break- 
age is  to  find  the  ratio  of  value  of  breakage  to  the  total  issues  of 
that  class  of  material,  so  that  it  may  be  included  in  the  selling 
price. 

Another  method  of  disposing  of  breakage  is  to  decrease  the 
unit  quantity  from  the  stock  ledger  sheet,  thus  increasing  the 
unit  cost.  This  practice  has  the  disadvantage  of  frequently 
altering  the  unit  price  and  making  it  *no  longer  correspond  with 
the  real  cost  of  the  article,  which  tends  to  confusion  in  checking 
costs. 

CHECKING  MATERIAL  TO  AVOID  Loss 

Without  going  to  unnecessary  expense,  storeroom  material 
should,  by  some  simple  system  of  checking.be  protected  against 
loss.  Individual  accounts  may  be  kept  with  certain  work- 
men if,  from  comparing  the  material  orders  on  which,  say,  cocks 
were  drawn  with  the  number  of  cocks  as  reported  on  completed 
storeroom  orders,  there  is  reason  to  believe  they  are  responsible 
for  loss  of  material.  The  preinspection  plan  of  delivering  only 
enough  material  for  each  job  will  be  found  to  be  a  more 
effective  check  against  loss  through  collusion  or  carelessness,  as 
the  workman  must  furnish  good  reasons  for  drawing  additional 
material,  which,  of  course,  is  added  to  the  storeroom  order.  By 
having  an  inspector  make  the  preinspection  and  list  what  is 
wanted,  and  a  fitter  and  helper  do  the  work,  while  the  storekeeper 
holds  the  duplicate  order  to  be  compared  with  the  original  after 
the  job  is  completed,  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  storeroom  is 
fairly  well  protected  against  loss. 


930 


THE  STOREROOM 


STOCK  RECORDS  AND  REPORTS 

MATERIAL  PURCHASED  BOOK 

This  is  a  loose-leaf  book,  Figure  285,  in  which  are  entered  the 
bills  classified  to  "Storeroom."  This  record  is  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose of  checking  bills  and  balancing  monthly  the  storeroom  stock 


STORE     ROOM     MATERIAL     PURCHASED 


Figure  285.— Material  Purchased  Book,  page  930. 

(Actual  size,  ll"x  12" — loose  leaf) 

account  with  the  comptroller's  balance.  By  keeping  this  record 
according  to  classes  of  material,  that  is,  keeping  each  class  sepa- 
rately, the  total  amount  of  each  class  purchased  may  be  gotten 
by  simply  adding  the  total  amount,  of  the  bills  entered  in  any 


ACCOUNTING 


931 


month.  Each  bill  is  numbered,  beginning  with  number  one  for 
each  year  for  each  class  of  material,  the  number  being  entered  in 
the  book,  to  afford  a  ready  means  of  checking  between  the 
storekeeper  and  comptroller.  In  this  book  should  be  posted 
everything  in  the  way  of  petty  cash  and  labor  chargeable  to 


Figure  286.— Material  Ledger,  page  932. 

(Actual  size,  ll'x  15 "—loose  leaf) 

"Storeroom,"  together  with  all  credits.  As  each  bill  or  item  is 
posted  on  the  material  ledger,  it  should  be  checked  off  in  the 
purchase  book. 

There  are  companies  which  keep,  in  place  of  the  above  record, 
an  ordinary  scrap  book,  into  which  an  extra  copy  of  the  invoice 
is  posted,  the  amount  of  each  bill  being  carried  to  a  column  ruled 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  each  page.  The  total  value  of  goods 
purchased  is  found  by  adding  this  column,  while  the  individual 


932  THE  STOREROOM 

items,  quantity  and  value  are  of  course  shown  on  the  bills.  This 
method  is  somewhat  cumbersome,  and  copies  are  likely  to 
become  detached  and  mislaid. 

MATERIAL  LEDGER 

This  is  a  unit  loose-leaf  ledger,  Figure  286,  containing  a  sepa- 
rate sheet  for  each  kind  of  appliance  and  for  each  kind  and  size 
of  article  chargeable  to  "Storeroom,"  except  reducing  fittings, 
which  are  grouped  by  their  largest  opening,  and  material  such  as 
nipples,  pipe  hooks,  washers,  etc.,  which  is  grouped  by  class  but 
not  by  size.  However,  items  which  vary  greatly  in  price  should 
not  be  grouped. 

In  this  ledger,  each  item  on  the  invoice  is  posted  on  the  debit 
side,  showing  date  of  receipt,  invoice  number,  quantity  received, 
terms  of  invoice,  net  unit  cost  and  total  cost.  On  the  credit  side 
should  be  shown  the  date  of  issue,  quantity  sold  and  value  of 
each  lot  issued.  By  balancing  these  sheets,  it  is  always  possible 
to  determine  how  much  stock  is  on  hand,  although  allowance 
must  be  made  for  outstanding  invoices  or  credits.  A  space 
should  be  provided  on  each  ledger  sheet  to  show  the  selling  price 
to  outside  parties,  as  the  unit  stock  price  fluctuates  for  various 
causes,  and  it  is  better  to  use  a  uniform  figure;  also  show  the 
minimum  and  maximum  quantities  to  be  carried  in  stock,  and 
enter  on  the  sheet  the  number  of  the  bin  in  which  the  article  is 
stored.  In  this  way  there  is  an  office  record  of  the  location  of 
each  article. 

The  ledger  clerk,  as  well  as  the  bill  clerk,  should  at  all  times 
watch  the  unit  cost  of  material,  and  where  he  finds  a  wide  varia- 
tion from  the  cost  of  the  previous  purchase,  he  should  notify  the 
purchasing  agent. 

SUMMARY  OF  ISSUES 

Just  as  the  record  of  the  value  of  material  purchased  should  be 
kept  according  to  well-defined  classes  of  material,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  investment  in  stock  for  each  class  of  material  on 
hand  at  the  close  of  each  month,  so  should  the  issue  be  recorded 
on  cost  sheets  that  are  ruled  and  printed  for  each  classification 
of  accounts  and  for  each  class  of  material  for  which  a  separate 
material  ledger  is  kept.  By  this  method  the  stock  investment 
of  any  class  of  material  may  be  obtained  without  going  to  the 
expense  of  balancing  each  ledger  sheet. 

All  material  orders  and  other  authority  for  issuing  material 
should  first  be  separated  and  grouped  for  each  classification  and 


ACCOUNTING 


933 


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934 


THE  STOREROOM 


then  entered  on  a  cost  sheet,  Figure  287,  which  contains  an 
itemized  list  of  standard  items  in  the  left-hand  column  and 
ample  space  in  the  center  for  posting  the  quantity  issued,  the 
entries  being  made  from  day  to  day  to  save  time  at  the  close  of 


FUEL  APPLIANCE  ISSUES 

APPLIANCES 

DISTRICT 
STORE   ROOM 

DISTRICT 
STORE  ROOM 

TOTAL 
UNITS 

TOTAL 

AMOUNT 

UNITS 

AM'T. 

UNITS 

AM'T 

_ 

TOTALS 

Figure  288.— Fuel  Appliance  Issues,  page  935. 

< Actual  size.  Il"xl4"— loose  sheet) 


ACCOUNTING  935 

the  month.  A  similar  form  is  used  for  credits,  which  should  be 
stamped,  in  red  ink  at  the  top,  "Credit,"  although,  if  few  in 
number,  credits  may  be  entered  in  red  ink  on  the  regular  charge 
sheet,  to  be  deducted  when  making  the  final  total.  To  insure 
accuracy  the  individual  credit  sheet  is  preferred. 

VVhere  costs  are  kept  for  more  than  one  shop  for  each  classifi- 
cation, a  summary  sheet,  Figure  288,  is  used,  to  which  the  entries 


STORE  ROOM  BALANCE  SHEET 

GAS  DEPARTMENT 

quarter  ending 


Small  Wrought  Iron  Pipe 


Duphcate  Repair  P.rt,,  Work, 


"  Store  Room  Siupeiue  Account  "  Balance 


Figure  289.— Balance  Sheet,  page  936. 

(Actual  sir.e,  81^'xll* — loose  sheet) 

are  transferred  from  the  individual  cost  sheet.  A  small  issue 
may  be  entered  directly  on  the  summary  sheet,  thus  obviating 
the  expense  of  making  an  individual  cost  sheet  for  each  station. 
To  ascertain  the  total  amount  to  be  charged  against  each 
account,  every  item  is  extended  on  the  cost  sheet,  then  totaled, 
after  which  the  quantity  issued  and  the  value  of  issue  of  each 
item  is  posted  on  the  credit  side  of  the  material  ledger.  The 
total  amount  charged  to  all  accounts  is  credited  to  "Storeroom  " 
account  by  a  journal  entry  at  the  close  of  each  month. 


936  THE  STOREROOM 

STOCK  BALANCES 

In  maintaining  a  stock  according  to  the  rules  discussed  on 
page  865,  the  storekeeper  will  be  aided  by  a  division  into  the 
following  classes: 

(A)  Street  Main  Material 

(B)  Steel  Pipe 

(C)  Fittings,  Cocks,  etc. 

(D)  Fuel  Appliances 

(£)     Illuminating  Appliances 

For  the  first  four  classes,  the  largest  stock  would  probably  be 
carried  on  March  thirty-first  and  the  smallest  on  December 
thirty-first,  while  that  under  "E,"  owing  to  most  of  the  lighting 
material  being  used  during  the  winter  months,  would  be  larg- 
est on  October  thirty-first  and  smallest  on  June  thirtieth. 

A  statement  of  storeroom  balances,  Figure  289,  divided  into 
the  several  classes,  should  be  sent  in  quarterly  to  the  distribution 
head,  and  the  storekeeper  should,  even  though  the  balances  are 
within  the  amounts  authorized,  analyze  the  purchases  and  issues 
in  order  to  attain  better  results  if  possible. 

COMPARISON  OF  STOCK  AND  ISSUE 

By  keeping  a  record  of  issues  according  to  classes  of  material, 
comparisons  may  be  made  as  to  the  ratio  of  stock  on  hand  to  the 
amount  issued;  for  instance,  an  issue  of  $100,000  during  the 
entire  year  and  a  stock  of  $25,000  at  the  close  of  the  year,  is  a 
ratio  of  stock  to  issue  of  25  per  cent,  which,  if  the  material  is  all 
active,  is  equivalent  to  carrying  three  months'  supply. 

After  analyzing  the  total  amount  of  issues  and  of  stock  balance 
for  each  class  of  material,  the  next  step  would  be  to  analyze  the 
activity  of  each  article  by  comparing  the  quantity  issued  with 
the  quantity  on  hand,  which  may  be  done,  preferably,  imme- 
diately after  the  close  of  the  annual  inventory,  or  from  the  stock 
ledger  at  the  close  of  each  month.  If  dissatisfied  with  the  ratio 
of  stock  to  issues,  set  a  hypothetical  figure  of,  say,  20  per  cent 
in  place  of  the  actual  figure,  and  then  make  up  a  list  of  all  stock 
items  by  classes  of  material  which  show  more  stock  on  hand 
than  20  per  cent  of  the  total  issues.  By  this  method  you  will 
have  learned  the  activity  of  each  article  and  be  in  a  position  to 
report  the  absolutely  "dead"  stock. 

STOCK  DETERIORATION 

This  question  is  a  factor  that  enters  into  the  operation  of  a 
storeroom,  especially  where  gas  fixtures  and  fragile  material  are 


ACCOUNTING  937 

handled.  While  many  salable  articles  are  marked  down  and 
sold  "As  is,"  it  is  thought  advisable  in  many  cases  to  have  a 
stock  fixture  refinished,  the  expense  being  charged  either  to  the 
proper  operating  account,  or  to  a  "Stock  Deterioration  "  account. 
By  following  the  latter  course,  one  is  enabled  to  learn  the  total 
expense  of  this  work,  and  also  periodically  charge  off  from 
"Storeroom"  any  stock  material  that  deteriorates  to  the  extent 
of  being  worthless,  the  total  "Stock  Deterioration"  afterwards 
to  be  closed  into  the  proper  operating  accounts. 

Other  stock  material,  such  as  rubber  tubing,  steel  pipe,  flue 
material,  etc.,  will  be  condemned  from  time  to  time,  and  where 
large  stocks  are  carried,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  deduct  the  unit 
quantity  condemned  from  the  stock  ledger  sheet,  thereby 
increasing  the  unit  cost  without  changing  the  money  value. 

SUSPENSE  ACCOUNT 

To  this  account  should  be  charged  all  dead  stock,  crediting 
"Storeroom,"  thus  eliminating  from  it  the  value  of  such  dead 
stock.  At  the  close  of  each  year  "Suspense"  should  be  revised 
by  charging  against  it  any  additional  items  of  dead  stock,  and 
crediting  to  it  any  dead  stock  that  may  have  been  used  or  sold. 
The  value  of  "Suspense"  should  be  shown  on  all  reports  of 
storeroom  material  balances.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  dispose 
of  dead  stock  by  sale  or  otherwise. 

INVENTORIES  AND  DISCREPANCIES 
TAKING  INVENTORIES 

Inventories  furnish  an  absolutely  necessary  check  upon  the 
relative  accuracy  of  any  system  of  stockkeeping,  issuing  and 
recording.  They  show  what  differences  may  exist  in  both  stock 
units  and  values  between  the  actual  stock  and  the  book  records. 
Such  a  check  is,  of  course,  most  important  where  articles  are 
sold  and  there  may  be  a  failure  to  render  proper  bills. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  take  too  much  for  granted  and  expect 
good  results  from  an  annual  inventory,  unless  monthly  check 
inventories  are  taken  all  through  the  year  to  get  a  line  on  any 
probable  discrepancies.  The  items  should  be  so  selected  that 
some  kinds  of  material  are  inventoried  once  during  the  year, 
some  kinds  several  times  a  year,  and  some  every  month,  the 
articles  inventoried  every  month  being  marketable  and  valuable 
material  in  which  discrepancies  are  most  likely,  such  as  brass 
goods,  lamps,  mantles,  etc.  At  the  same  time  it  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind  the  cost  of  inventorying  and  not  incur  undue  expense. 


938  THE  STOREROOM 

Where  large  purchases  have  been  made  with  a  comparatively 
low  issue,  the  storeroom  bookkeeper  should  indicate  such  items 
for  monthly  inventory,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  there  is 
really  an  overstock,  or  whether  the  material  has  been  used  and 
not  accounted  for. 

Most  companies  have  adopted  the  continuous  inventory  plan, 
whereby  material  is  counted  and  checked  when  it  is  least  active, 
which  not  only  insures  a  more  accurate  inventory  and  accounting 
of  issues  than  would  be  the  case  if  an  inventory  was  taken  during 
a  peak  load,  but  also  distributes  the  work  over  three  or  four 
periods  throughout  the  year  instead  of  trying  to  accomplish  it 
all  at  one  time.  The  following  inventorying  dates  are  recom- 
mended : 

Illuminating  Appliances    .     .     Close  of  June 
Cast  Iron  and  Miscellaneous  "  October 

Fuel  Appliances  and  Parts    .  "  November 

When  calling  for  a  monthly  or  annual  inventory,  the  storeroom 
should  forward  an  itemized  list  of  the  material  to  be  inventoried, 
and  the  time  of  inventory  should  be  the  close  of  business  on  the 
last  day  for  counting  issues  for  that  month. 

Workman's  stock,  cast-iron  pipe  and  specials  on  the  street,  and 
all  appliances  which  have  been  delivered  but  not  yet  connected 
at  inventory  time,  should  be  included  in  the  inventory. 

Many  discrepancies  have  been  finally  traced  to  errors  in 
counting  the  material  or  in  compiling  the  totals,  so  that  every 
one  responsible  for  storeroom  stock  should  bear  in  mind  the 
unnecessary  labor  caused  by  these  errors.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
in  a  large  situation  it  is  almost  impossible  to  trace  all  discrep- 
ancies, and  those  due  to  inventory  errors,  if  not  corrected,  will 
appear  the  succeeding  year  in  the  opposite  column.  In  other 
words,  if  the  inventory  balance  at  the  close  of  1918  includes  an 
item  that  was  plus  50,  due  to  an  error  in  counting,  this  same  item 
will  be  minus  50  at  the  close  of  1919. 

COMPARISON  OF  INVENTORY  WITH  LEDGER  BALANCE 
Before  comparing  the  inventory  with  the  ledger  balance,  all 
outstanding  invoices  for  material  received  prior  to  date  of 
inventory,  or  for  material  which  has  been  included  in  the  inven- 
tory, should  be  added  to  the  general  ledger  balance  or  deducted 
from  the  inventory  balance.  The  invoice  clerk  should  make  up 
a  list  of  all  such  bills  showing  kind  of  material,  date  and  quantity 


ACCOUNTING  939 

received,  and  this  list  should  be  used  by  the  bookkeeper  in 
making  the  allowances. 

Where  the  quantity  for  which  invoice  had  not  been  billed  is 
less  than  the  inventory  quantity,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  reduce 
the  inventory  accordingly,  which  serves  the  purpose  just  as 
though  the  material  had  not  been  counted  in  the  inventory.  It 
is,  however,  more  troublesome  if  part  or  all  of  the  material 
unbilled  had  been  used;  for  instance,  at  the  close  of  business 
December  31,  1918,  you  had  overissued  500  feet  of  6-inch  pipe, 
and  had  500  feet  in  stock,  making  1000  feet  for  which  the 
invoice  had  not  been  rendered,  the  500  feet  in  stock  should  not 
be  inventoried,  and  the  value  of  the  overissue  of  500  feet  should 
be  recorded  in  the  inventory  sheets  in  red  ink  as  a  plus  quantity 
to  be  deducted  from  the  total  inventory.  In  effect,  by  not 
inventorying  the  stock  of  500  feet  and  deducting  from  the 
ledger  balance  the  value  of  the  overissue  of  500  feet,  you  will 
have  reduced  the  net  inventory  to  the  extent  of  the  1000  feet 
unbilled,  which  should  be  excluded  because  the  inventory  must 
equal  the  balance  as  made  up  from  bills  actually  entered  in  your 
general  ledger.  In  opening  the  ledger  sheet  for  the  succeeding 
year,  post  the  plus  quantity  to  the  value  of  the  overissue  on  the 
credit  side,  noting  that  this  represents  an  overissue  of  the 
preceding  year,  so  that  when  the  outstanding  invoices  are 
received,  the  ledger  sheet  will  show  a  debit  of  1000  feet  against 
a  credit  of  500  feet,  leaving  a  balance  of  500  feet,  which  repre- 
sents the  stock  actually  on  hand  December  31,  1918. 

After  making  due  allowance  for  all  unentered  invoices,  each 
individual  sheet  should  be  closed  by  totaling  the  units  and  money 
value  of  all  debits  and  credits,  subtracting  the  latter  from  the 
former  to  ascertain  the  balance  of  unit  quantity,  unit  cost  and 
total  value  of  what  should  be  on  hand.  Then  take  an  itemized 
list  of  the  inventory  sheets  (using  a  set  of  mineographed  sheets 
on  which  the  inventory  was  taken)  and  rule  up  columns  in  the 
right-hand  side  showing  the  following: 

DISCREPANCIES 
ACTUAL  INVENTORY  QUANTITIES  —  FINAL  INVENTORY  VALUES 


Plus  Minus 


940 


THE  STOREROOM 


MATERIAL     STOCK    RECORD 

NAME  OF  MATE  RIAL  

MAIN  STORE:  ROOM 

DISTRICT  STORE:  ROOM 

DATE 
AND 
REGl.  NO. 

RECEIVED 

ISSUED 

DATE 
AND 

REQ.   NO. 

RECEIVED 

ISSUED 

Figure  290— Material  Stock  Record,  page  942. 

(Actual  size,  ll"xlS" — loose  leaf) 

The  inventory  quantity  and  final  inventory  value  is  then 
compared  with  the  balances  as  called  for  on  the  stock  ledger 
sheets,  and  all  discrepancies  are  entered  on  the  plus  and  minus 
columns  to  be  carried  forward  to  include  a  total  of  all  items, 
which  should,  of  course,  show  a  net  loss  or  gain,  as  the  case  may 


ACCOUNTING  941 

be.  The  inventory,  plus  or  minus  the  loss  or  gain  respectively, 
should  equal  the  balance  charged  to  the  stock  account  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  and  if  there  is  a  slight  difference,  the  comp- 
troller's figures  are  accepted  and  the  difference  is  added  (or 
deducted)  to  the  net  discrepancy,  as  any  errors  could  not  be 
located  without  a  thorough  audit  of  both  the  debit  and  credit 
entries  on  all  of  the  ledger  sheets  for  storeroom  material. 

ADJUSTING  DISCREPANCIES 

In  making  adjustments,  or  charging  off  the  discrepancy  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  it  is  Considered  equitable  to  adopt  either  of  the 
following  courses : 

1.  Retain  for  the  unit  figure  the  quantity  actually  in  stock 

when  the  inventory  was  taken,  and  to  the  value  of  the 
inventory  add  the  net  minus  discrepancy  of,  say,  a  class 
of  appliances,  thereby  increasing  the  unit  cost  of  each  of 
that  particular  class  of  appliances,  so  that  the  discrep- 
ancy is  really  carried  forward  and  charged  off  when  the 
appliances  are  used  during  the  succeeding  year. 

2.  Furnish  the  comptroller  with  a  statement  of  net  discrep- 

ancies by  classes  of  appliances  and  material,  together 
with  the  total  issues  of  each  particular  class  by  accounts, 
from  which  the  discrepancies  may  be  charged  out  as  of 
the  year  in  which  the  material  was  used. 

This  latter  method  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory,  saving  the 
time  and  annoyance  of  changing  unit  prices. 

However,  no  discrepancy  should  be  charged  off  unless  it  is 
relatively  insignificant  or  may  be  reasonably  explained.  As  an 
illustration,  suppose  in  one  year  there  was  a  net  loss  of  eight  gas 
ranges  which  could  be  accounted  for  in  a  number  of  ways,  such 
as  failure  to  include  in  inventory  some  ranges  that  may  have 
been  loaned  out  or  that  may  have  been  in  consumer's  houses  and 
not  connected,  etc.,  and  that  the  total  net  sales  of  ranges  for  the 
year  exceeded  18,600,  then  this  discrepancy  would  not  be  of 
sufficient  importance  to  justify  a  costly  investigation  or  a  change 
in  the  system. 

DISTRICT  STOCK  CARDS 

The  question  of  expending  large  sums  of  money  in  installing 
an  elaborate  system  for  keeping  track  of  storeroom  material  by 
additional  unit  district  stock  cards  resolves  itself  into  the  degree 
of  discrepancies,  and  when  such  discrepancies  are  held  down  to 


942  THE  STOREROOM 

a  reasonable  limit,  it  is  likely  that  the  money  spent  in  tracing 
them  would  far  exceed  the  value  of  the  loss. 

There  are,  however,  discrepancies  on  brass  goods,  mantles, 
gas  irons,  and  iron  heaters,  gas-stove  lighters,  toasters,  etc., 
which,  in  a  plant  operating  several  district  storerooms,  become 
more  or  less  annoying  because  of  the  probability  of  theft, 
as  the  articles  are  all  small  in  size  and  quite  easily  disposed  of. 
By  opening  at  the  main  storeroom  a  composite  unit  stock  rec- 
ord, Figure  290,  for  a  limited  number  of  items,  on  which  is 
recorded  the  movement  of  stock  shipped  to  and  by  each  district 
storeroom,  the  stock  on  hand  may  be  compared  with  what  should 
be  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  month.  In  this  way,  the  main 
storeroom  is  in  a  position  to  investigate  discrepancies  more 
thoroughly,  as  it  knows  accurately  the  disposition  of  this  par- 
ticular material. 


APPENDIX 

The  remarks  below  are  intended  to  amplify,  and  in  some  cases,  to  bring  to 
date,  statements  made  in  the  preceding  text. 

Chapter  II.  Organization.  The  organization  as  described  was  some- 
what contracted  during  1918,  but  is  now  slowly  expanding  again.  It  has 
proved  to  lend  itself  readily  to  changing  conditions.  In  some  cases  the  change 
was  made  by  abolishing  positions,  as,  for  instance,  having  but  one  general 
foreman  for  main  and  service  work.  Some  of  the  positions  of  division  superin- 
tendents were  combined  with  those  of  district  superintendent,  but  though  one 
man  might  hold  two  positions,  there  was  no  confusion  between  division  and 
district  functions. 

Chapter  V.  The  Personal  Equation.  These  words  were  written 
over  ten  years  ago,  but  have  not  been  changed,  as  the  general  princi- 
ples stated  still  hold  good.  To  be  conversant  with  the  labor  problem,  in  all 
its  details,  from  day  to  day,  the  employer  must  keep  in  touch  with  some  of 
the  many  sources  of  information  now  available.  A  large  organization  without 
an  employment  division  is  becoming  quite  rare.  Such  a  division  should  cover 
all  departments  of  a  gas  company. 

Chapter  IX.  Cost  Reports.  The  statements  are  as  of  1916,  and, 
therefore,  have  to  do  with  prewar  costs.  This  is  true  of  all  other  costs, 
absolute  or  comparative,  mentioned  in  the  book,  which  were  not  brought  up 
to.date  of  issue  because  there  seems  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  costs  of  1919 
will  l>e  any  more  valuable  in  1920  or  later  years,  than  those  of  1916.  In  these 
days  of  rapid  change,  no  one  year  is  like  any  other,  and  a  comparison  with  1916 
is  as  easily  made  as  would  be  the  case  with  1919. 

Page  58.  Radial  Bends.  The  American  Gas  Institute  standards  do 
not  provide  for  any  bends  of  60°  curvature.  Apparently  there  is  slight 
demand  for  such  specials,  though,  unless  the  city  plan  is  almost  exclusively 
rectangular,  there  are  many  occasions  where  these  bends  would  be  of  great  value. 

Page  87.  Steel  Pipe.  The  National  Tube  Company  has  recently  placed 
into  use  a  process  for  removing  scale  that  is  expected  to  have  material  effect 
in  decreasing  corrosion.  Some  two-year  tests  indicate  that  the  new  material 
is  fifty  per  cent  better  for  hot-water  pipes  as  compared  with  the  previous 
standard  iron  or  steel. 

Page  93.     Service  Schedule.    With  the  decrease  in  the  use  of  gas  for 

illumination,  the  number  of  rooms  is  no  longer  a  direct  measure  of  the 
future  demand,  and  often  there  are  no  outlets  to  count.  For  this  reason,  in 
1919  Philadelphia  adopted  a  service  schedule  as  below: 


size  w 
provided 


The  minimum  size  of  a  service  for  any  building  is  1  J-inch.  In  general,  this 
will  supply  any  dwelljng,  or  combined  store  and  dwelling,  of  12  rooms  or  less. 
provided  gas  is  not  used  in  any  large  appliance,  such  as  an  instantaneous  water 
heater.  In  such  event,  and  for  all  other  buildings,  the  size  should  be  calculated 
by  the  Cieneral  Foreman. 

(943) 


944  APPENDIX 

Page  99.  Service  Drips.  In  some  situations  economy  will  be  effected 
by  the  use  of  a  welded  drip. 

Page  143.  Drilling  and  Tapping  Machines.  Philadelphia  has,  within 
the  last  few  months,  used  with  success  an  application  of  an  electric  motor  to  a 
drilling  and  tapping  machine.  This  has  its  greatest  field  of  usefulness  where 
the  houses  are  built  in  solid  rows,  with  one  service  tap  every  eight  feet  of 
main.  Not  only  does  power  drilling  result  in  more  than  doubling  the  work- 
man's output,  but  also  the  threads  are  better. 

Page  165.  Motor  Drip  Wagons.  The  electric  drip  wagon  is  in  its 
eighth  year  of  satisfactory  service,  but  the  gasoline  wagon  is  now  doing  the 
bulk  of  the  pumping,  which  at  present  amounts  to  over  one  and  one-quarter 
million  gallons  yearly. 

Page  167.  Leak  Bars.  There  has  been  some  use  of  electric  power 
in  making  test  holes  for  leak  work.  The  Consolidated  Gas  Company  of 
New  York  was  the  pioneer  in  this  respect. 

Page  178.  Electric  Safety  Lamps.  It  is  believed  there  is  a  field  of 
usefulness  for  a  farm  lighting  unit  without  battery,  of,  say,  1  1/2  kw.  capacity, 
to  furnish  light  for  night  street  leak  work  and  also  power  for  service  tapping, 
leak  test  holes  and  thread  cutting. 

Page  201.  Force  Pump.  A  hand  pump  will  probably  be  largely  sup- 
erseded, where  conditions  are  favorable,  by  small  tanks  containing,  at  high 
pressure,  gas  or  air  for  use  in  removing  service  or  housepiping  stoppages. 
Philadelphia's  present  practice  in  this  respect  will  be  published  as  part  of  the 
discussion  on  Mr.  Charles  R.  Henderson's  discussion  on  "  Dust  Deposits  in 
Mains  and  Services,"  in  the  1919  Proceedings  of  the  American  Gas 
Association." 

Page  208.  Horse  Wagon.  The  horse  is  no  longer  used  in  Phila- 
delphia distribution  work.  Motor  experience  indicates  that  because  of  low 
upkeep,  the  Ford  one-ton  chassis  should  be  used  as  extensively  as  its  capacity 
will  allow. 


•  «  -212'     Elec.tric  Wagon.     The  equipment  purchased  in  1909  is  still 

in  as  efficient  operating  condition  as  when  new,  all  deterioration  being  com- 
pletely met  by  current  repairs.  At  present,  ton  for  ton,  with  all  costs 
considered,  the  electric  is  cheaper  than  the  gasoline  wagon,  especially  where 
operating  conditions  are  such  that  seven  or  more  wagons  can  be  operated 
from  one  charging  station. 

Page  253.     Cement  Joint.     The  joint  as  pictured,  and  as  described 

i  the  adjoining  pages,  has  proved  entirely  satisfactory  for  pipe  12-inch  and 

laller  in  size  when  properly  made.     It  is,  however,  not  as  strong  as  the  joint 

ecommended  by  the  Committee  on  Cast-Iron  Pipe  Joints  of  the  American 

Gas  Institute  and  illustrated  on  page  321  of  the  1915  Proceedings.     For  this 

reason  this  new  joint  should  be  used  by  every  one  adopting  cement  joints 

time,  or  by  any  one  experiencing  trouble  from  cement  joints 

made  in  any  other  way. 


945 


This  machine  has  never  been  placed 


Page  256.     Caulking   Machine. 

upon  the  market. 

Page  280.  Power  Rammers.  Later  experience  indicates  that  hand 
pneumatic  rammers  are  more  generally  useful  under  city  conditions  than 
a  tamping  machine. 

Page  315.  Steel  Pipe  on  Bridges.  There  is  an  increasing  tendency 
to  use  welded  steel  pipe  on  bridges,  especially  where  these  are  of  concrete 
and  the  pipe  is  completely  imbedded  in  the  bridge  structure. 

Chapter  XXXIII.  Electrolysis.  There  is  a  standing  Committee  on 
Electrolysis  of  the  American  Gas  Association,  and  its  annual  reports  contain 
the  latest  developments  of  this  subject  as  it  affects  the  gas  industry. 

Page  369.  Schedule  of  Service  Connections.  In  December,  1919, 
the  Philadelphia  schedule  was  amplified  and  changed  to  the  following: 


SCHEDULE  OF  SERVICE  CONNECTIONS 


SIZE  OF  MAIN 

Sizft  OF 

30" 

20" 

i  " 

1  " 

1   " 

1 

1   * 

1  " 

1  " 

1  " 

3"  S.  S. 

1  "S.S. 

it* 

1  *•" 

1  ^ 

1J" 

U" 

1  \" 

1  " 

3"  S.  S. 

1  *  S.  S. 

14* 

lr 

14* 

1  4 

1" 

14" 

1  4* 

3"  S.  S. 

3"  S.  S. 

1  "  S.  S. 

2  " 

2  " 

2  " 

2 

2  * 

2  " 

1  1" 

3*  S.  S. 

3*  S.  S. 

1  "  S.  S. 

4  " 

4  " 

4  " 

6"H.S. 

if 

4"H.S. 

2  " 
3"  S.  S. 
8"x4"T 

3"  S.  S. 
3"  S.  S. 
6"x4"T 

3"  S.  S. 
3"  S.  S. 
4"x4"T 

3"  S.  S. 
3"  S.  S. 

6  " 

6"H.F. 

6"H.S. 

6"  H.  S. 

6"  H.S. 

8"x6"T 

6"x6"T 

1 1»  S.  S.  =  Split  sleeve  with  1  J»  tapped  hole. 

6  "  H.S.= 6  "hub. 

6  "  H.F.  =  6"  Hat  flange. 

When  a  service  sleeve  is  used,  the  cut  or  tapped  diameter  of  the  hole  in  the 
main  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  service  pipe,  except  for  services  1  i"  and 
smaller,  when  the  existing  }*  or  1"  hole  may  be  used. 

When  no  service  sleeve  is  used,  and  when  the  hole  called  for  by  schedule  is 
smaller  than  size  of  service  being  installed,  the  enlargement  to  the  size  of  the 
service  should  be  made  as  close  as  possible  to  the  main. 

Page  370.  Restriction  of  Tap  Hole  Diameter.  Some  experiments 
on  this  subject  made  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Spitzglass  and  published  in  the  American 
('.as  Light  Journal  of  November  29,  1915,  indicate  that  the  restriction  of 
the  tap  hole  causes  more  pressure  loss  than  was  generally  supposed. 

Page  465.  Tie-In  Meter  Connections.  There  has  been  further  devel- 
opment in  these  connections  (see  Figure  135)  since  the  text  was  written,  and 
close  touch  should  be  kept  with  the  manufacturers  of  these  connections. 

Page  480.  Ebonite  Washers.  These  washers  are  still  in  use  and  giving 
satisfaction. 


946  APPENDIX 

Page  529.  Check  Test.  The  Committee  on  Consumers'  Meters  of  the 
American  Gas  Association  is  now  endeavoring  to  standardize  the  method  of 
check  testing.  Their  reports  should  be  studied. 

Page  547.  Open  Test.  The  1919  report  of  the  Committee  on  Con- 
sumers' Meters,  as  adopted  by  the  American  Gas  Association,  recommends 
the  use  of  the  open  as  well  as  the  check  test  on  all  meters  removed  from  service. 
By  the  use  of  the  check  test  only,  meters  may  be  placed  again  in  service  whose 
registration  will  be  incorrect  at  rates  of  use  differing  from  the  check  test  rate. 

Page  636.  Work  Completion  Schedule.  This  schedule,  as  well  as 
the  one  on  page  662,  was  true  of  prewar  conditions.  Present  schedules  do  not 
call  for  such  prompt  work. 

Page  641.  Free  Work  Beyond  Meter  Outlet.  As  a  result  of  increased 
operating  costs,  brought  about  by  the  war,  few  gas  companies  now  are  able  to 
do  any  free  work  beyond  the  meter  outlet.  This  is  to  be  regretted  from  the 
standpoint  of  both  consumer  and  company,  for  the  amount  of  maintenance 
work  done  by  the  company  has  decreased  tremendously,  because  in  most 
cases  either  the  work  is  not  done,  or  a  plumber  is  called  in,  and  in  either  event 
the  consumer  does  not  get  as  good  results  as  formerly. 

Page  646.  Removal  of  Service  Stoppages.  For  the  use  of  High- 
pressure  gas  to  remove  service  stoppages,  see  the  note  on  "Force  Pump," 
page  944. 

Page  688.  Surface  Combustion.  This  process  has  been  very  exten- 
sively developed  in  the  last  few  years,  and  should  be  familiar  to  any  one 
interested  in  use  of  gas  for  industrial  purposes. 


INDEX 


ACCIDENTS: 

Asphyxiation,  46 

Attitude,  General,  46 

Drills,  46 

First  Aid  Kits,  184,  337 

Prevention,  Methods  of,  46 

Rules,  46 

To  Employees,  47 

To  Outsiders,  47 

To  Property,  47 

Treatment  of,  47 
Accounting,  920 
ACCOUNTS: 

American  Gas  Institute,  24,  31 

Duties  of  Inspector  of,  43 

Expense  Storeroom,  866 

Large  City,  For,  32 

Reasons  for,  31 

Storeroom,  863 
Adapter,  Meter,  461 
Adjusting  Meters,  549 
Adjustment    of    Illuminating    Ap'li- 

ances,  843,  857 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  A  DISTRIBUTION 
DEPARTMENT:  (See  also  "Organ- 
ization") 

Large  City,  7 

Small  City,  16 
Air  in  Housepiping,  655 
Air  Shutters,  677,  721 
American  Gas  Association  Standard 

Gas  Range  Specification,  674 
AMERICAN  GAS  INSTITUTE: 

Pipe  Standards,  56 

Standard  Gas  Range  Cock,  678 

Suggested  Meter  Standard,  414 
Antifluctuators,  805 
Antifreezer,  399,  644 
Antivibrators,  848 
Appliance  Lines,  706,  753 
APPLIANCE  WORK: 

Cooking  Appliances: 
Air  Shutters,  67  7_,  721 
Appliance  Line,  706 


APPLIANCE  WORK:  (Continued) 
Cooking  Appliances  (Continued) 
Burners: 

General  Principles,  676 

Oven,  685 

Special,  688 

Top,  683 

Cocks,  Gas  Range,  678 
Collar,  Terra  Cotta,  718 
Connection  Practice,  704 
Connection  to  Outlets,  706 
Consumer,  Satisfaction  of,  720 
Design,  674,  725 
Draft  Hood,  711 
Entire  Appliance,  701 
Fire  Hazards,  704 
Flue  Connections,  710 
Hat  Flange,  716 

Hotels  and  Restaurants,  703,  725 
Hot  Plates,  689 
Inspections,  719 
Leaks,  723 
Lighter,  Burner,  689 
Maintenance,  721 
Material  and  Tools,  708 
Meter  Connections,  706 
Ovens : 

Baking,  696 

Broiling,  698 

Gas,  693 

Oyster  Cookers,  703 
Pipe  Capacities,  707 
Preinspection  for  Location,  704 
Running  Piping,  709 
Service,  Size  of,  706 
Shutting  Off  Gas,  708 
Space  Available,  702 
Specifications,  Gas  Range,  674 
Subinspections,  7i20 
Supply,  722 

Tools  and  Material,  708 
Tops,  Cooking,  688 
Turning  On  Gas,  710 
Delivery,  668 

Duties  of  Fitting  Foremen,  660 
Duties  of  Inspectors,  44,  660 


947 


948  INI 

APPLIANCE  WORK:  (Continued) 
Equipment,   188   (See  also  general 

classification) 
Fixtures,  846 
Gas  Engines: 

Antifluctuator  Dimensions,  807 
Antifluctuators,  805 
Connection  Practice,  804 
Maintenance,  809 
Piping: 
Exhaust,  809 
Gas,  809 
Water,  809 

Illuminating  Appliances: 
Adjustments,  843,  857 
Antivibrators,  848 
Arc  Lamps: 

Five-burner  Outdoor,  833,848 
Single-Mantle,  829 
Storage  of,  915 

Three-burner  Indoor,  831,  848 
Burners: 

Arc  Lamps,  829,  831,  833 
C.  E-Z  Light,  824 
Inverted  Light,  818 
Junior  Light,  822,  845 
Upright  Light,  812 
C.  E-Z  Light,  824,  845 
Chimneys  (See  "Glassware") 
Connection  Practice,  839 
Cylinders  (See  "Glassware") 
Design,  811 
Domes,  846,  905 
Fixtures,  846,  904 
( ilassware : 

Arc  Lamps,  831,  833,  838 
Breakage,  929 
C.  E-Z  Light,  826 
Inspection,  906 
Inverted  Light,  822 
Junior  Light,  824 
Upright  Light,  816 
Globes,  Storage  of,  915 
Inspections,  854,  903,  910 
Inverted  Light,  818,  845 
Junior  Light,  822 
Lamps  (See  general  classification) 
Location  of  Appliance,  839 
Maintenance  Routine,  856 
Mantles: 

Arc  Lamps,  831,  833,  838 
Breakage,  909 


APPLIANCE  WORK:   (Continued) 
Illuminating  Appliances:  (Cont'd) 

Mantles:  (Continued) 
C.  E-Z  Light,  826 
Installation  Practice,  844 
Inverted  Light,  820 
Junior  Light,  824 
Upright  Light,  814,  844 

Pilot  Lights,  826 

Repairs,  857 

Shutting  Off  Gas,  841 

Storage  of,  915 

Upright  Light,  812 
Industrial  Appliances: 

Connection  Practice,  802 

Maintenance,  803 
Inspections,  669,  906 
Installation,  667 
Maintenance,  671 
Order  Cards,  663 
Organization  of  Force,  659,  660 
Preinspection  System,  667 
Relation  of  Shopman  to  Salesman, 

670 
Room  Heating  Appliances: 

Burners: 
Blue  Flame,  777 
Yellow  Flame,  777 

Cock  for  Tubing  Connection^  797 

Combustion,  Principles  of,  777 

Connection  Work,  794 

Design,  776 

Fire  Hazards,  794 

Fireplace  Heaters,  787 

Flue  Connections,  787 

Gas  Log,  791 

Gas  Radiator,  782 

Gas  Steam  Radiator,  786 

Hose  End  Nozzle,  796 

Incandescent  Heater,  778 

Location  of  Appliance,  794 

Maintenance,  800 

Piping,  Iron,  795 

Reflector  Heater,  780 

Round  Heater,  784 

Rubber  End  Tubing,  79>. 

Space  Available,  792 

Subinspections,  799 

Tubing,  795 

Tubing  Connection,  797 
Schedules: 

Work  Completion,  662 


949 


APPLIANCE  WORK:  (Continued) 
Water  Heaters: 
Appliance  Line,  706 
Bathroom  Heaters,  746 
Boiler,  Connection  to,  756 
Burners: 

Combination  Heater,  736 

Instantaneous  Automatic  Heat- 
er, 741 

Tank  Heater,  729 
Cast  Sectional  Heater,  729 
Circulating,  754 
Coils,    Instantaneous    Automatic 

Heater,  743 
Combination  Heaters,   734,   760, 

772 

Condition  of  Use,  748 
Connection  Practice,  751 
Design,  727 
Fire  Hazards,  751 
Flue  Connections,  760,  763,  767 
Furnace  Connections,  767 
Instantaneous    Automatic,     737, 

745,  765 
Internals,  730 
Jackets,  729,  743 
Maintenance,  769 
Material  and  Tools,  754 
Meter  Connections,  753 
Multicoil  Heater,  745 
Preinspection  for  Location,  751 
Reheat  System,  760 
Running  Piping,  754 
Service,  Size  of,  753 
Shutting  Off  Gas,  754 
Space  Available,  749 
Specifications,  727 
Storage  Heaters,  734 
Subinspections,  768 
Tank  Heaters,  729,  769 
Thermostats,  736,  741 
Tools  and  Material,  754 
Turning  On  Gas,  754 
Valves: 

Automatic  Water,  739 

Gas,  741 

Moment,  745 

Regulating  Water,  743 
Water  Connections,  763 
Water  Pressure,  754 
Work  Completion  Schedule,  662 
Work  Records,  666 


Arcs  (See  "Lamps") 
Art  Glass  Shades,  904 
Asphalt  Cutters,  103,  224 
Asphyxiation,  46 
Atlases  for  Main  Records,  293 
Automatic  Instantaneous  Water  Heat- 
ers, 737,  745,  765 
Axe,  118 

B 

"B"  Meters,  415 
Bagging  Mains,  261 
Bags,  131,  196,  261 
Bags,  Precautions  in  Inserting,  266 
Balance  Sheet,  935 
Band,  Pouring,  154,  245 
Barholes,  324 

Bars,  105,  115,  116,  121,  124,  167,  169, 
225,  226,  230,  279,  325  (See 
also  "Equipment") 
Bathroom  Heaters,  746 
Bellows,  157 
Bicycles,  204,  635 
Bin  Card,  876 
Bits,  191 

Blasting  Machine,  122,  230 
Blasting  Mat,  124 
BLOCKING: 

Advantage  of,  259 

Services,  377 
Boards,  Mixing,  251 
BOILER: 

Connection  to  Horizontal,  756 

Connection  to  Log,  756 

Co  nection  to  Vertical,  756 
Box,  Placing  Stop  379 
Boxes,  Tool,  174,  222 
Braces,  191,  228 
Branches,  Inserting,  238,  370 
Branches,  Location  of  Future,  72 
Breaks,  Service,  393 
Bridge  Mains,  311 
Bridge  Mains,  Inspection  of,  317 
Broom,  Regulation  Street   225 
Brushes,  125,  232 
Building  Operations,  215 
Building  Service,  593,  628 
Burner  Bars,  543 


BURNERS: 
Arc  Lamp: 

Five-Burner  Outdoor,  833 

Single-Mantle,  829 

Three- Burner  Indoor,  831,  848 
Blue  Flame,  777 
C.  E-Z  Light,  824 
Combination  Heater.  736 
Cooking  Applianc  ,  676,  688 
Inspections,  906 
Instantaneous    Automatic    Heater, 

741 

Inverted  Light,  818 
Junior  Light,  822 
Oven,  685 
Tank  Heater,  729 
Top  Cooking,  683 
Upright  Light,  812 
Yellow  Flame,  777 
By-pass,  Meter,  477 


Caps,  Meter  Test,  188 

Carriers,  890  (See  also  "Trucks") 

Carts,  175, 177,  222,  361,  894  (See  also 

"  Equipment ") 
Car,  Side,  205 
Cast- Iron  Pipe,  Use  of,  51 
Caulking  and  Yarning  Tools,  154,  157, 

244,  247,  251,  252,  256 
Caulking  Joints,  247 
Cease  to  Record  Meters,  543 
Cement  Joints,  52,  244,  248  (See  also 
"Joint  Work") 

Cement,  Stove,  723 

Cement  Tests  for  Fitness  for  Joint 
Making,  250 

Certificates  of  Piping,  618 

Changing  Meter,  512 

Check  Tests,  529 

Chief  Cierk,  Duties  of,  10 

Chimneys  fSee  "Glassware") 

Churches,  Piping  in,  628 

Chisels,  137,  191,  237,  239,  633  (See 
also  "Equipment") 

Circular  Letters,  18 

Circulating  Water  Heaters,  754  (See 
also  "Appliance  Work") 

Claim  Department  -16 

Clamp,  Leak,  339 

Cleaners,  120,  127,  168 

Cleaning  Device,  Service,  201 


Cleats  for  Supporting  Floor  Boards, 

633 
CLERK: 

Chief,  Duties  of,  10 

Street,  296 

Coatings  for  Services,  87,  379 
COCKS: 

Brass,  865 

Brass,  Inspection  of,  902,  909 

Gas  Range,  678 

Meter,  471 

Service  Stop,  91,  98 

Tubing  Connections,  797 
Coils,  Instantaneous  Automatic  Heat- 
ers, 743 

Coke  Furnaces,  148,  246 
Collar,  Terra  Cotta,  718 
College  Men,  Attitude  toward,  46 
Combination  Heaters,  734,  760,  772 
Combustion  of  Room-Heating  Appli- 
ances, 777 
Computer,  Cox,  63 
CONNECTION  PRACTICE: 

Cooking  Appliances,  704 

Gas  Engines,  804 

Illuminating  Appliances,  839 

Industrial  Appliances,  802 

Room-Heating  Appliances,  794 

Water  Heaters,  751 
Connect  Riser  Order,  619 
Connections,  Meter,  459 
Consumer,  Satisfaction  of,  720,  748 
Cooking   Appliances,   674    (See   also 

"Appliance  Work") 
Cooperation,  17 
COSTS: 

Reports,  40 

Unit,  31,  41,  924 
Cutting  Service  Pipe,  368 
Cylinders,  (See  "Glassware") 


Danger  Sign,  113,  228 

Dead  Ends,  71 

Delivery  of  Appliances  and  Material, 

668 

Depth  of  Mains,  74 
Depth  of  Services,  97,  366 
Derricks,  128,  232 


951 


DESIGN  OF: 

Cooking  Appliances,  674,  725 

Gas  Engines,  804 

Housepiping  System,  581 

Illuminating  Appliances,  811 

Industrial  Appliances,  802 

Main  System,  60,  314 

Meters,  410 

Outside  System,  49 

Pipe  and  Specials,  55 

Service  System,  97 

Water  Heaters,  727 
Diamond  Points,  137,  239 
Dies,  Pipe,  141 
Digest,  20 

Dipping  Process,  Meter,  517 
DISCREPANCIES: 

Adjusting,  941 

Storeroom,  937 

Dispatching  Clerk,  Duties  of,  9 
DISTRIBUTION     DEPARTMENT:     (See 
also  "Organization") 

Administration  of,  3 

Scope  of,  5 

Size  of  District,  8 
Dome  Storage  Racks,  915 
Domes,  846,  915 
Draft  Hoods,  711 
Draftsman,  Chief,  296 
Drilling  and  Tapping  Machines,  143 
Drilling  of  Services,  366 
Drills,  120,  142,   143,  167,  230,  325 

(See  also  "Equipment") 
DRIP  WORK: 

Condensation  Record,  342 

Drip  Box  and  Stand  Pipe,  83 

Equipment,  124,  162  (See  also  gen- 
eral classification) 

Pumping,  343 

Service  Drip,  98 

Side  Drip  Pot  Connections,  82 

Type  of  Drip,  82 

Wagon,  Drip,  344 
Driving  Points,  116 
Driving  Service,  366 
Dry  Meter,  First,  408 
Duplicate  Mains,  68 
Dwellings,  Piping  in,  632 


Educational  Courses,  804 
Electrolysis,  345 
Ell,  Service,  373 

EMPLOYEES:    (See   also    "Foremen," 
"Inspectors"   and    "Superin- 
tendents") 
Accidents  to,  47 
Chief  Clerk,  Duties  of,  10 
Draftsman,  Chief,  296 
Fitters,  660 
Helpers,  660 
Housepipe  Inspectors,  Instructions 

to,  623 

Linewalker,  Duties  of,  320 
Meter  Men,  Instructions  to,  487 
Personal  Equation,  The,  22 
Storekeeper,  869 
Storeroom,  869 
Storeroom,  District,  871 
ENGINEER  OF  DISTRIBUTION: 
Duties  of,  7 
Duties  of  Assistant,  8 
Excavating,  120,  229,  230 
Exhaust  Piping  (Gas  Engine  Work), 

809 

Expansion  Joint,  315 
Extension  of  Existing  Main  System,  63 
EQUIPMENT: 
Axe,  118 
Bag,  131 

Bag,  Leather,  196 
Band,  Pouring,  154 
Bars: 

Chisel,  121 
Leak,  167 

Paving,  105,  225,  230 
Pinch,  121 
Searching,  167 
Spoon,  169 
Tamping,  124 
Tunnelling,  115,  116,226 
Bellows,  157 
Bicycles,  204 
Bits,  191 
Boxes,  Tool,  174 
Braces,  191,  228 
Broom,  Regulation  Street,  225 
Brushes,  125,  232 
Caps,  Meter  Test,  188 
Car,  Side,  205 


952 


EQUIPMENT:    (Continued) 
Carriers,  890 
Carts: 
Hand,  894 
Push,  177 
Service,  175 

Caulking  and  Yarning  Tools,  154, 157 
Chisels: 
Cold,  137,  239 
Diamond  Point,  137,  239 
Dog,  137,  237 
Floor,  191 
Wall,  191 

Cleaning  Device,  Service,  201 
Cleaners,  120,  127,  168 
Cutters: 

Asphalt,  103,  224 
Pipe,  138 
Danger  Sign,  113 
Derricks,  128,  232 
Diamond  Points,  137 
Dies,  Pipe,  141 

Drilling  and  Tapping  Machine,  143 
Drills: 
Churn,  120 

Combination  Tap  and  Drill,  142 
Leak,  167,  325 
Ratchet,  143 
Star,  142 
Striking,  120,  230 
Twist  Drill  and  Tap,  142 
Drip  Work,   162   (See  also  general 

classification) 
Driving  Points,  116 
Feathers  and  Stone  Plugs,  122 
Fork,  Bag,  133 
Furnaces: 
Coke,  148 
Gas,  148 

Gasoline,  148,  199 
Gauges: 

Fixture  Key,  195 
Housepiping  Inspector's  Pressure, 

195 

Meter  Setting,  186 
Recording,  169 
Syphon,  169 

Gloves  and  Mitts,  Rubber,  157 
Grub  Hoe,  115 
Hammers,  122,  154,  191,  237 
Hatchet,  118 


EQUIPMENT:  (Continued) 
Hoes,  115,  155 
Hooks,  Pouring  Pot,  151 
Jacks,  Ditch  Shoring,  117 
Joint  Work,  148,  154,  157  (See  also 

general  classification) 
Key: 

Drip,  167 

Stop  Cock,  168,  388 
Kits: 

Appliance,  189 

Complaint,  196 

First  Aid,  184 

Incandescent  Repair,  200 

Leather  Bag,  196 

Plumber's  Gasoline  Furnace,  199 

Stove  Fitters,  188 

Stove  Repair,  197 

Tin  Box,  197 

Ladder,  Street  Lamp  Cleaning,  172 
Ladle,  Pouring,  151 
Lamps: 

Electric  Safety,  178 

Hand  Torch,  182 

Miscellaneous,  180 
Lantern,  Red,  113 
Lantern  Rod,  113 
Laying,  125 
Levels,  Pipe,  131 
Line,  Ditch,  107 
Machines: 

Blasting,  122,  230 

Hand  Power  Pipe,  141 

Tamping,  104,  226 

Tapping  and  Drilling,  143 
Maintenance,  162,  196 
Main  Work,  103,  125,221 
Mats,  Blasting,  124 
Mattock,  115 
Measuring,  299 
Miscellaneous,  124,  173,  196 
Mixing  Boards,  157 
Motor  Cycle,  205 
Oiler,  191 

Old  Man  or  Drilling  Post,  143 
Overhauling  Gangs,  323 
Paving,  286 
Picks,  115 

Pins,  Ditch  Line,   108,  226 
Pipe  Cutter,  138 
Pipe,  Smelling,  167 


953 


EQUIPMENT:  (Continued) 
Pliers,  193,  194 
Plugs,  122,  133 
Plugs  and  Feathers,  122 
Points: 

Diamond,  137 

Driving,  116 
Porters,  127 

Post,  Drilling  or  Old  Man,  143 
Pot: 

Lead,  148 

Pouring,  151 
Pumps: 

Bag,  135,  265 

Block,  229 

Cellar,  229 

Ditch,  119 

Drip,  165,  648 

Force,  201,  646 

Main,  135 

Meter  Column,  202,  651 

Power,  119 
Pusher,  157 
Rammer,  124 
Reamer,  Pipe,  143 
Refilling,  103 
Respirators,  182 
Rods: 

Asphalt  Screen,  105 

Lantern,  113 
Roller,  Steam,  226 
Rope,  Pipe,  127 
Saddle,  Rubber,  146 
Saws,  119,  194 
Scales: 

Computing,  896 

Dormant  Warehouse  Platform,896 

Parcel  Post,  896 

Portable  Platform,  896 

Straight  Spring  Balance,  896 

Wagon,  896 

Screen,  Asphalt,  104,  224 
Screw  Driver,  194 
Service  Cart,  361 
Service  Cleaning  Device,  201 
Service  Work,  103,  125,  361 
Shovels,  113 
Sieve,  154 

Sign,  Danger,  113,  228 
Skids,  127 
Sledges,  107,  122,  225,  230,  237 


EQUIPMENT:  (Continued) 
Slings,  Pipe,  128,  232 
Spoon,  120 
Stocks,  Pipe,  138 
Stone  Plugs  and  Feathers,  122 
Stop  Box  Cleaner,  168 
Stopper,  133 
Strainer,  Lead,  151 
Street  Clerks,  298 
Street  Lighting,  404 
Tap  and  Drill,  142 
Targets,  Ditch,  108,  230 
Test  Caps,  Meter,  188 
Tools :  (Seealsogeneralrlassification ) 

Caulking  and  Yarning,  154,  157 

Cutting  and  Threading,  137 

Tunnelling  Bars,  115,  116,  226 
Torch,  Hand,  182 
Trenching,  103 
Trowel,  155 
Trucks: 

Barrel,  891 

Box,  892 

Fibre  Warehouse,  893 

Grocery,  893 

Transveyor,  Cowen,  890 

Wagon,  893 
Vise,  Pipe,  148 
Wagons: 

Drip,  162,  344 

Electric,  212 

Gasoline,  208 

Horse,  208,  483 

Tool,  173,  222 

Wedges,  105,  107,  138,  225,  230,  239 
Wheelbarrows,  178 
Wrenches: 

Alligator,  194 

Chain  Pipe,  146 

Engineer's,  146 

Machine  Screw,  146 

Pipe,  146,  388 

Pipe  Vise,  148 

Strap,  194 
Yarn,  245 
Yarning  and  Caulking  Tools,  154,157 


Factories,  Piping  in,  627 
Feathers  and  Stone  Plugs,  122 
Fibre  Pipe,  Use  of,  54 


954 


Field  Records,  289,  299 
File,  Flat,  388 
FIRE  HAZARDS: 

Cooking  Appliances,  704 

Room  Heating  Appliances,  794 

Water  Heaters,  751 
Fireplace  Heater,  787 
First  Aid  Kits,  184,  337 
Fitters  (See  "Employees") 
Fixtures:  (See  also  "Housepiping  and 
Fixture  Work") 

Cocks,  608 

Height  above  Floor,  846 

Inspection  of,  904 

New,  603,  904 

Old,  611 

Specifications,  603 
Mange,  Hat,  242 
FLUE  CONNECTIONS: 

Cooking  Appliances,  710 

Room-Heating  Appliances,  787 

Water  Heaters,  760,  763,  767 
Folding  Pipe,  236 
FOREMEN,  DUTIES  OF: 

Fitting,  9,  660 

Main,  9,  215,  217 

Service,  9,  357 

Service-cart,  357 
Fork,  Bag,  133,  265 
FORMS: 

Arrangement,  26 

Design  of,  25 

Disposition  of,  29 

Maintenance  of,  29 

Material,  28 

Meter  Records,  566 

Number,  25 

Printing,  27 

Reason  for,  25 

Ruling,  27 

Size,  27 

Spacing,  26 

Title,  26 

Wording,  27 

Fuel  Appliances,  906  (See  also ' '  Appli- 
ance Work  ") 
Furnace  Connections,  767 
Furnaces,  148,  151,  199,  246  (See  also 
"Equipment") 


Gangs,  Main,  216,  218,  231,  234 
Gas  Checks,  653 

Gas  Engines,  94,  804  (See  also  "Appli- 
ance Work") 
Gas  Fitters'  Cement,  596 
Gas  Flow,  Measurement  of,  in  Meters, 

432,  434 
Gaskets,  339 
Gas  Log,  791 

Gasoline  Furnace,  148,  199 
Gas  Ranges,  674  (See  also  "Appliance 
Work — Cooking  Appliances  ") 
GAUGES: 

Fixture^  Key,    195 

Housepiping    Inspector's   Pressure, 
195 

Meter  Setting,  186 

Proving  Head,  545 

Recording,  169,  348,  350 

Syphon, 169, 350 
GLASSWARE  : 

Arc  Lamps,  831,  833,  838 

Breakage,  929 

C.  E-Z  Lights,  826 

Inspections,  Storeroom,  904 

Inverted  Light,  822 

Junior  Light,  824 

Upright  Light,  816,  844 
Globes,  Storage  of,  915 
Gloves  and  Mitts,  Rubber,  157,  251 
Goggles,  Use  of,  337 
Governors,  House,  653 
Gradual  Cease  House  Test,  514 
Grub  Hoe,  115 

H 

Hammers,  122,  154,  191,  237 

Hatchet,  118 

Hat  Flange,  242,  716 

Hauling  (See  "Transportation") 

HEATERS: 

Combination,  734,  760,  772 

Fireplace,  787 

Gas  Log,  791 

Gas  Steam  Radiator,  786 

Gas  Radiator,  782 

Incandescent,  778 

Multicoil,  745 

Reflector,  780 


955 


HEATERS:  (Continued) 

Round,  784 

Storage,  734    ' 

Tank,  729,  769 

Water,  727 

Helpers  (See  "Employees") 
Hickenlooper  Coating  for  Sen-ices,  87, 

339,  379 

History  of  Meters,  407 
Hoes,  115,  155,251 
Hooks,  Pouring  Pot,  151,  246 

HOUSEPIPING  AND   FIXTURE   WORK: 

Air  in  Piping,  655 
Antifreezer,  644 
Bills,  Leaks,  Affecting,  642 
Certificates,  613,  614,  616 
Churches,  628 
Cleats,  633 
Cocks,  Fixture,  608 
Connect  Riser  Order,  619 
Design  of  System,  581 
Dispatching  Orders,  637 
Dwellings,  Piping  in,  632 
Equipment  (See  general  classifica- 
tion) 

Factories,  627 
Fixtures,  581,603,  611 
Gas  Checks,  653 
Governors,  House,  653 
Housepiping,  581 
Inspections: 

Fixtures,  612 

Piping,  597,  612,  614,  615 
Inspectors,  Instructions  to,  623 
Installation,  627 
Installation  Requirements,  591 
Insufficient  Supply,  643 
Jointing  Material,  596 
Leak  Work: 

Bills,  Affecting,  642 

Burners,  641 

Case,  Meter,  640 

Fixtures,  640 

General  Investigation,  637 

Housepiping,  640 

Piping,  Cellar,  639 

Repairs,  Policy  Controlling,  641 

Tubing,  641 
Maintenance,  627,  635 
Material,  629 
Meeting  Halls,  631 


HOUSEPIPING  AND  FIXTURE  WORK: 
(Continued) 

Meters;  number  to  be  set,  592 

Obstructions,  596 

Office  Routine,  616 

Orders,  Dispatching,  637 

Organization,  635 

Outlets,  594 

Piping  Plan,  598,  612,  616 

Piping  Specifications,  581 

Plan,  Checking,  616 

Precautions  to  be  Observed,  638 

Pressures,  582 

Pressure  Test,  618 

Risers,  Location  of,  592 

Schedules,    Housepiping,   583,  584, 
586,  588,  589 

Service,  Building,  593,  628 

Service,  Location  of,  622 

Set  Orders,  619 

Shutting  Off  Gas,  621 

Size  of  Housepiping,  585 

Specifications: 
Fixture,  603 
Fixture  Cock,  608 
Piping,  581 

Stores,  631 

Stoppages,  643 

Tests,  612,  614,  615 

Turn  On  Order,  619 

Turning  On  Gas,  621,  639 

Work  Completion  Schedule,  635 
Hotel  Appliances,  725 
Hot  Plates,  689  (See  also  "Appliance 

Work") 

Hours,  Working,  341 
Hydrants,  Access  to,  228 

I 

Illuminating    Appliances,    811     (See 

also  "Appliance  Work") 
Industrial  Appliances,  802  (See  also 

"Appliance  Work") 
INSPECTIONS: 

Appliance  Work,  669 

Bridge  Mains,  317 

Burner,  906 

Cast- Iron  Material,  906,  910 

Cocks,  Brass,  903,  909 

Cooking  Appliances,  719,  720 


956 


INSPECTIONS:  (Continued) 

Equipment,  44 

Fittings,   Nipples  and   Steel   Pipe, 
900,  909 

Fixtures,  612 

Foundry,  57 

Fuel  Appliances,  906,  910 

Housepiping,  597,  612 

Illuminating  Appliances,   854,  903 
910 

Linewalking,  319 

Material,  45,  900,  906,  910 

Material  Reclaimed,  909 

Meters,  New,  525 

Pipe  and  Specials,  56 

Room  Heating  Appliances,  799 

Sen-ice  Work,  387 

Stop  Box,  387 

Stop  Cocks,  91,388 

Street  Lighting  Work,  404 

Valves,  78,  389,  903 

Water  Heaters,  768 

Work,  43 
INSPECTORS,  DUTIES  OF: 

Accounts,  43 

Appliance  Work,  44,  660 

Equipment,  44 

Housepipe,  623 

Pressure,  350 

Preins^ectors,  668 

Traffic  Handling,  15 
Inspirator  for  Meter   Pressure  Test, 

555 
Installation  of  Appliances,  667   (See 

also  "Appliance  Work") 
Installation  of  Housepiping,  591,  627 
(See  also   "Housepiping  and 
Fixture  Work") 
Installation  of  Mains,  215,  231   (See 

also  "Main  Work") 
Installation  of  Services,  357,  399  (See 

also  "Service  Work") 
Instantaneous  Water  Heaters,    737, 

745,  765 
Instructions  to  Housepipe  Inspectors, 

Insufficient  Supply,  351,  643 
Internals,  Water  Heater,  730 
Intersections,  72 
Inventories,  937 


Jackets,  729,  743 
Jacks,  Ditch  Shoring,  117,  228 
Jointing  Material,  596 
JOINT  WORK: 

Bridge  Mains,  315 

Bell  and  Spigot,  52 

Caulking,  247 

Cement,  52,244,  248 

Cement  Tests  for  Fitness,  250 

Cement  vs.  Lead,  248 

Depth  and  Weight  of  Yarn,  245 

Equipment,  148,  154,  157  (See  also 
general  classification) 

Expansion,  315 

Gangs  for,  251 

Gaskets,  Use  of,  315 

Lead,  244,  246 

Lead,  Depth  of,  246 

Lead  Wool,  256 

Leaks,  2.59 

Making  Cement,  251 

Material  for  Cement,  250 

Repairs,  338 

Temperature  Precautions,  254 

Testing,  257 

Yarning,  243 


Keys,  167,  168,  388 

KITS: 

Appliance,  189,  708 
Complaint,  196 
First  Aid,  184,  337 
Incandescent  Repair,  200 
Leak  Clamp,  340 
Leather  Bag,  196,  487 
Stove  Fitter's,  188,  708 
Plumber's  Gasoline,  199 
Stove  Repair,  197 
Tin  Box,  197 
Tool,  635 


Labeling  Bins,  913 

Ladder,  Street  Lamp  Cleaning,  172 

Ladle,  Pouring,  151,  246 


INDEX 


957 


LAMPS: 

Arc,  Five-burner  Outdoor,  833,  848 
Single-mantle,  829 
Storage  of,  915 
Three-burner  Indoor,  831 

Electric  Safety,  178 

Hand  Torch,  182 

Miscellaneous,  180,  337 

Street,  397  (See  also  "Street  Light- 
ing Work") 

Lantern,  Red,  113,  228,  334 
Lantern  Rod,  113 
Laying    Mains,    215,    231    (See   also 

"Main  Work")  _ 
Laying  Services,  368,  375   (See  also 

"  Service  Work  ") 
Lead   Joints,    244,    246,    (See   also 

"Joint  Work") 
Leak  Clamp,  339 
LEAK  WORK: 

Affecting  Gas  Bills,  642 

Barholes,  324 

Blocking,  260 

Breaks  and  Leaks,  To  avoid,  326, 393 

Burners,  641 

Clamp,  Installing,  339 

Cooking  Appliances,  723 

Equipment   (See  general  classifica- 
tion) 

Fixtures,  640 

Gaskets,  339 

Goggles,  Use  of,  337 

Hours,  Working,  341 

Housepif  ing,  637 

Investigation,  General,  637 

Isolated,  329 

Kit,  Leak  Clamp,  340 

Mains  broken  during  1912,  329 

Meter  Case,  640 

Odor  in  Ducts  or  Manholes,  335 

Overhauling,  322 

Piping,  Cellar,  t>39 

Precautions  to  be  Observed,  337, 638 

Principles  Governing  Work,  336 

Record,  Adequate,  331 

Repairs,  338,  641 

Respirators,  338 

Service,  393 

Services  Broken  in  1912,  394 

Services,  Isolated,  394 

Tank  Heaters,  769 

Tubing,  641 


LEAK  WORK:   (Continued) 

Water  Heaters,  Instantaneous  Auto- 
matic, 773 

Ledger,  Material,  932 
Levels,  Pipe,  131 
Lifter,  Stop  Box,  388 
Lighter,  Burner,  689 
LIGHTS:  (See  also  " Lamps ") 

C.  E-Z,  824,  845 

Inspections,  Storeroom,  906 

Inverted,  818,  845 

Junior,  822 
.   Pilot,  826 

Upright,  812 
Line,  Ditch,  107 
Linewalkers,  Duties  of,  320 
Linewalking,  319,  387 
LOCATION: 

Affected  by  Foreign  Structures,  71 

Branches,  72 

Details,  67 

Main  from  Curb,  70 
Log  Boiler,  Connection  to,  756 
Log,  Gas,  791 
Logs,  Use  of,  54 

M 

MACHINES: 

Blasting,  122,  230 

Hand  Power  Pipe,  141 

Tamping,  Power,  104,  226,  280 

Tapping  and  Drilling,  143,  370 
MAINTENANCE: 

Appliance  Work,  671 

Cooking  Appliances,  721 

Equipment,  162,  196 

Gas  Engine  Work,  809 

Housepiping    and    Fixture    Work, 
627,  635 

Illuminating  Appliances,  856 

Industrial  Appliances,  803 

Main  Work,  318 

Meter  Work,  455 

Room  Heating  Appliances,  800 

Service  Work,  387 

Street  Lighting  Work,  404 

Water  Heaters,  769 
MAIN  WORK: 

Bagging,  261 

Bag  Holes,  Size  of,  264 


958 


MAIN  WORK:   (Continued) 
Blocking,  260 
Branches: 
Inserting,  238 
Location  of  Future,  72 
Bridge  Mains,  311 
Bridge  Mains,  Inspection  of,  317 
Broken  Mains,  329 
Cast-iron  Pipe,  Use  of,  51 
Caulking,  247 
Connection  Work,  235 
Connections,  Schedule  of,  238 
Dead  Ends,  71 
Depth,  74 

Design  of  Bridge  Mains,  314 
Design  of  System,  60 
Distance  from  Curb,  69 
Drip  Work  also  (See:  "  Drip  Work  " 

in  general  classification) 
Condensation  Records,  342 
Drip  Box  and  Standpipe,  83 
Pumping,  343 

Side  Drip  Pot  Connections,  82 
Type  of  Drip,  82 
Wagon,  Drip,  344 
Duplicates,  68 
Electrolysis,  345 
Equipment,  103,  125,  221  (See  also 

general  classification) 
Excavating,  229,  230 
Extension  to  Existing  System,  63 
Fibre  Pipe,  Use  of,  54 
Flange,  Hat,  242 
Folding,  235 

Footway  vs.  Roadway,  67 
Foreman,  Duties  of  Gang,  217 
Foreman,  Duties  of  Main,  215,  217 
Gangs,  Main,  216,  218,  231,  234 
Gaps,  Closing,  235 
Hat  Flange,  Placing,  242 
Inspection  of: 
Bridge  Mains,  317 
Pipe  and  Specials,  56 
Site,  219 

Installation,  215,  231 
Intersections,  72 
Joint  Work:  (See  also  "Joint  Work" 

in  general  classification) 
Bridge  Mains,  315 
Caulking,  247 
Cement,  244,  248 


MAIN  WORK:  (Continued) 
Joint  Work:    (Continued) 

Cement  Tests  for  Fitness,  250 

Cement  vs.  Lead,  248 

Depth  and  Weight  of  Yarn,  245 

Equipment  (See  general  classifica- 
tion) 

Gangs  for,  251 

Lead,  244,  246 

Lead  Wool,  256 

Leaky  Joints,  259 

Making,  251 

Material  for,  250 

Repairs,  338 

Temperature  Precautions,  254 

Testing,  257 

Yarning,  248 
Laying  Mains,  231 
Layout  of  System,  60 
Leak  Work:  (See  also  "Leak  Work" 
in  general  classification) 

Barholes,  324 

Breaks  and  Leaks,  To  avoid,  326 

Clamp,  Installing,  339 

Equipment   (See  general  classifi- 
cation) 

Gaskets,  339 

Goggles,  Use  of,  337 

Hours,  Working,  341 

Isolated,  329 

Kit,  Leak  Clamp,  340 

Mains  broken  in  1912,  329 

Overhauling,  322 

Precautions  to  be  Observed,  337 

Repairs,  338 

Respirators,  338 
Linewalking,  319 
Location : 

As  Affected  by  Other  Structures,  71 

Details,  67 

Of  Branches,  72 
Logs,  Use  of,  54 
Maintenance,  318 
Mains,  Broken,  329 
Material,  51 
Material  Delivery,  220 
One  vs.  Two  Mains,  68 
Operations,  Building^  215 
Organization,  215,  231,  318 
Overhauling,  322 


959 


MAIN  WORK:    (Continued) 
Paving  Work,  67  (See  also  "  Paving 
VVork"   in  general  classifica- 
tion) 
Pipe  and  Specials: 

Design  of,  55 

Inspection  of,  56 
Pipe  Cutting  on  Bank,  237 
Pipe  Stringing,  220 
Precautions: 

To  be  observed  against  Gas,  337 

To  be  observed  against  settlement 

of  Main,  258 
Preinspection  of  Site,  219 
Preliminary  Work,  219 
Pressures:  (See  also  "Pressures"  in 
.     general  classification) 

Charts,  346 

Control  of,  346 

Fluctuation  of,  347 

Gauges,  348 

Location  of  Stations,  352 

Maintenance  of,  348 

Pressures,  Duties  of  Inspector  of, 
350 

Standards,  346 
Puddling,  282 
Purging,  270 
Ramming,  279 
Repaving  (See  "Paving  Work"  in 

general  classification) 
Records:    (See  also   "Records"   in 
general  classificaion) 

Atlases,  293 

Field,  289,  299 

Large  Company,  296 

Mains,  Broken,  329 

Mains,  New,  288,  294 

Maps,  293 

Permanent,  293,  302 

Philadelphia  System,  296 

Reasons  for,  288 

Sketch,  216,  302 

Small  Company,  294 
Schedule  of  Main  Connections,  238 
Settlement,  Precautions  Against,  258 
Sewer  Locations,  71 
Sewer  Pipe,  Use  of,  55 
Size,  60,  63,  65,  66 
Sleeve,  Hub  Split,  241 
Sleeves,  Necessity  for  Stock  of,  59 
Sleeves,  Use  of,  236 


MAIN  WORK:  (Continued) 

Sounding  Pipe  for  Cracks,  232 

Specials,  51,  57 

Stakes,  Line  and  Grade,  216,  223 

Steel,  52,  65 

Steel  vs  Wrought- Iron  Pipe,  52 

Structures,  Foreign,  321 

Supply,  Maintenance  of  Gas,  273 

Supporting,  Special  Methods  of,  261 

Tees  and  Crosses,  Use  of,  73 

Temperature  as  Affecting  Depth,  74 

Temporary,  274 

Test  Holes,  219 

Tools  (See  general  classification) 

Trenching,  223,  227 

Trench  Refilling  and  Repaving,  278 

Trunk,  63 

Underground  Structures,  68 

Valve  Box,  78 

Valves,  76 

Vitrified  Clay,  Use  of,  55 

Wrought- Iron  Pipe,  Use  of,  51 

Wrought- Iron  vs.  Steel  Pipe,  52 
MANTLES: 

Arc  Lamp: 

Five-burner  Outdoor,  838 
Single-mantle,  829 
Three-burner  Indoor,  833 

Breakage,  929 

C.  E-Z  Light,  826 

Inspections,  Storeroom,  906 

Installation  Practice,  844 

Inverted  Light,  820 

Junior  Light,  824,  845 

Storage  of,  917 

Upright  Light,  814 
Manuals  of  Instruction,  18,  488 
Map  Records,  293 
Mat,  Blasting,  124 
MATERIAL: 

Broken  and  Defective,  888 

Cast-Iron,  906,  910 

Cooking  Appliances,  708 

Cost  of,  920 

Delivery  of,  220,  668 

Handling,  890  . 

Hickenlooper  Coating  for  Services,87 

Housepiping  Work,  629 

Inspection  of,  45 

Issuing,  924 

Main  Work,  51 


960 


MATERIAL:  (Continued) 
Ordering,  875 
Out  of  Stock,  890 

Packing  and  Wrapping  Fragile,  898 
Receipting  for,  887,  921 
Receiving  and  Shipping,  886 
Scrap,  910 

Specials,  Stock  of,  57 
Specifications  for,  883 
Stop  Boxes,  92 
Stop  Cocks,  91 
Storage  of: 

Cast-iron  Pipe  and  Specials,  918 
Combustible     and     Inflammable 

Material,  919 

Fuel  Appliances  and  Parts,  917 
Illuminating  Appliances  and  Parts, 

915 

Miscellaneous  Material,  919 
Steel  Pipe,  Fittings  and  Nipples, 

914 

Water  Heaters,  754 
Wrapping,  898 
Wrought-Iron  vs.  Steel,  86 
Mattock,  115 

Measurement  of  Gas  Flow,  434 
Measuring  Gas,  407 
Medical  Treatment,  47 
Meeting  Halls,  Piping  in,  631 
Meetings,  Superintendents',  18 
Minutes  of   Superintendents'    Meet- 
ings, 1  8 
Meters,  Duties  of  Superintendent  of 

10 

METER  WORK: 
Action,  430 
Adapter,  461 
Adjusting,  549 
"B"  Meters,  415 
Burner  Bar,  543 
By-pass,  477 
Capacities  of,  415,  455 
Case,  420 

Cease  to  Record,  543 
Changing  Meter,  512 
Check  Test,  529 
Cocks,  471 

Connections,  455,  459,  706,  753 
Construction,  420 
Design,  410 
Dimensions  of,  415,  455 


METER  WORK:    (Continued) 
Dimensions,    Importance   of   Same 

Leading,  413 
Dipping  Process,  517 
Dry  Meters,  First,  408 
Equipment,  186,  524  (See  also  gen- 
eral classification) 
Fast  Meters,  516 
Forms  and  Records,  566 
Gas  Flow,  432,  434 
Gauge,  Proving  Head,  545 
Gradual  Cease  House  Test,  514 
,  Headers,  471 
-   History  of  Meters,  407 
Inspection,  525 
Inspirators,  555 
Installation,  455 
Instructions  to  Fitters,  487 
Maintenance,  455 
Measurement  of  Gas  Flow,  434 
Measurement,  Principlesof,  416, 529 
Measuring  Gas,  407 
Meters,  Inspection  of  New,  525 
Oiling  Meters,  518 
Oil,  Introduction  of,  519 
Order  Cards,  573 
Orders,  Execution  of,  483 
Ordinary  Meters: 

Construction  and  Action  of,  424, 
425,  426,  427,  428,  429,  431, 
436,  438,  440,  443,  444,  445, 
446,  447 

Design  of,  410 

History,  408 

Tests,  557 

Use  of,  410 
Organization,  483 
Prepayment  Meters: 

Attachment,  442 

Design,  448,  450,  452 

History  of,  408 

Objections  to,  410 

Repairs  to,  651 

Tests,  556 

Use  of,  410 
Pressure  Loss,  413 
Proof,  Limits  of,  542 
Prover,  529 
Pressure  Test,  553 
Records  and  Forms,  Shop,  566 
Reading  Meter,  494 
Removing  Meters,  511,  513,  575 


INDEX 


961 


METER  WORK:  (Continued) 
Repairing,  513,  524 
Repair  Shop: 

District,  567 

Main,  569 
Riser,  592 
Rules,  General,  488 
Saturators,  Gas  or  Air,  527 
Schedules: 

Burner  and  Slow  Motion  Test 
Table,  545 

Capacities  and  Maximum  Out/ 
side  Dimensions  of  Meters,45<o 

Check  Test  Rates,  534 

Connections:  Weight  per  foot  of 
lead  pipe,  462 

Fuel  and  Illumination,  457 

Meter  Connections,  460 

Meters  for  Gas  Engine,  459 

Percentage  of  Change  in  Proof  per 
Turn  of  Jam  Nut  and  Tan- 
gent Posts,  550 

Percentage  of  Error  Tables,  538 

Tool  Equipment  of  Meter  Wagon, 

483 

Setting  Meter,  508,  574 
Shutting  Off  Gas,  507 
Size,  412,  455 
Slow  Meters,  516 
Standard,    Meter:     American    Gas 

Institute  Suggested,  414 
Tests: 

Burner,  543 

Check,  529 

Dipping  Meter,  563 

Fitting  Up,  557 

Gradual  Cease  House,  514 

Medium  Used  for  Tests,  527 

Meter  Repair  Shop,  563 

Xondipping  Meter,  563 

Open,  547 

Prepayment  Meter,  556 

Pressure,  553 

Procedure,  534 

Proof,  529 

Slow  Motion,  546 

Temperature  Required,  532 

Works  Catch,  556 
Tools  for  Meter  Work,  487  (See  also 

general  classification) 
Turning  On  Gas,  503 


METER  WORK:  (Continued) 

Types,  4 10 

Union,  Meter,  422 

Valves,  Setting,  551 

Ventilators,  527 

Wagon,  Equipment  for  Meter,  483 

Wagons,  Horse,  483 

Washers,  479 

Wet  Meter  Type,  First,  407 

WWt  Pass  Gas  Meter,  543 

Works  Catch  Meter,  556,  650 
Mixing  Boards,  157,  251 
Motor  Cycles,  205,  487,  635 
Multicoil  Heaters,  745 

N 

New  Business  Department;  Relations 
with  Storeroom,  880 


Obstructions  in  Housepiping,  596 

Oiler,  191 

Oiling  Meters,  518 

Oil,  Introduction  of;  Meter  Work,  519 

Old  Man  or  Drilling  Post,  143 

Operation  by  Cooperation,  17 

ORDER  CARDS: 

Complaint,  663 

Connect  Riser,  619 

Credit,  925 

Dispatching,  637 

Material,  926 

Remove,  575 

Sales,  664,  925 

Set,  574,  619 

Storeroom,  876 

Turn  On,  619 

Ordering  Storeroom  Material,  875 
Ordinary    Meters    (See  classification 

under  "Meter  Work") 
ORGANIZATION: 

Appliance  Work,  659 

Distribution  Department,  7 

Housepiping  and  Fixture  Work,  635 

Main  Installation,  215,  231 

Main  Maintenance,  318 

Meter  Fitting  Work,  483 

Service  Installation,  357 

Sen-ice  Maintenance,  387 

Storeroom,  863,  869 


962 


Outlets,  Building,  594 

Output,  Affected  by  Population,  62 

Outside  System,  Design  of  Pipe,  49 

OVENS: 

Baking,  696 

Broiling,  698 

General,  693 
OVERHAULING  WORK: 

Breaks  and  Leaks,  To  Avoid,  326 

Equipment,  323 

Mains,  322 

Paving,  Required  by,  328,  393 

Results  of,  394 

Services,  390 
Oyster  Cookers,  703 


Packing  Material,  898 

Parkinson  Meter,  408 

Paving,  Dutiesof  Superintendent  of,  1 1 

PAVING  WORK: 

Asphalt,  224,  284 

Concrete  Base,  285 

Equipment,   286   (See  also  general 
classification) 

Main  Work,  In  Advance  of,  67 

Miscellaneous,  285 

Overhauling,  393 

Refilling,  278 

Removing,  219,  224,  359,  364 

Repaying,  284 

Service  Work,  In  advance  of,  95 

Trench,  Refilling  and  Repaying,  380 
Personal  Equation,  The,  22 
Picks,  115 
Pilot  Lights,  826 
Pins,  Ditch  Line,  108,  226 
Pipe: 

Cutting,  239 

Locator,  Use  of,  390 

Smelling,  167,  326 

Sounding  for  Cracks,  232 

Stringing,  220 
Pipe  and  Specials: 

Design  of,  55 

Inspection  of,  55 

Ordering  of,  865,  876 
Piping,   579  (See  also  "Housepiping 
and  Fixture  Work") 

Cooking  Appliances,  709 


Piping :    ( Continued) 

Iron,  795 

Specifications,  581 

Water  Heaters,  754 
Plan,  Housepiping,  598,  612,  616 
Pliers,  193,  194 
Plugs,  122,  133,  263,  372 
Plugs  and  Feathers,  122 
Points,  116,  137,239,  366 
Population  as  affecting  Output,  62 
Portables,  904 
Porters,  127,  234 
Post,  Lamp,  399 

Post,  Old  Man  or  Drilling,  143,  242 
Pot,  Lead  Pouring,  148,  151,  246 
Precautions  to  be  Observed  against 

Gas,  370 

PREINSPECTIONS:  (See  also  "  Inspect- 
tions") 

Cooking  Appliance  Location,  704 

Main  Site,  219 

Service  Work,  359 

System  of  Making,  667 

W'ater  Heater  Location,  751 
Prepayment    Meters    (See   classifica- 
tion under  "Meter  Work") 
PRESSURE  TEST: 

Housepiping,  618 

Meter's,  553 
PRESSURES: 

Charts,  346 

Control  of,  5,  346 

Cooking  Appliances,  722 

Duties  of  Inspector  of,  350 

Fluctuations  of,  347 

Gauges,  348 

Governor,  House,  653 

Housepiping,  Available  in,  582 

Insufficient  Supply,  351,  643 

Location  of  Stations,  352 

Maintenance  of,  348 

Standards,  346 
Proof  Limits  of  Meter,  542 
Property  Accidents,  47 
Prover,  Meter,  529 
Puddling,  282 
Pumping    Mains,    Precautions   when 

Bagging,  262 

Pumps,  119,  135,  165,  201,  202,  229, 
265,    646,    648,    651    (See    also 
"Equipment") 


963 


Purchasing    Department,   Storeroom 

Relations  with,  875 
Purging  Mains,  270 
Pusher,  157 

R 
RADIATORS: 

Gas,  782 

Gas  Steam,  786 
Rammer,  124,  279 
Ramming,  279 

Ranges,  Gas,  674  (See  also  "Appli- 
ance Work — Cooking  Appli- 
ances") 

Reading  Meter,  494 
Reamer,  Pipe,  143 
Recording  (See  "Records") 
RECORDS: 

Appliance  Work,  666 

Atlases,  293 

Cost  Records,  Shop  Work,  923 

Draftsman,  Chief,  296 

Duties  of  Superintendent  of,  12,  296 

Field,  "289,  299 

Lamp,  402 

Large  Company,  296 

Main,  288,  294 

Maps,  293 

Material  Stock,  940 

Material  Used,  926 

Meter,  566 

Meter  Shop,  566,  567 

Permanent,  293,  302 

Philadelphia  System,  296 

Reasons  for,  288,  382 

Service: 
Age  of,  384 
Cost  of,  384 
Leaks,  394 

Sketch,  216,  302 

Small  Company,  294 

Stock,  930 

Refilling  Equipment,  103 
Refilling  Trench,  278,  380 
Reheat  System,  760 
Relations  of  Storeroom  with: 

New  Business  Department,  880 

Purchasing  Department,  875 
Removing  Meters,  511,  513,  575 
K( -nt-wals,  Service,  359,  390 
Repairing  Meters,  513,  524 


Repair  Shop: 

District  Meter,  567 

Main  Meter,  569 
Repaving    (See    "Paving   Work"   in 

general  classification) 
REPORTS:  (See  also  "Records") 

Cost,  40,  666 

Daily,  37 

Fixture  Inspection,  905 

Monthly,  39 

Stock,  930 

Storeroom  Material  Inspection,  900 
Respirators,  182,  338,  638 
Resuscitation  Treatment,  46 
Riser,  Lamp,  399 
Risers,  Location  of  House,  592 
Rock  Excavation,  120 
Rod,  Asphalt  Screen,  105,  224 
Rod,  Lantern,  113 
Roller,  Use  of  Steam,  226 
Room  Heating  Appliances,  776  (See 

also  "Appliance  Work") 
Rope,  Pipe,  127 
Rule  Book,  18 
Rules,  Preparation  of,  20,  488 


Saddle,  Rubber,  146,  370 

Salesman,  Relation  of  Shopman  to,  670 

Salesman's  Handbook,  804 

Saturator,  GasorAir;  Meter  Work, 527 

Saws,  119,  194 

Scales,  896  (See  also  "Equipment) 

SCHEDULES: 

Antifluctualor  Dimensions,  807 
Bag  and  Stopper  Holes,  264 
Blocking,  260 
Burner    and    Slow    Motion    Test 

Table,  545 
Distance    of    Main    from    Foreign 

Structures,  321 

Equipment  for  Paving  Work,  286 
Equipment  for  Service  Carts,  361 
( ias  Engines,  Gas  Piping  for,  808 
( ias  Engines,  Water  Piping  for,  809 
Housepiping  Material,  629 
Housepiping  Tables,  583,  584,  586, 

588, 589 

Joints;  Depth  and  \Veight  of  Yarn, 
245 


964 


SCHEDULES:    (Continued) 
Lead,  Depth  of,  246 
Main  Connections,  238 
Meter  Connections,  460 
Meter    Connections;     Weight    per 

Foot  of  Lead  Pipe,  462 
Meter  Standard,  415 
Meter    Standard;     American    Gas 

Institute  Suggested,  414 
Meter  Wagon,  Tool  Equipment  of, 

483 
Meters;    Capacity   and    Maximum 

Outside    Dimensions  of,   45UJ 

650 
Meters;   Change  in  Proof  per  turn 

of    Jam    Xut    and    Tangent 

Post,  550 

Meters;  Check  Test  Rates,  534 
Meters  for  Fuel  and  Illumination, 

457 

Meters  for  Gas  Engines,  459 
Meters;  Percentage  of  Error  Tables, 

538 
Pipe  Capacities  in   Cubic  feet   per 

hour   for   various   lengths   of 

run,  707 

Service  Connections,  369 
Size  of  Service  for  Fuel  and  Illumi- 
nating, 93 

Size  of  Service  for  Gas  Engine,  94 
Work  Completion  Schedule: 
Appliance  Work,  662 
Housepiping  and  Fixtures,  636 
Yarn,  Depth  and  Weight  of,  245 
Scrap  Material,  910 
Screen,  Asphalt,  104,  224 
Screen  Rod,  Asphalt,  105 
Screw  Drivers,  194 
SERVICE: 
Boxes,  908 
Carts,  175,  222,  361 
Cleaning  Device,  201 
Gangs,  358 
SERVICE  WORK: 
Blocking,  377 
Branches,  Inserting,  370  . 
Breaks  and  Leaks,  To  Avoid,  393 
Building  Services,  593,  628 
Cleaning  up  after  work,  380 
Coatings,  87,  339,  379 
Cost  of,  384 
Cutting  Pipe,  368 


SERVICE  WORK:   (Continued) 
Depth  of,  97,  366 
Design  of  System,  93 
Drilling,  366 
Drips,  98 
Driving,  366 
Ell,  Service,  373 
Equipment,  103,  125,  361  (See  also 

general  classification) 
Filling  and  Testing,  377 
Foremen : 

Duties  of  Service,  357 

Duties  of  Service-cart,  357 
Gang,  Service,  358 
Hickenlooper  Coating,  87,  339,  379 
House  Conditions,  95 
Inspections,  387 
Installation,  357,  399 
Lamp,  399 
Laying,  368,  375 
Leaks  in  1912,  394 
Leaks,  Isolated,  394 
Linewalking,  387 
Location  of  Equipment,  363" 
Location  of  Service,  95,  622 
Main,  Connecting  to,  369 
Maintenance,  387 
Material  Delivery,  360 
Orders  for  Work,  360 
Organization,  357,  387 
Overhauling,  390 

Paving  Work,   In  Advance  of,  95 
(See  also  "Paving  Work"  in 
general  classification) 
Pipe  Locator,  Use  of,  390 
Plug,  Service,  372 
Point,  Driving,  366 
Precautions  to  be  Observed  against 

Gas,  370 

Preinspection  of  Site,  359 
Preliminary  \Vork,  359 
Pressure  Test  on  Old  Pipe,  649 
Records: 

Age  of,  384 

Reasons  for,  382 

Service  Leaks,  394 
Renewals,  359,  390 
Schedules,  93,  94,  369 
Service  Connections,  369 
Size  of  Pipe,  93,  94,  359,  706,  753 
Sleeves  in  Walls,  360 
Sleeves,  Hub,  Split,  370 


965 


SERVICE  WORK:  (Continued) 

Sleeves,  Use  of,  370,  622 

Sod,  Removal  of,  364 

Steel  vs.  Wrought- Iron  Pipe,  86 

Stop-box  Inspection,  387 

Stop-boxes,  Use  of,  92,  379 

Stop  Cocks: 
Inspection  of,  388 
Type  of,  91 
Use  of,  91,  98,  388 

Structures,  Other,  96 

Testing,  377 

Trees,  Care  of,  365 

Trenching,  364:  365 

Tunnelling,  366 

Valves,  Service,  389 

Wrought- Iron  vs.  Steel  Pipe,  86 
Setting  Meters,  508,  574,  592 
Sewer  Location,  71 
Sewer  Pipe,  Use  of,  55 
Shades,  Art  Glass,  904 
Shipping,  883,  886 
Shipping  Memorandum,  886 
Shop  Records,  Meter,  566 
Shovels,  113 
SHUTTING  OFF  GAS: 

Cooking  Appliances,  708 

Housepiping  and  Fixture  Work,  621 

Illuminating  Appliances,  841 

Instructions  for,  507 

Water  Heaters,  754 
Sieve,  154 

Sign,  Danger,  113,  228 
Size  of  Housepiping,  585 
Skids,  127 

Sledges,  107,  122,  225,  230,  237 
SLEEVES: 

Hub  Split,  241,370 

Necessity  for,  Stock  of,  59 

Service,  370 

Use  of,  236,  370,  622 

Wall  (Service  Work)  360 
Slings,  Pipe,  128,  232 
Sod,  Removal  of,  364 
SPECIALS: 

Advantage  of  All-bell,  58 
•          Design  of,  55 

Ordering  of,  865,  876 

Inspection  of,  55 

Stock  of,  57,  876 


SPECIFICATIONS: 

Fixture,  603 

Fixture  Cock,  608 

Gas  Range,  674 

Material,  883 

Meter  Work  Order,  493 

Pipe  Standards,  American  Gas  In- 
stitute, 56,  906 

Piping,  581 

Water  Heater,  72J 
Spoon,  120 
Stables,  Duties  of  Superintendent  of, 

A  14 

Stakes,  Line  and  Grade,  216,  223 
Standards   for   Cast -Iron    Pipe   and 

Special  Castings,  55 
Steel  vs.  Wrought-Iron  Pipe,  52,  86 
Stock  of  Material,  930 
Stock  Records  and  Reports,  930 
Stocks,  Pipe,  138 
Stone  Plugs  and  Feathers,  122 
STOP  Box: 

Cleaner,  168,  388 

Inspection,  387 

Placing  of,  379 

Use  of,  92 
STOP  COCKS: 

Care  of,  363 

Inspection  of,  388 

Use  of  Service,  91,  98 
Stoppages  in  Housepiping,  643 
Stopper,  133,  261 
Storage  Heater,  734 
Storekeeper  (See  "Employees") 
Stores,  Duties  of  Superintendent  of,  13 
Stores,  Piping  in,  631 
STOREROOM  PRACTICE: 

Accounting,  920 

Accounts,  863,  866 

Arc  Lamps,  906 

Art  Glass  Shades^  904 

Balance  Sheet,  935 

Bin  Card,  876 

Bins,  Closets  and  Racks,  912 

Burners,  906 

Cast-Iron  Pipe  and  Specials,  865,876 

Costs,  Unit,  924 

Cocks,  Brass,  865 

Discrepancies,  937 

District  Storeroom,  871 

Dome  Storage  Rack,  915 


966 


STOREROOM  PRACTICE:  (Continued) 
Duties  of  Superintendent  of  Stores, 

869 

Employees,  869 

Equipment   (See  general  classifica- 
tion) 

Fixtures,  904 
Fuel  Appliances,  906,  910 
Glassware,  904,  905 
Illuminating  Appliances,  903 
Inspections: 

Cast-iron  Material,  906,  910 
Cocks,  Brass,  903,  909 
Fittings,  Nipples  and  -Steel  Pipe, 

Fuel  Appliances,  906,  910 

Illuminating  Appliances,  903,  910 

Material,  Miscellaneous,  908,  910 

Material  Reclaimed,  909 

Scrap,  910 

Valves,  Brass,  903 
Inventories,  937 

Invoices  for  Payment,  Passing,  920 
Labeling  Bins,  913 
Ledger,  Material,  932 
Lights,  906 
Mantles,  906 
Material: 

Appraisal  of  Reclaimed,  923 

Broken  and  Defective,  888 

Cast-iron,  906,  910 

Cost  of,  920 

Hauling   from    Railroad    Station, 
889 

Inspections,  900,  909 

Issuing,  924 

Miscellaneous,  908,  910 

Out  of  Stock,  890 

Packing  and  Wrapping  Fragile,898 

Receipting  for,  887 

Receiving,  886 

Reclaimed,  909 

Returning  for  Credit,  889 

Scrap,  910 

Shipping,  886 

Storage  of,  912 

New   Business   Department,    Rela- 
tions with,  880 
Operation,  875 
Ordering  Material,  875 
Order  Man,  Duties  of,  889 
Organization,  863,  869 


STOREROOM  PRACTICE:  (Continued) 
Portables,  904 
Purchasing  Department,  Relations 

with,  875 

Records  (See  "Reports") 
Reports: 

Fixture  Inspection,  905 
Material  Inspection,  900 
Material  Issues,  932 
Material  Stock,  940 
Shop  Work  Cost,  923 
Stock  Records  and  Reports,  930 
Scales,  896 
Service  Boxes,  908 
Shades,  Art  Glass,  904 
Shipping,  883,  886 
Shipping  Memorandum,  886 
Size  and  Site  of  Store  Room,  872 
Specials,  Stock  of,  876 
Specifications,  Material,  900 
Stock  Record  Cards,  876 
Stock  Records  and  Reports,  930 
Storekeeper,  869 
Storage  of  Material : 
Cast-Iron  Pipe  and  Specials,  918 
Combustible     and     Inflammable 

Material,  919 

Fuel  Appliances  and  Parts,  917 
Illuminating   Appliances   and 

Parts,  915 

Miscellaneous  Material,  919 
Steel  Pipe,  Fittings  and  Nipples, 

914 
Trucks,  890,  891,  892,  893  (See  also 

"Equipment") 
Workman's  Stock,  927 
Strainer,  Lead,  151 
Street  Clerks,  296 

Street  Lighting,  Duties  of  Superinten- 
dent of,  14 

STREET  LIGHTING  WORK: 
Antifreezer,  399 
Candlepower,  404 
Equipment,  404 
Installation,  399 
Inspections,  404 
Maintenance,  404 
Post,  399 

Post  Erection,  402 
Records,  402 
Risers,  399 
Services,  399 


967 


Street  Main  Records,  288 
STRUCTURES: 

Foreign,  321 

Location  of  Main  with  reference  to 

Other,  71 

Subinspections  (See  "Inspections") 
SUPERINTENDENTS,  DUTIES  OF: 

Assistant  District,  9 

District,  8 

Meters,  10 

Paving,  11 

Records,  12,  296 

Stables,  14 

Stores,  13,  869 

Street  Lighting,  14 

Transportation,  14 
Superintendents'  Meetings,  18 
SUPPLY  OF  GAS: 

Care  of,  while  Bagging,  266 

Maintenance  while   laying    Mains, 
273 

T 

Tank  Heater,  729,  769 
Tap  and  Drill,  142 
Tape  Line,  299 
Targets,  Ditch,  108,  230 
Tees  and  Crosses,  Use  of,  73 
Temperature  Precautions,  254 
Temperature,  Record  of  Ground,  74 
Test  Caps,  Meter,  188 
Test  Holes,  Use  of,  218 
Testing  Services,  377 
Tests,  House  Pipe  Inspections,  612, 

614,  615 
TESTS,  METER: 

Burner,  543 

Check,  529 

Dipping  Meter,  563 

Fitting  Up,  557 

Gradual  Cease  House,  514 

Medium  used  for  Tests,  527 

Meter  Repair  Shop,  563 

Xondipping  Meter,  553 

Open,  547 

Prepayment  Meter,  556 

Pressure,  553 

Procedure,  534 

Proof,  529 

Slow  Motion,  546 

Temperature  Required,  5SJ 

Works  Catch,  556 


Thermostats;    Combination  Heaters, 

736,  741 

Tools  (See  "Equipment") 
Torch,  Hand,  182 
TRANSPORTATION  : 
Bicycles,  204 
Material,    Hauling    from    Railroad 

Station,  889 
Motor  Cycles,  205 
Side  Cars,  205 
Superintendent  of  Transportation, 

Duties  of,  14 
Wagons : 
Drip,  162,  344 
Electric,  212 
Gasoline,  208 
Horse,  208,  483 
Tool,  173,  222 
Transveyor,  Cowan,  890 
Trees,  Care  of,  365 
Trench,  Refilling  and  Repaving,  278, 

380 

Trenching,  223,  227,  364,  365 
Trenching  Equipment,  103 
Trowel,  155,  251 
Trucks,  Storeroom,  890,  891, 892, 893, 

(See  also  "Equipment") 
Trunk  Mains,  63 
TUBING: 
Cock,  797 

Hose  End  Nozzle,  796 
Rubber  End,  796 
Storage  of,  917 
Tunnelling,  366 
Tunnelling  Bar,  115,  116,226 
TIRMN-G  ON  GAS: 
Cooking  Appliances,  710 
Housepiping  and  Fixture  Work,  62 1 
Precautions  in,  503 
Water  Heaters,  754 

U 

Underground  Structures,  68 
Unit  Costs,  31,41 


VALVES 

Automatic  Water,  739 
Brass,  Inspection  of,  903 
Gas,  741 
Moment,  745 


968 


VALVES:    (Continued) 

Regulating  Water,  743 

Service,  389 

Type  of  Main,  78 

Use  of,  in  Main  Laying,  76 
Valve  Box,  Main,  78 
Vise,  Pipe,  148 
Vitrified  Clay  Pipe,  Use  of,  55 

W 

Wagons,  162,  173,  208,  212,  222,  344, 
483  (See  also  "Equipment") 

Washers,  Meter,  479 

Water  Connections;  Water  Heaters, 
763 

Water  Heaters,  727  (See  also  "Appli- 
ance Work") 

Water  Pressures,  Instantaneous  Heat- 
er, 751 


Wedges,  105,  107,  138,  225,  230,  239 
Wet  Meter,  First,  407 
Wheelbarrows,  178,  251 
Won't  Pass  Gas  Meter,  543 
Works  Catch  Meter,  556,  650 
Work     Completion     Schedule     (See 

"Schedules") 
Wrapping  Material,  898 
Wrenches,    146,    148,    194,   388    (See 

also  "Equipment") 
Wrought-Iron  Pipe,  Use  of,  51 
Wrrought-Iron  vs.  Steel  Pipe,  52,  86 


Yarn,  245 

Yarning   and    Caulking    Tools,    154, 
157,  244,  247,  251,  252,  256 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


Form  L9-lCOm-9,'52(A3105)444 


UkfiTT 

TP 

w 


SEP      73 


